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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
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Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
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parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 3
CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT OR
DIRECT METHOD ................................................................................. 3
Thermal Efficiency ................................................................................................ 3
Example Problem 1.................................................................................... 5
Input/Output or Direct Method.................................................................... 7
Example Problem 2.................................................................................... 7
CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE HEAT LOSS METHOD ............. 9
Excess Air............................................................................................................. 9
Example Problem 3 Calculation Of Excess Oxygen ................................ 10
Stack (Flue Gas) Temperature ................................................................ 12
Heater Efficiency Calculation ................................................................... 14
Combustion Efficiency Charts............................................................................. 14
Example Problem 4.................................................................................. 15
Simplified Equation............................................................................................. 16
Thermal Efficiency Improvement ............................................................. 16
Example Problem 5 ............................................................................................ 17
Reduce Excess Air ............................................................................................. 21
Reduce Stack Temperature................................................................................ 23
Reduce Other Losses......................................................................................... 24
EFFECTS OF FIRING RATE ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY.......................................... 25
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 26
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY
USING INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD....................................................... 26
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY
USING HEAT LOSS METHOD ............................................................. 27
Work Aid 2A: Excess Air and Thermal Efficiency Using Short Cut Equations.... 27
Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Calculating Furnace Efficiency by Heat Loss
Method ............................................................................................................... 28
WORK AID 3: FLUE GAS OXYGEN (DRY BASIS) VS. EXCESS AIR......................... 30
WORK AID 4: HEAT ABSORBED CHARTS ................................................................ 31
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 36
ADDENDUM ................................................................................................................. 37
API - RP - 532 PROCEDURE ....................................................................................... 38
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 56
List of Figures
List of Tables
INFORMATION
Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency is defined as the percentage of the absorbed
energy to the total energy input. Calculation of thermal efficiency
is based on an energy balance around the boiler or process
heater.
In a boiler, although only the energy in the steam is usable, the
heat absorbed in a boiler is the sum of the energy in the steam
and the energy in the blowdown above that of the boiler feed
water. The energy in the stack gas above that of ambient air is a
loss. The energy transferred from the boiler through the
insulation and refractory to the atmosphere is also a loss. In a
process heater, heat losses are the same and include losses to
the stack gases and losses to the atmosphere through the
refractory and insulation.
Factors that increase the losses will decrease the thermal
efficiency. For example, operating with too much excess air
reduces the thermal efficiency by increasing the stack heat loss
because the excess air is heated from ambient to stack gas
temperature.
The thermal efficiency for which a boiler or a process heater is
designed is an economic evaluation involving the cost of fuel
and the cost of equipment to reduce the losses. Examples of
economic analyses include the amount of insulation or
refractory used to reduce heat losses to the atmosphere, the
amount of heat transfer surface provided in the radiant and
convection sections to reduce the stack temperature, use of a
preheater to reduce the stack gas temperature, types of burners
used (determines minimum excess air requirement) and the use
of chemicals to reduce the blowdown requirement.
Example Problem 1
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Steam Temp. F psia HT HV
Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4
Steam 434 154.7 -- 1237.6
Feed water 190 -- 158.0 --
Fan-200 HP
Pump Energy
HPp =
(gpm )(P ) = (12000 )(108 ) = 1079 Hp
1715 (0.65 ) 1715 (0.70 )
Fan Energy
HPF = 200 Hp
HPF = 200 x 2544 = 0.5 million Btu/hr
To simplify the thermal efficiency calculation the energy input from pump and fan are
ignored because these are relatively small and fairly constant. If this is done then:
888.6(100 )
LHV Eff. = = 83.2%
1067
Blowdown (Unusable Energy)
19.5
Loss = (100) = 1.8%
1067
Heat Losses
To atmosphere = 2% given.
To blowdown = 1.8%.
Flue gas loss = 100 - 83.2 - 2 - 1.8 = 13%
Input/Output or Direct
Method
The input/output or direct method is used whenever the heat absorbed by the boiler or
process heater can be measured. This is the usual method for boilers and is used for
process heaters only when there is a known amount of vaporization of the process fluid.
The energy balance on a boiler requires knowing all the rates on the boiler. Often the
blowdown (BD) rate is not measured. Sometimes the boiler feed water (BFW) rate is not
measured. The steam rate is always measured. Knowing the concentrations of one
impurity in both the BFW and the BD allows the calculation of the material and energy
balances. Example Problem 2 illustrates this calculation.
Example Problem 2
Enthalpies
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Stream Temp. F Psia HL HV
Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4
Steam 434 154.7 -- 1237.6
Feed water 190 -- 158.0 --
Solution:
Material Balance
FBFW = Fs + FBD
CBFW FBFW = CBD + FBD
C 0.2
FBD = BFW FBFW = FBFW = 0.02 FBFW
CBD 10
FBFW = 500,000 + 0.02 FBFW
0.98 FBFW = 500,000
FBFW = 510,204 lb/hr
FBD = 0.02 FBFW = 10,204 lb/hr
Heat Absorbed, QA
6 6
Heat In 10 Btu/hr Heat Out 10 Btu/hr
BFW = 510.204 (158) = 80.6 Steam = 500,000 x 123.7.6 = 618.8
Heat Absorbed QA BD = 10,204 x 343.5 3.5
Total 80.6 + QA Total 622.3
Heat Fired
QF = 673,756 x 1005 = 677.1 million Btu/hr
Thermal Efficiency
Q A (100 ) 541.7 (100 )
LHV Eff = = = 80.0%
QF 677.1
Excess Air
The amount of excess air is defined as a percentage of the air in
the flue gas to the air that is required for complete combustion.
Excess air and excess oxygen are numerically equivalent
because the numerator and denominator are both multiplied by
the same constant to convert from one to the other.
Analysis from the lab will always be on a dry basis. Stack gas
analyzers that sample the stack gas will dry the stack gas
before analysis. Stack gas analyzers that are in the stack
measure on a wet basis but may be calibrated to report on a dry
basis.
The calculation based on a dry flue gas analysis is outlined in
Figure 2 and detailed in Example Problem 3.
Example Problem 3
Calculation Of Excess Oxygen
2.0(100 )
Percent excess O2 = x 100 = 5.02%
(23 2.0 )
Figure 3 (Work Aid 3) can also be used to calculate excess air (oxygen) once the
oxygen has been adjusted for complete combustion. For 1.1% O2 Figure 3 gives an
excess air of 5%. For 2.0% O2 Figure 3 gives an excess air of 9%. This checks our
previous calculations.
The following shortcut equations can also be used to estimate percent excess air.
These equations assume complete combustion and a nominal carbon to hydrogen ratio.
When the flue gas analysis is on a wet basis:
111.4 x %O2
Excess Air =
20.95 - %O2
111.4 x 2 222.8
Excess Air = = = 11.8%
20.95 - 2 18.95
91.2 x 2 182.4
Excess Air = = = 9.6%
20.95 - 2 18.95
Lab analysis is always on a dry basis because the water drops out as the gas sample
cools. When the oxygen analyzer is located in the stack, the oxygen is measured on the
wet basis but the analyzer may be calibrated using lab results so that it reports on a dry
basis. When the flue gas is extracted from the stack and is transported to an analyzer
that is located some distance away, the analysis is on the dry basis.
The precise relationship between oxygen content and excess air is a function of the
hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of the fuel. However, there is very little change in this
relationship over a wide range of fuels at low excess air rates as shown in Figure 3
(Work Aid 3).
6 3
4
5
2 2
1
6
6
A AA
2
1 2
2 2
A
7
1. = Thermocouple junction.
2. = Thermocouple wires to temperature-indicating instrument.
3. = Outer thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
4. = Middle thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
5. = Center thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
6. = Centering tripods.
7. = Air or steam at 10 lb/sq in. gage or more in increments of 10 lb/sq in.
until stable.
8. = Hot gas eductor.
From Furnace Operations, Third Edition by Robert Reed. Copyright 1981 by Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
Heater Efficiency
Calculation
0% Excess Air
20 10
Example Problem 4
Process heat absorbed = QA = 353 MBtu/hr
Stack temperature = 600F (from stack TI)
Percent excess air = 5%
Fuel = 1000 Btu/ft3 fuel gas LHV (Fuel rate not measured)
19,700 Btu/lb LHV (from refinery utilities coordinator)
From Heat Available Curve: Work Aid 4 for 1000 Btu/ft3 gas.
HA = 17,100 Btu/lb fuel at 600F and 5% excess air
Q A 353 x 10 6 Btu/hr
Net Fuel = FN = = = 20,643 lb/hr
HA 17,100 Btu/lb
Assume furnace box losses QL are 2%. (Usually 2 - 3%)
Gross fuel = FG = 1.02 x 20,643 = 21,056 lb/hr
Heat fired = QF = 21,056 x 19,700 Btu/lb = 414.8 x 106 Btu/hr
6
heat absorbed
LHV efficiency = (100 ) = Q A (100 ) = 353x10 6 x (100 ) = 85.1%
heat fired QF 414.8x10
Given the heat absorbed, the heat loss method will calculate the fuel consumed. If a fuel
meter is available the calculated fuel rate should be rationalized with the fuel meter
readings.
If only the thermal efficiency is desired the calculation simplifies to the following:
From above we have:
HA = 17,100 Btu/lb. fuel at 600F and 5% excess air (heat absorbed from chart)
HF = 19,700 Btu/lb. fuel (heating value of fuel for chart used)
QL = 2% (Percent heat release/lost to atmosphere)
HL = Heat loss, decimal fraction
QL 2
HL = = = 0.02
100 100
H (100 )
LHV efficiency = A
HF (1 + HL )
17,100 (100 )
=
19,700 (1+ 0.02 )
17,100 (100 )
= = 85.1%
20,094
Simplified Equation
A simplified (shortcut) equation can also be used to estimate LHV thermal efficiency.
The simplified equation assumes a nominal heating value of the fuel (carbon to
hydrogen ratio).
100
Percent efficiency = [100 (0.0237 + (0.000189 )(EA )(TST TA ))]
100 + QL
For Example Problem 4 conditions and assuming the ambient temperature is 80F, the
furnace efficiency calculated by the shortcut formula is as follows:
100
Percent efficiency = [100 - (0.0237 + (0.000189 )(5 )(600 80 ))]
100 + 2
Percent efficiency = [100 - (0.0246 )(520 )](0.9804 ) = 85.5
This is a close check to the 85.1% calculated in Example Problem 4.
Thermal Efficiency
Improvement
Example Problem 5 calculates the thermal efficiency for a forced circulation boiler and
the changes in thermal efficiency that would result from reductions in stack temperature,
blowdown rate, and excess air.
Example Problem 5
Introduction:
In this example we will perform an energy balance around a boiler system and calculate
the fuel it requires. We will also examine methods of efficiency improvement.
Directions:
Calculate the fuel and boiler feedwater required for the boiler system shown in Figure 6.
How can the furnace efficiency be improved?
Use 2% for heat losses.
Use 10% blowdown (BFW basis).
For convenience, the required enthalpy data are given below:
Answer:
Material Balance:
Feedrate = F
Blowdown = 0.1 F
Steam product = 250,000
Material balance, F = 250,000 + 0.1 F
250,000
Feedrate F = = 277,778 lb/hr
0.9
Blowdown 0.1 F = 27,778 lb/hr
310.13 x 10 6
Net fuel FN = = 18,543 lb/hr
16,725
Gross fuel FG = 1.02 x 18,543 = 18,914 lb/hr
Heat fired QF = 18,914 x 19,400 = 366.93 MBtu/hr
6
QA
LHV efficiency = (100 ) = 310.13 x 106 x100 = 84.52%
QF 366.93 z 10
Case 1 2 3 4
Lower Reduce %
Stack Temp. Reduce Blowdown Excess Air
Base
Heat in
277,778 x 148 = 41.11 41.11 255,103 x 148 = 37.76 41.11
Heat out
27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 5,102 x 478.5 = 2.44
250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95 250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95
351.24 351.24 340.39 351.24
Inlet
Construction
Joint
Clearance
Around Tube
Penetration
Leaky Covers
on Observation
Doors
Idle
Burner
Outlet
WORK AIDS
Step 2. Calculate heat released from fuel combustion (QF) by using the fuel rate and
the heat of combustion.
QA
Eff. = (100 )
QF
Work Aid 2A: Excess Air and Thermal Efficiency Using Short Cut
Equations
Excess Air, EA
Dry Basis, O2 in stack gas
91.2 x % O2
Excess Air =
20.95 - % O2
111.4 x % O2
Excess Air =
20.95 - % O2
Thermal Efficiency
100
LHV efficiency = [100 (0.0237 + (0.000189 (EA )(TST TA )))]
100 + QL
moles N2 moles O2
100 moles flue gas 100 moles of air
O2 to furnace/10 0 moles flue gas =
moles N2
100 moles of air
moles N2
(21)
100 moles flue gas
=
79
Step 3: Determine heat available (HA) per lb of fuel from Work Aid 4.
QA
FN =
HA
QL
HL = where QL = % heat loss
100
FG = (FN )(1 + HL )
Step 6: Calculate heat fired, QF, Btu/hr (If fuel consumption desired):
Q A (100 ) HA
% efficiency = =
QF (LHV fuel) (1+ HL )
LHV fuel from combustion efficiency chart.
WORK AID 3: FLUE GAS OXYGEN (DRY BASIS) VS. EXCESS AIR
Figure 9. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1000 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas
Figure 10. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1600 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas
Figure 11. Heat Available from the Combustion of 5 API Fuel Oil
Figure 12. Heat Available from the Combustion of 10 API Fuel Oil
Figure 13. Heat Available from the Combustion of 15 API Fuel Oil
GLOSSARY
economizer A device for transferring heat from the flue gas to the boiler
feedwater (BFW) before the BFW enters the boiler drum.
higher heating value (HHV) The amount of heat released during complete combustion of
fuel when the water formed is considered as a liquid (credit
is taken for its heat of condensation.) Also called gross
heating value.
lower heating value (LHV) The amount of heat released during complete combustion of
fuel when no credit is taken for heat of condensation of water
in the flue gas. Also called net heating value.
radiation heat loss A defined percentage of the net heat of combustion of the
fuel to account for heat losses through the boiler or furnace
walls to the atmosphere.
stack heat loss The total sensible heat of the flue gas components, at the
temperature of flue gas, when it leaves the last heat
exchange surface.
stack temperature The temperature of the flue gas when it leaves the last heat
exchange surface
thermal efficiency The total heat absorbed divided by the total heat input.
Usually expressed in percent.
total heat absorbed The total heat input minus the total heat losses.
total heat losses The sum of the radiation heat loss and the stack heat loss.
ADDENDUM
QS
T ST
Qr
LHV + H f + H m H a at T t = T a
Am bient
Fuel Air
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
The work sheets required for the RP 532 procedure are attached. An example of how it
is used to calculate the efficiency of a gas-fired furnace is attached.
This procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Using the Lower Heating Value Work Sheet, determine the lower heating value of
liquid fuel (if required). If the fuel is gas, or if typical liquid fuel properties are
known, it is not necessary to complete this work sheet.
2. Using the Combustion Work Sheet, determine flue gas properties for stoichiometric
combustion conditions.
3. Using the Excess Air and Relative Humidity Work Sheet, determine the amount of
water vapor in the flue gas. The vapor pressure of water at the ambient
temperature can be determined from steam tables on Figure 2A.
4. Using the Stack Loss Work Sheet, determine the stack heat losses. The enthalpy
of the flue gas components can be determined from Figures 3A and 4A.
5. The thermal efficiency can then be determined by the following equation:
100(QsQr )
e = 100 - (Eqn. 4)
LHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
7. The firing rate can be calculated, based on the heat absorbed in the boiler or
furnace, as follows:
Qa
Qf = (Eqn. 6)
e/100
where: Qf = Heat fired, MBtu/hr (LHV).
Qa = Heat absorbed, MBtu/hr.
e = Net thermal efficiency, %.
This procedure calculates the efficiency of boilers by both the Input/Output and Stack
Loss methods. It uses the HHV of the fuel and can be used for coal-fired boilers, as well
as gas- and oil-fired units. The forms for this procedure are attached. Line items on
these forms that do not apply to Saudi Aramco boilers have been crossed out.
Sample Calculation - RP 532 Procedure
The following sample calculation illustrates the use of the RP 532 calculation procedure
to determine thermal efficiency. (Based on Par. 3.2.2 of RP 532.)
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
Vapor Pressure of Water, psia
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Temperature, F
Sample Problem:
Given:
Stack temperature TST = 300F
Air temperature Ta = 28F
Specific heat of air Cp(air) = 0.24 Btu/lb- F
Relative humidity = 50 %
Oxygen content of flue gas = 3.5 % (wet basis)
Radiation losses Qr = 2.5 % of lower heating value of fuel
Fuel temperature Tf = 100F
Fuel specific heat Cp(fuel) = 0.525 Btu/lb- F
Fuel composition:
Methane = 75.41 vol. %
Ethane = 2.33
Ethylene = 5.08
Propane = 1.54
Propylene = 1.86
Nitrogen = 9.96
Hydrogen = 3.82
Solution:
1. Complete the following work sheets attached (completed copies attached).
Combustion Work Sheet.
Excess Air and Relative Humidity Work Sheet.
Stack Loss Work Sheet.
2. Determine Net Thermal Efficiency, as follows:
From Combustion Work Sheet, LHV = 18,120 Btu/lb
Radiation Loss Qr = 18,120 x 0.025
= 453.0 Btu/lb of fuel
From Stack Loss Work Sheet, Qs = 1162.1 Btu/lb of fuel
Data extracted from API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process
Heaters, 1st Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Using Eqn. 4:
100(Qs + Qr )
e = 100
LHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
100(1162.1 + 453.0 )
e = 100 = 91.03 % (LHV )
(18120 134.5 + 210 )
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process
Heaters, 1st Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Calculate the thermal efficiency of a boiler or furnace, using the Stack Loss Method.
Attached are calculation sheets you may require.
1. Determine Net Thermal Efficiency.
LHV = ________________Btu/lb
Radiation Loss Qr = LHV x %Qr/100
= ___________(________ - 60)(___________)
= ___________ Btu/lb of fuel
Fuel: Hf = Cp(fuel) (Tf - Td)
= ___________(___________ - 60)
= ___________ Btu/lb of fuel
Atomizing medium Hm = Cp(medium) (Tm - Td)(lb of medium/lb of fuel)
Hm = (__________ - 1087.7)(___________)
= ___________Btu/lb of fuel
Thermal efficiency
100(Qs + Qr )
e = 100
LHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
100( + )
= 100
( + + + )
e= % (LHV )
= (_________) x 1059.7
= __________Btu/lb of fuel
HHV = LHV + latent heat
= (_________) + (_________) = ____________Btu/lb
100 Qs + Qr latent heat
egross = 100
HHV + Ha + Hf + Hm
= 100 - 100 ( + + )
(_______ + ______ + ______ + ______)
egross = ___________% (HHV)
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
REFERENCES
Saudi Aramco Standards
API Standards