Analog Systems and Ideal Operational Amplifiers: Microelectronic Circuit Design

Chapter 10
Analog Systems and Ideal Operational

Amplifiers
Microelectronic Circuit Design
Richard C. Jaeger
Travis N. Blalock
Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 1

8/9/11 McGraw-Hill
Chapter Goals
Develop understanding of linear amplification concepts such as:
Voltage gain, current gain, and power gain
Gain conversion to decibel representation
Input and output resistances
Transfer functions and Bode plots
Cutoff frequencies and bandwidth
Low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-reject amplifiers
Biasing for linear amplification
Distortion in amplifiers
Two-port representations of amplifiers
Use of transfer function analysis in SPICE
Understand behavior and characteristics of ideal differential and op amps.
Demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for ideal op amps.
Characterize inverting, non-inverting, summing and instrumentation
amplifiers, the voltage follower, integrator and differentiator.

8/9/11 McGraw-Hill
Analog Electronic System Example
An FM Stereo Receiver
Linear functions: Radio and audio frequency amplification, frequency

selection (tuning), impedance matching (75- input, tailoring audio
frequency response, local oscillator
Nonlinear functions: DC power supply (rectification), frequency
conversion (mixing), detection/demodulation

8/9/11 McGraw-Hill
Amplification
Introduction
A complex periodic signal can be represented as the sum of many

individual sine waves. We consider only one component with
amplitude Vs = 1 mV and frequency s with 0 phase (signal is
used as reference):
Amplifier output is sinusoidal with same frequency but different

amplitude Vo and phase :

8/10/11 McGraw-Hill
Amplification
Introduction (cont.)
Amplifier output power is:
Here, we desire PO = 100 W with RL = 8 and Vs = 1 mV
Output power also requires output current which is:
Input current is given by
Output phase is zero because circuit is purely resistive.

8/10/11 McGraw-Hill
Amplification
Voltage Gain & Current Gain
Voltage Gain:
Magnitude and phase of voltage gain are given by
and
For our example,
Current Gain:
Magnitude of current gain is given by

8/10/11 McGraw-Hill
Amplification
Power Gain
Power Gain:
For our example,

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Amplification
Expressing Gain in Decibels (dB)
The logarithmic decibel or dB scale compresses the huge numeric range of
gains encountered in real systems.

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Amplification
Expressing Gain in dB - Example
For our example:

8/10/11 McGraw-Hill
Two-port Models for Amplifiers
Simplifies amplifier-behavior modeling in complex systems.

Two-port models are linear network models, valid only under
small-signal conditions.
Represented by g-, h-, y- and z-parameters. We focus here on
the g-parameters.
(v1, i1) and (v2, i2) represent signal components of voltages and
currents at the network ports.
8/10/11 McGraw-Hill
Two-port Models for Amplifiers
The g-parameters
The g-parameters are found using a combination of open-circuit (i = 0)
and short-circuit (v = 0) termination conditions
Open-circuit input
conductance
Reverse short-circuit
current gain
Forward open-circuit
voltage gain
Short-circuit output
resistance

8/10/11 McGraw-Hill
g-parameter Calculations
Example
Problem: Find g-parameters.
Approach: Apply specified boundary conditions for
each g-parameter; use circuit analysis.
For g11 and g21: apply voltage v1 to the input port and
open circuit the output port.
For g12 and g22: apply current i2 to the output port and
short circuit the input port.

8/13/11 McGraw-Hill
Example
Problem: Find g-parameters.

Approach: Apply specified boundary
conditions for each g-parameter, use
circuit analysis.
For g11 and g21: apply voltage v1 to
input port and open circuit output port.
For g12 and g22: apply current i2 to
output port and short circuit input port.

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Simplified Two-port Model
Amplifier g-parameter representation (neglecting g12 0) with Thvenin

equivalent of input source and load:

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Mismatched Source and Load Resistances
Voltage Amplifier
Simplified g-parameter representation (g12 = 0) with Thvenin equivalent of
input source and load resistor RL:
If Rin >> Rs and Rout<< RL, then
In an ideal voltage amplifier,

and Rout = 0

8/13/11 McGraw-Hill
Differential Amplifier
Basic Model
Represented by:
A = open-circuit voltage gain
Signal developed at amplifier output
is in phase with the voltage applied at vid = (v+- v-) = differential input
+ input (non-inverting) terminal and signal voltage
180o out of phase with that applied at - Rid = amplifier input resistance
input (inverting) terminal. Ro = amplifier output resistance
Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-16

8/13/11 McGraw-Hill
Distortion in Amplifiers
In this graph, different

gains for positive and
negative values of the
input cause distortion
in the output.
Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) is a
measure of signal
distortion that
compares undesired
harmonic content of a
signal to the desired
component.

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Total Harmonic Distortion
dc desired 2nd harmonic 3rd harmonic

output distortion distortion
Numerator = rms amplitude of distortion terms
Denominator = desired component

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Differential Amplifier Model
Impact of Source and Load
RL = load resistance
RS = Thevenin equivalent resistance of
signal source
vs = Thevenin equivalent voltage of
signal source
Op amp circuits are mostly dc-coupled amplifiers. Signals vo and vs may have
a dc component representing a dc shift of the input away from the Q-point.
Op-amp amplifies both dc and ac components.

9/26/11 McGraw-Hill
Differential Amplifier Model
Example including Source and Load Resistances
Problem: Calculate voltage gain for an amplifier
Given Data: A = 100, Rid = 100k, Ro = 100, RS = 10k, RL = 1000
Analysis:
An ideal amplifiers output depends only on the input voltage difference

and not on the source and load resistances. This can be achieved by
using a fully mismatched resistance condition (Rid >> RS or infinite Rid,
and Ro << RL or zero Ro ). Then:
A = open-loop gain (maximum voltage gain available from the device)

9/26/11 McGraw-Hill
Ideal Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)
The Ideal Op Amp is a special case of ideal differential amplifier with
infinite gain, infinite Rid and zero Ro .
If A is infinite, vid is zero for any finite output voltage.

Infinite input resistance Rid forces input currents i+ and i- to be zero.
Ideal op amp analysis utilizes the following assumptions:

Infinite common-mode rejection, power supply rejection, open-loop
bandwidth, output voltage range, output current capability and slew rate
Zero output resistance, input-bias currents and offset current, input-
offset voltage.

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Ideal Operational Amplifier
Assumptions for Circuit Analysis
Two assumptions are used to facilitate analysis of circuits containing ideal

op amps
1. Input voltage difference is zero: vid = 0

2. Amplifier input currents are zero: i+ = 0 and i- = 0

9/26/11 McGraw-Hill
Op Amp Building Blocks
Inverting Amplifier Circuit
Positive input is grounded.

The feedback network formed by resistors R1 and R2 is connected
between the inverting input and signal source and the inverting input
and amplifier output, respectively.

9/27/11 McGraw-Hill
Inverting Amplifier
Voltage Gain and Input Resistance
Negative voltage gain implies
180o phase shift between
dc/sinusoidal input and output
signals.
Gain greater than 1 if R2 > R1
Gain less than 1 if R1 > R2
Inverting input of op amp is at
ground potential (but not
connected directly to ground) and
is said to be a virtual ground.
But i2 = i1 and v- = 0 (since vid = v+ - v- = 0)

9/27/11 McGraw-Hill
Inverting Amplifier
Input and Output Resistances
Rout is found by applying a test current
(or voltage) source to the amplifier
output and determining the voltage (or
current) with all independent sources
turned off. Hence, vi = 0
Since i- = 0 giving i1= i2
However, since v- = 0, i1= 0, and vx

= 0 irrespective of the value of ix .

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Inverting Amplifier
Design Example
Problem: Design an inverting amplifier using an op amp

Given Data: A v= 20 dB, Rin =20 k,
Assumptions: Ideal op amp
Analysis: Input resistance is controlled by R1 and voltage gain is set by
R2 / R1.
A minus sign is added since the amplifier is inverting.
From Appendix A, we find both resistors are standard values.

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Non-inverting Amplifier Circuit
The input signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal.

Portion of the output signal is fed back to the negative input terminal.
Analysis is done by relating the voltage at v1 to input voltage vi and
output voltage vo .

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Non-inverting Amplifier
Voltage Gain and Input Resistance

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Output Resistance
Rout is found by applying a test current source to the amplifier output and
setting vi = 0.
We find the circuit to be identical to that for the output resistance calculation
for the inverting amplifier. Therefore: Rout =0

9/27/11 McGraw-Hill
Example
Problem: Determine the characteristics of a given non-inverting amplifier
Given Data: R1 = 3 k, R2 = 43 k, vi = +0.1 V
Assumptions: The op amp is ideal
Analysis:
Since i-=0,

9/27/11 McGraw-Hill
Unity-gain Buffer
A special case of the non-inverting amplifier, termed a voltage follower

or unity gain buffer, has infinite R1 and zero R2. Hence Av = +1.
The unity-gain buffer provides excellent impedance-level transformation
while maintaining signal voltage level.
An ideal voltage buffer does not require any input current and can drive
any desired load resistance without loss of signal voltage.
Unity-gain buffers are used in may sensor and data acquisition systems.

9/27/11 McGraw-Hill
Summing Amplifier
Since i- = 0, i3 = i1 + i2,
Scale factors for the 2 inputs can

be independently adjusted by
choice of R2 and R1.
Any number of inputs can be
connected to the summing
Since negative amplifier input is
junction through extra resistors.
at virtual ground,
A simple digital-to-analog
converter can be formed using
this technique.

9/28/11 McGraw-Hill
Difference Amplifier
For R1 = R2 circuit is also called a

differential subtractor and amplifies
the difference between input signals.
Rin2 is series combination of R1 and
R2 because i+ is zero.
For v2 = 0, Rin1 = R1, as the circuit
reduces to an inverting amplifier.
For the general case, i1 is a function
of both v1 and v2.

9/28/11 McGraw-Hill
Difference Amplifier
Example
Problem: Determine Vo, V+, V-, Io, I1, I2, I3 .
Given Data: R1 = 10 k, R2 = 100 k, V1 = 5 V, V2 = 3 V
Assumptions: The op amp is ideal. Hence, V- = V+ and I- = I+= 0.
Analysis: Using dc values,

9/29/11 McGraw-Hill
Amplifier Transfer Functions
Av(s) = Frequency-dependent voltage gain

Vo(s) and Vs(s) = Laplace Transforms of input and output voltages of
amplifier,
(In factorized form)
(-z1, -z2,-zm) = zeros (frequencies for which transfer function is zero)

(-p1, -p2,-pm) = poles (frequencies for which transfer function is infinite)
(In polar form)
Bode plots display magnitude of the transfer function in dB and the

phase in degrees (or radians) on a logarithmic frequency scale.
Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10 - 35

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Complex Transfer Functions
Amplifier has 2 frequency ranges with
constant gain. The mid-band region is
always defined as region of highest
gain and cutoff frequencies are
defined in terms of midband gain.
For widely spaced poles as in

the figure,
4 and L 3,

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Low-Pass Amplifier
Description
Amplifies signals over a range of frequencies including dc.
Most operational amplifiers are designed as low pass amplifiers.
Simplest (single-pole) low-pass amplifier is described by
Ao = low-frequency gain or mid-band gain

H = upper cutoff frequency or upper half-power point of amplifier.

9/29/11 McGraw-Hill
Low-pass Amplifier
Magnitude Response
Low-pass
filter
symbol
Gain is unity (0 dB) at = H = T called gain-bandwidth product

Bandwidth (frequency range with constant amplification ) = H (rad/s)

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Arc Tangent Phase Response
If Ao positive: phase angle = 00
Response of tan-1(/C)
If Ao negative: phase angle = 1800
At wC: phase = 450
One decade below wC: phase = 5.70
One decade above wC: phase = 84.30
Two decades below wC: phase = 00
Two decades above wC: phase = 900
LPF Response:

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RC Low-pass Filter
Problem: Find voltage transfer

function
Approach: Impedance of the where

capacitor is 1/sC; use voltage
division

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
High-pass Amplifier
Description
A true high-pass characteristic impossible to obtain as it requires

infinite bandwidth.
Combines a single pole with a zero at the origin.
Simplest high-pass amplifier is described by
L = lower cutoff frequency or lower half-power point of

amplifier.

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High-pass Amplifier
Magnitude and Phase Response
High-pass
filter
symbol
Bandwidth (frequency range with constant amplification ) is infinite

Phase response is given by

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
RC High-pass Filter
Problem: Find voltage transfer

function
Approach: Impedance of the where

capacitor is 1/sC; use voltage
division

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
Band-pass Amplifier
Description
A band-pass characteristic is obtained by combining high-pass
and low-pass characteristics.
Transfer function of a band-pass amplifier is given by
An ac-coupled amplifier has a band-pass characteristic:

Capacitors added to circuit cause low frequency roll-off
Inherent frequency limitations of solid-state devices cause
high-frequency roll-off.

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Band-pass Amplifier
Magnitude and Phase Response
The frequency response above shows a wide range of operation.

The mid-band range of frequencies is given by
Transfer characteristic is

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Band-pass Amplifier
Magnitude and Phase Response (cont.)
At both and L, assuming L<<H
Bandwidth = H - L
The phase response is given by

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
Narrow-band or High-Q Band-pass Amplifiers
Gain maximum at center frequency and
decreases rapidly by 3 dB at and L.
Bandwidth defined as H - L, is a small
fraction of with width determined by:
For high Q, poles will be complex and
Band-pass
filter Phase response is given by:
symbol

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
Band-Rejection Amplifier or Notch Filter
Gain maximum at frequencies far from

and exhibits a sharp null at o.
To achieve sharp null, the transfer function
has a pair of zeros on the j axis at notch
frequency o , and the poles are complex.
Phase response is given by:

Band-reject
filter
symbol

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
All-pass Function
Uniform magnitude response at all frequencies.

Can be used to tailor phase characteristics of a signal
Transfer function is given by:
For positive o,

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Bandwidth Shrinkage
If critical frequencies arent widely spaced, the poles and zeros

interact and cutoff frequency determination becomes complicated.
Example : for which Av(0) = Ao
Upper cutoff frequency is defined by
Solving for yields = 0.6441. The cutoff frequency of

two-pole function is only 64% that of a single-pole function.
This is known as bandwidth shrinkage.
9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
Generalized Inverting Amplifier
The feedback elements are not limited to resistors but can be any impedance
or even semiconductor devices.
The analysis follows the earlier technique but in the frequency domain: the
current through Z2 must equal the current through Z1:
Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E

12/13/11 McGraw-Hill
Single-pole Low-Pass Filter
The single-pole low-pass filter
circuit provides a good example
of application of the generalized
inverter theory

10/3/11 McGraw-Hill
Integrator
Voltage at the circuits output at

Feedback resistor R2 in the inverting
time t is given by the initial
amplifier is replaced by capacitor C.
capacitor voltage plus the integral
The circuit uses frequency-dependent of the input signal from the start of
feedback.
the integration interval, here t = 0.
Integration of an input step signal
results in a ramp at the output.

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
Differentiator
Input resistor R1 in the inverting

amplifier is replaced by capacitor C. Output is scaled version of
derivative of input voltage.
Derivative operation emphasizes high-
frequency components of input signal,
hence is less often used than the
integrator.

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill
End of Chapter 10

9/30/11 McGraw-Hill

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Chapter 10

Analog Systems and Ideal Operational

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 1

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 2

Linear functions: Radio and audio frequency amplification, frequency

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 3

A complex periodic signal can be represented as the sum of many

Amplifier output is sinusoidal with same frequency but different

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 4

Here, we desire PO = 100 W with RL = 8 and Vs = 1 mV

Output power also requires output current which is:

Input current is given by

Output phase is zero because circuit is purely resistive.

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 5

For our example,

Magnitude of current gain is given by

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 6

For our example,

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 7

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 8

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 9

Simplifies amplifier-behavior modeling in complex systems.

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 11

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 12

Problem: Find g-parameters.

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 13

Amplifier g-parameter representation (neglecting g12 0) with Thvenin

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 14

In an ideal voltage amplifier,

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 15

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-16

In this graph, different

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 17

dc desired 2nd harmonic 3rd harmonic

Numerator = rms amplitude of distortion terms

Denominator = desired component

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap10 - 18

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-19

An ideal amplifiers output depends only on the input voltage difference

A = open-loop gain (maximum voltage gain available from the device)

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-20

If A is infinite, vid is zero for any finite output voltage.

Ideal op amp analysis utilizes the following assumptions:

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-21

Two assumptions are used to facilitate analysis of circuits containing ideal

1. Input voltage difference is zero: vid = 0

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-22

Positive input is grounded.

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-23

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-24

Since i- = 0 giving i1= i2

However, since v- = 0, i1= 0, and vx

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-25

Problem: Design an inverting amplifier using an op amp

A minus sign is added since the amplifier is inverting.

From Appendix A, we find both resistors are standard values.

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-26

The input signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal.

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-27

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-28

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-29

Jaeger/Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design, 3E Chap 10-30