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jjjkkkkkkjhjjhjhgggglHistory[edit]
The ancient Greeks wrote texts intended for education. The modern textbook has its
roots in the standardization made possible by the printing press. Johannes
Gutenberg himself may have printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin
grammar by Aelius Donatus. Early textbooks were used by tutors and teachers, who
used the books as instructional aids (e.g., alphabet books), as well as individuals
who taught themselves.

The Greek philosopher Plato lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of
transmission were changing.[3] Before the invention of the Greek alphabet 2,500
years ago, knowledge and stories were recited aloud, much like Homer's epic poems.
The new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a
development Socrates feared would weaken the Greeks' mental capacities for
memorizing and retelling. (Ironically, we know about Socrates' concerns only
because they were written down by his student Plato in his famous Dialogues.) [4]

The next revolution for books came with the 15th-century invention of printing with
changeable type. The invention is attributed to German metalsmith Johannes
Gutenberg, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a
wooden-screw printing press to transfer the image onto paper.

Gutenberg's first and only large-scale printing effort was the now iconic Gutenberg
Bible in the 1450s a Latin translation from the Hebrew Old Testament and the
Greek New Testament, copies of which can be viewed on the British Library website.
Gutenberg's invention made mass production of texts possible for the first time.
Although the Gutenberg Bible itself was expensive, printed books began to spread
widely over European trade routes during the next 50 years, and by the 16th
century, printed books had become more widely accessible and less costly.[5]

Compulsory education and the subsequent growth of schooling in Europe led to the
printing of many standardized texts for children. Textbooks have become the primary
teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. Two textbooks of
historical significance in United States schooling were the 18th century New
England Primer and the 19th century McGuffey Readers.

Technological advances change the way people interact with textbooks. Online and
digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials
other than the traditional print textbook. Students now have access to electronic
and PDF books, online tutoring systems and video lectures. An example of an
electronically published book, or e-book, is Principles of Biology from Nature
Publishing.

Most notably, an increasing number of authors are foregoing commercial publishers

and offering their textbooks under a creative commons or other open license.

Market[edit]
The "broken market"[edit]
The textbook market does not operate in the same manner as most consumer markets.
First, the end consumers (students) do not select the product, and the product is
not purchased by faculty or professors. Therefore, price is removed from the
purchasing decision, giving the producer (publishers) disproportionate market power
to set prices high.

This fundamental difference in the market is often cited as the primary reason that
prices are out of control. The term "broken market" first appeared in the economist
James Koch's analysis of the market commissioned by the Advisory Committee on
Student Financial Assistance.[6]
This situation is exacerbated by the lack of competition in the textbook market.
Consolidation in the past few decades[when?] has reduced the number of major
textbook companies from around 30 to just a handful.[7] Consequently, there is less
competition than there used to be, and the high cost of starting up keeps new
companies from entering.

New editions and the used book market[edit]

Students seek relief from rising prices through the purchase of used copies of
textbooks, which tend to be less expensive. Most college bookstores offer used
copies of textbooks at lower prices. Most bookstores will also buy used copies back
from students at the end of a term if the book is going to be re-used at the
school. Books that are not being re-used at the school are often purchased by an
off-campus wholesaler for 0-30% of the new cost, for distribution to other
bookstores where the books will be sold. Textbook companies have countered this by
encouraging faculty to assign homework that must be done on the publisher's
website. If a student has a new textbook, then he or she can use the pass code in
the book to register on the site. If the student has purchased a used textbook,
then he or she must pay money directly to the publisher in order to access the
website and complete assigned homework.

Students who look beyond the campus bookstore can typically find lower prices. With
the ISBN or title, author and edition, most textbooks can be located through online
used book sellers or retailers.

Most leading textbook companies publish a new edition every 3 or 4 years, more
frequently in math & science. Harvard economics chair James K. Stock has stated
that new editions are often not about significant improvements to the content. "New
editions are to a considerable extent simply another tool used by publishers and
textbook authors to maintain their revenue stream, that is, to keep up prices," [8]
A study conducted by The Student PIRGs found that a new edition costs 12% more than
a new copy of previous edition, and 58% more than a used copy of the previous
edition. Textbook publishers maintain these new editions are driven by faculty
demand. The Student PIRGs' study found that 76% of faculty said new editions were
justified half of the time or less and 40% said they were justified rarely or
never.[9] The PIRG study has been criticized by publishers, who argue that the
report contains factual inaccuracies regarding the annual average cost of textbooks
per student.[10]

The Student PIRGs also point out that recent emphasis on electronic textbooks, or
"eTextbooks," does not always save students money. Even though the book costs less
up-front, the student will not recover any of the cost through resale.[11]

Bundling[edit]
Another publishing industry practice that has been highly criticized is "bundling,"
or shrink-wrapping supplemental items into a textbook.[citation needed]
Supplemental items range from CD-ROMs and workbooks to online passcodes and bonus
material. Students do not always have the option to purchase these items
separately, and often the one-time-use supplements destroy the resale value of the
textbook.[12]

According to the Student PIRGs, the typical bundled textbook is 10%-50% more than
an unbundled textbook, and 65% of professors said they rarely or never use the
bundled items in their courses.[9]

A 2005 Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report found that the production of
these supplemental items was the primary cause of rapidly increasing prices:

While publishers, retailers, and wholesalers all play a role in textbook pricing,
the primary factor contributing to increases in the price of textbooks has been the
increased investment publishers have made in new products to enhance instruction
and learning...While wholesalers, retailers, and others do not question the quality
of these materials, they have expressed concern that the publishers practice of
packaging supplements with a textbook to sell as one unit limits the opportunity
students have to purchase less expensive used books....If publishers continue to
increase these investments, particularly in technology, the cost to produce a
textbook is likely to continue to increase in the future.[13]

Bundling has also been used as a means of segmenting the used book market. Each
combination of a textbook and supplemental items receives a separate ISBN. A single
textbook could therefore have dozens of ISBNs that denote different combinations of
supplements packaged with that particular book. When a bookstore attempts to track
down used copies of textbooks, they will search for the ISBN the course instructor
orders, which will locate only a subset of the copies of the textbook.

Legislation on the state and federal level seeks to limit the practice of bundling,
by requiring publishers to offer all components separately.[14] Publishers have
testified in favor of bills including this provision,[15] but only in the case that
the provision exempts the loosely defined category of "integrated textbooks." The
Federal bill[16] only exempts 3rd party materials in integrated textbooks, however
publisher lobbyists have attempted to create a loophole through this definition in
state bills.[17][18]