Communication Systems and

Networks

Instructor: Lt Col Dr. Adnan A.

Khan
Fall 2014
Week-7
 What is Spread Spectrum?
Spread spectrum is a technique that
spreads the transmitted signal over a
frequency range much wider than the
minimum bandwidth required to send
the signal.
 Multiple Access
Multiple access techniques
Multiple users to share a finite spectrum
To achieve high capacity (to accommodate more
users)
Without severe performance degradation

Types of multiple access

FDMA: frequency division multiple access
TDMA: time division multiple access
CDMA: code division multiple access

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 Multiple Access and Duplexing
Multiple access and duplexing
Multiple access: cell-wide frequency sharing
Duplexing: system-wide frequency sharing
Duplexing techniques
FDD: frequency division duplexing
TDD: time division duplexing

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Multiple Access Overview - A Party
!
Consider a number of students at a party.The goal of
the students is to have intelligible conversation.The
house at which the party is being held is the resource
available.
FDMA : Each pair of students has a separate room to
talk
TDMA : Everyone is in the same room and each pair
has a limited time slot to converse
CDMA : Everyone is in the same room,talking at the
same time,but each pair talks in a different language.
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 Why CDMA?
Multiple Access scheme
High Capacity: More users: Power Control
Improvement when fewer users are using the system: In FDMA and TDMA
unused frequency and time slot are a waste of resource.
Better performance in a multi-path fading environment
Soft Handoff: Universal Frequency Reuse (Even have softer handoff)

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 Spread-Spectrum Motivation
Originally developed and used for military communications.
To provide resistance to intentional jamming. (i.e., anti-
jamming protection)
To hide the signal by transmitting it at low power and thus
making it difficult for an unintended listener to detect its
presence in noise. (i.e., low probability to intercept)

Basic Requirements
Transmission bandwidth >> Minimum bandwidth
required to transmit the information.
The spreading signal is independent of the
information data.
At the receiver, the synchronized replica of the
spreading signal is used for despreading.
 Spread-Spectrum System

Two identical pseudorandom sequence generators are employed to

generate a pseudo-noise (PN) binary sequence for spreading and
despreading.
 Benefits of Spread-Spectrum

(a) Interference suppression (or anti-jam capability) and

Interference rejection

(b) Low probability of detection (or intercept)

(c) Multiple access (CDMA)

 (a) Interference suppression (or anti-jam capability) and
Interference Rejection

Multiplication by the spreading signal, once spreads the signal

bandwidth.
Multiplication by the spreading signal twice, followed by filtering,
recovers the original signal.
The desired signal gets multiplied twice, but the interference
signal gets multiplied only once.
Spectra of desired received signal with interference
Wideband Correlator output filter
 Transmitted signal : m ( t ) g ( t ) c ( t )
Received signal : r (t ) m (t ) n (t ) g (t ) c (t ) n (t )

where n ( t ) additive interf

z(t) g(t) c (t) n(t) c(t)

2

Despread signal :
g (t ) n (t ) c (t )
Baseband Signal Wideband spread noise

Only the receiver knowing c(t) can recover the data g(t).
 (b) Low Probability of Detection (or
Intercept)

We imagine situations where it is desired that a

communication link be operated without being detected by
anyone other than the intended receiver.

The goal of such system: is to use the minimum signal power

and the optimum signaling scheme that results in the
minimum probability of being detected.

In the spread-spectrum system, the resulting signal power is,

on the average, spread thinly and uniformly in the spread
domain.

Therefore,
The spread-spectrum signal be made difficult to jam.
The signals very existence may be rendered difficult to
perceive.
 (c) Multiple Access

The spread-spectrum technique can be used to share a

communication resource among numerous users.

Each simultaneous user employs a unique spread-spectrum

signaling code.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

To provide communication privacy between users

Two types of Spread Spectrum
Communication Systems

(a) Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum (DS-SS)

(b) Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum
(a) Direct-Sequence
Spread-Spectrum (DS-SS)
 Direct Sequence

Basic System Configuration

DBM DBM
FM RF x FM
Exciter x Amp/Filter
Preamp Receiver

Audio Audio
PN Code PN Code Synchro
Generator Generator Oscillator

Receiver Transmitter
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 Two Stage of Modulation

Product modulation with the data sequence and PN

sequence.
M-ary PSK Modulation
DS/BPSK
DS/QPSK

r (t ) A 2 P g ( t ) cos( 0 ( t ) ) : estimated ( when synchroniz ed , )

where : propagatio n delay : random phase ( 0 ~ 2 )
 Spreading Sequences
Walsh Codes (Orthogonal Sequences)
Short PN Sequences
Long PN Sequences

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Walsh Functions (Orthogonal codeword set): Using the
Hadamard matrix
0 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 | 0 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 | 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 | 0 1 1 0
H 3


0 0 0 0 | 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 | 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 | 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 | 1 0 0 1
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 DS-CDMA: User 1

S1
0

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
Code1

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
S1*Code1

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Recovered S1

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
 DS-CDMA: User 2

S2 0

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
Code2

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
S2*Code2

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
 DS-CDMA: User 3

S3 0

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
Code3

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
1
S3*Code3

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
 Transmitted (received signal)

2
Transmitted Signal (Received Signal)

-1

-2

-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
 Recovered Signal

R1 0

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
5
R2

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
5
R3

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Walsh Codes Example
 Assignment
Assume four Users are generating 1, -1, -1 and 1 (g(t))
as shown in the Fig. Assign four different Orthogonal
Wash codes (c(t)) to each user. Each Walsh code should
have eight chips. Spread each user generated bit with a
unique Walsh code. Add them and send on the channel.
Receive the transmitted CDMA signal and de-spread
and integrate over the bit period for each user.
Implementation in Matlab
(b) Frequency-Hopping
Spread-Spectrum (FH-
SS)
 PN sequences

Fundamental pulse : PN code symbol or Chip

Pulse waveform of the binary sequence

Autocorrelation function of c(t) :

1 1 NT c
R c ( ) c (t ) c (t ) d
0
K NT c

1 NT c
K
2
where c ( t ) dt
0
NT c
 Characteristics

FH modulation : Carrier frequency is pseudorandomly

determined.

Frequency word (a sequence of chips): one of symbol-

set positions.
FH/MFSK System
 Frequency hopping starts with a PN code
generator and a frequency synthesizer
A frequency synthesizer is a programmable
signal generator whose output frequency is
determined by a digital word which is inputted to
the device
As a PN code runs into the synthesizer, the
output is made to change frequency each time
the code changes
The receiver has a similarly running synthesizer
and code generator, but they have to be brought
into synchronization
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 Characteristics of FS-SS

1) Spreading
2) Can be programmed to avoid portions of spectrum
3) Complex frequency synthesize
4) Not useful for range
3) Hopping Synchronization
 Applications (1)

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access)

Each code is approximately orthogonal with all other

codes.
Share the full spectrum of resource asynchronously.
Three attractive features over TDMA:

1) CDMA dose not require an external synchronization

network, which is essential in TDMA.
2) CDMA offers a gradual degradation in performance as
the number of users is increased.
3) CDMA offers an external interference rejection capacity.
(i.e.,multipath rejection or resistance to deliberate
jamming)
 Applications (2)

Multipath Suppression

Multipath channel : Due to atmospheric reflection or

refraction, or reflections from buildings or other objects.

May results in fluctuation in the received signal level.

The DS-SS can be applied in a slow-fading channel.

If frequency hopping (FH) is used against the multipath

problem, improvement in system performance is possible.
Frequency Hopping
 Spread Spectrum Coding
(A) sx(t) = A x(t) cos t

x(t) BPSK modulator BPSK modulator

Data s(t) = A x(t) g(t) cos t
A cos t g(t)
Carrier
(B)
x(t) BPSK modulator

s(t) = A x(t) g(t) cos t

g(t) A cos t

r(t) = AA x(t - td) g(t - td) cos [ t td) + ]

(C)

Filter BPSK demod

~
Output of correlator s(t) = AA x(t - td)
~
g(t - td) Correlator
 Coding is one of the most fascinating aspects of the
study of spread spectrum.
Spread spectrum codes must act as noise-like (random)
but must be deterministic.
A very important feature in SS systems is that of the
imbedded reference concept for demodulation the
original message.
That is, the code used by the transmitter must be
replicated perfectly in the receiver.
For this reason, true randomness cannot be used by SS
systems because random cannot be replicated.
 Inversion Modulation
When digital information is combined with a PN
waveform, each data bit level 1 inverts the code
and each data bit level 0 does not invert the
code, but leaves it unaffected.
This is called inversion modulation and is by
far the most common means for combining code
with data.
 Data A
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

Locally generated
PN bit stream B 1 0 01 0 11 01 0 0 1 0 1 00 1 0 10 11 00 1 0 11 0 11 0

A xor B
transmitted C 0 1 1 0 0 11 0 0 11 0 1 01 1 1 0 1 0 0 01 1 1 01 1 011 0

Received C
same as above 0 1 1 0 0 11 0 0 11 0 1 01 1 1 0 1 0 0 01 1 1 01 1 011 0

Locally generated
PN bit stream D
same as B above 1 0 01 0 11 01 0 0 1 0 1 00 1 0 10 11 00 1 0 11 0 11 0

C xor D original
data signal 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
 Observe that the number of chips (code bits) per
data bits is the processing gain.
There are other ways in which code and data can be
combined in a DS system, but we will address those
techniques later.
The properties, structure, and generation of these
codes is extremely important in determining the
performance properties of the system.
Codes can influence the following properties in a
system.
Security / Privacy
Multiple Access
Synchronization
Detectability
There is an important distinction between security
and privacy. A code that is not secure can still be
used in a secure system by encrypting the data
Important Code Properties
Must be easily generated at the
transmitter and receiver (i.e.
deterministic)
Behave as much as possible like a
random sequence
Be difficult to exploit
Support multiple access
Provide ease of synchronization
 PN Code Generators
The most common means to generate PN code
sequences is with a Linear Feedback Shift
Register (LFSR).
Also called a Linear Recursive Sequence (LRS).
Also called PN Sequence.
Simple Shift Register Generator (SSRG)

+ Mod-2 Adder

PN sequence

4 Stage shift register

Data at first stage is shifted once toward the right each

time clock pulse occurs
Clock input are normally not shown
 Assuming an initial state for the shift register of 0 0 0 1 called the initial
fill. The register produces the following at each clock pulse:

Clock State (Binary) Next Clock Pulse State (Decimal)

0 0001 0 xor 1 = 1 1
1 1000 1 xor 0 = 1 8
2 1100 1 xor 0 = 1 12
3 1110 1 xor 0 = 1 14
4 1111 1 xor 1 = 0 15
5 0111 0 xor 1 = 1 7
6 1011 1 xor 1 = 0 11
7 0101 0 xor 1 = 1 5
8 1010 1 xor 0 = 1 10
9 1101 1 xor 1 = 0 13
10 0110 0 xor 0 = 0 6
11 0011 0 xor 1 = 1 3
12 1001 1 xor 1 = 0 9
13 0100 0 xor 0 = 0 4
14 0010 0 xor 0 = 0 2
15 0001 0 xor 1 = 1 1
At Clock 15, state returns to initial fill and the sequence repeats
 The general form for a linear SSRG is:

a1 a2 a3 a4 . . . . an

C k -1 C k -2 C k -3 C k -4 . . . . C k -n
5-Stage Simple Shift Register
Generator

1 2 3 4 5
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

c lo c k
 n = 5 ; number of register stages
N = length of sequence generated only if
correct taps are chosen (maximal length)
This generator is described by a polynomial
over a field of two symbols, ones and zeros,
called Galois Field of 2 (GF2).
The generator g(x) is written:
m

g (x)
i
gix
i0
 Maximal Length Sequences
When the sequence goes through all 2 1
n
possible
states, we say that the generator is of maximal length,
i.e. N is maximum, and it is called an m-sequence.
The periodic cycles of a linear SSRG sequence depend
on:
Register length
Feedback taps
Initial conditions
Only if feedback taps are properly chosen will the
sequence be an m-sequence.
A non-maximal sequence is one in which the register
does not go through all possible states, i.e. the
sequence will be initial fill dependent.
 Properties of m-sequences
1) m-sequences must have an even number of
taps.

2) Reciprocal codes can be generated by

reversing the order of the taps, i.e.

x7 ( 1/x7 + 1/x3 + 1/x2 + 1/x + 1 ) = 1 + x4 +

x5 + x6 + x7
3. Exhibit the shift-and-add property
If an m-sequence is added to a phase shifted
version of itself, then the resulting sequence is
another shift of the original sequence.

4. Balance Property
In one period of an m-sequence, there is one
more 1 and 0 (result of not having an all zeros
state).
 RUN PROPERTIES OF M-SEQUENCES
In one period there a 2(n-1) runs of consecutive 1s
or 0s.
are of length 1
are of length 2
1/2l are of length l
Or equivalently:
1 run of 1s of length n
1 run of 0s of length n-1
1 run of 1s and 1 run of 0s of length n-2
2 runs of 1s and 2 runs of 0s of length n-3
4 runs of 1s and 4 runs of 0s of length n-4
2n-3 runs of 1s and 2n-3 runs of 0s of length. 1
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 Auto-correlation
A very important property of m-sequences is the
periodic auto-correlation property.
Autocorrelation is defined as:

R XX [m ] X [n]X [n m ]
n

Simply stated, it is a comparison of a sequence to a

time-shifted version of itself.
The equation asks For an offset of m chips, how
similar is the sequence to itself?
PN SEQUENCE AUTOCORRELATION
FUNCTION

1/N

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 Partial Correlation
Because the important random properties of m-
sequences are the result of usually very long
sequences, it is not possible to perform full
length correlation in the receiver.
Also, if the duration of a message bit is less than
the period of the PN sequence, then in order to
decode the message we need to correlate over
something less than a full code period.
In these cases, the correlation function does not
apply
The Partial Correlation function is written:

cm (k ) 1 / M am amk
m 1
 Crosscorrelation

Whereas autocorrelation compares a code

with itself, Crosscorrelation compares one
code to another.
 Composite Codes

Although m-sequences are quite desirable for

many applications, there is considerable
research in finding new codes that offer
improved performance in some area or another.
Composite codes are generated by a
combination of linear maximal sequences.
The following are examples of composite codes:
Gold Codes CDMA
JPL Codes Rapid sysnchronization
Kasami Codes Length construction
Principle of the RAKE Receiver
CDMA2000

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 CDMA2000 Specifications
Data Rate: Variable but with repetition and error correction the symbol rate is
19.2 ksps
Chip Rate: 1.2288 Mcps
Spreading of 64 times the symbol rate.
Bandwidth Required: 1.25 MHz (Times 2)

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 MATLAB Code
% MATLAB code for simulating the spreading using Walsh codes-----------------------
-------
clear all
close all
A=[-1 -1 1 1];
B=[-1 1 1 1] ;
C=[1 1 -1 -1];

% Generating the codes and its timing sequence

N=4;
H=hadamard(N);
cA=H(2,:);
cB=H(3,:);
cC=H(4,:);
% Number samples per chip
Tc_samp=ones(1,4);

codeA=[];
codeB=[];
codeC=[]; 79
 MATLAB Code
for k=1:length(cA) contd.
codeA=[codeA cA(k)*Tc_samp];
codeB=[codeB cB(k)*Tc_samp];
codeC=[codeC cC(k)*Tc_samp];
end
%Generation of Tx Data
Tx_data=[];
for k=1:length(A)
uA=A(k)*codeA;
uB=B(k)*codeB;
uC=C(k)*codeC;
Tx_data=[Tx_data uA+uB+uC];
end
NN=length(Tx_data);

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 MATLAB Code
uAb=[];
contd.
uBb=[];
uCb=[];

for k=1:NN/16
index=(k-1)*NN/4+1:k*NN/4;
uAb=[uAb sum(Tx_data(index).*codeA)];
uBb=[uBb sum(Tx_data(index).*codeB)];
uCb=[uCb sum(Tx_data(index).*codeC)];
end
%Error
A-uAb/16;B-uBb/16;C-uCb/16

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Conclusion