CHAPTER 1:

RADIO CONTROLLED AIRCRAFTS

A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a small
flying machine that is controlled remotely by an operator on the ground using a
hand-held radio transmitter. The transmitter communicates with
a receiver within the craft that sends signals to servomechanisms (servos) which
move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on the transmitter.
The control surfaces, in turn, affect the orientation of the plane.
Flying RC aircraft as a hobby grew substantially from the 2000s with
improvements in the cost, weight, performance and capabilities of
motors, batteries and electronics. A wide variety of models and styles is
available.
Scientific, government and military organizations are also using RC aircraft for
experiments, gathering weather readings, aerodynamicmodeling and
testing. Unmanned aerial vehicle (drones) or spy planes add video or
autonomous capabilities, and may be armed.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES:
The basic principles of why and how airplanes fly apply to all planes, from the
Wright Brothers' first machine Wright Flyer to a modern Stealth Bomber, and
those principles are the same for radio control and full size airplanes alike.

Aerodynamic forces.
Essentially there are 4 aerodynamic forces that act on an airplane in flight; these
are lift, drag, thrust and weight (i.e. gravity).
In simple terms, drag is the resistance of air molecules hitting the airplane
(the backward force), thrust is the power of the airplane's engine
(the forward force), lift is the upward force and weight is the downwardforce.
So for airplanes to fly and stay airborne, the thrust must be greater than the drag
and the lift must be greater than the weight (so as you can see, drag opposes
thrust and lift opposes weight).
This is certainly the case when an airplane takes off or climbs. However, when
it is in straight and level flight the opposing forces of lift and weight are
balanced. During a
descent, weight exceeds lift and to slow an airplane drag has to overcome thrust.
1.3 FUNCTIONS OF RC PLANE:
The absolute fundamental purpose of your rc system is, of course, to control the
directional movement of your aircraft, with auxiliary functions being controlled
in a secondary manner.
Incidentally, if you don't already know, each controllable function of a radio
controlled model is referred to as a 'channel' i.e.a single channel rc aircraft will
have control to just one function, whilst a six channel aircraft will have six
controllable functions.
Aside from the main stick controls, additional channels are found on toggle
switches and/or rotating dials and sliders, all of which can be located on the face
or top of the transmitter within easy fingertip reach (the photo shows the top left
corner of a transmitter with many extra channels). These extra channels can be
utilised to control, for example, flaps and retractable landing gear, and functions
such as dual rates will commonly be operated by such switches.
All channels over and above the four primary ones are called auxiliarychannels.
1.4 TYPES OF RC PLANE:
For the purpose of this page, rc airplanes and helicopters have been split in to
their own groups; simply categorising them as just two different aircraft types
would be a bit broad given the variations available.
Collectively, rc planes account for the largest number of aircraft in the hobby.
Having said that, the popularity of flying rc helicopters has grown tremendously
in recent years as electric rc helicopters have surged onto the scene, and the gap
between the number of rc airplane pilots and rc helicopter pilots has become
much smaller than it ever has been.
Even more recently, multicopters or drones have amassed huge sales globally as
this newest sector of the radio control flying hobby takes hold.
THESE ARE SOME TYPES OF RC PLANE:

Radio-control scale aircraft modeling[edit]

This Kyosho "Phantom 70" biplane is a semi-scale replica of a class winner and
record holder from the 2007 Reno Air Races. In this example, the fuselage with
its complex curves as well as the engine cowl, wheel pants and wing struts are
rendered in fiberglass. The wings and horizontal stabilizer are traditional
balsa/plywood construction
Perhaps the most realistic form of aeromodeling, in its main purpose to replicate
full-scale aircraft designs from aviation history, for testing of future aviation
designs, or even to realize never-built "proposed" aircraft, is that of radio-
control scale aeromodeling, as the most practical way to re-create "vintage" full-
scale aircraft designs for flight once more, from long ago. RC Scale model
aircraft can be of any type of steerable airshiplighter-than-air (LTA) aviation
craft, or more normally, of the heavier-than-air fixed wing glider/sailplane,
fixed-wing single or multi-engine aircraft, or rotary-wing aircraft such as
autogyros or helicopters.
Full-scale aircraft designs from every era of aviation, from the "Pioneer Era"
and World War I's start, through to the 21st century, have been modeled as
radio-control scale model aircraft. Builders of RC Scale aircraft can enjoy the
challenge of creating a controllable, miniature aircraft that merely "looks" like
the full scale original in the air with no "fine details", such as a detailed cockpit,
or seriously replicate many operable features of a selected full scale aircraft
design, even down to having operable cable-connected flight control surfaces,
illuminated navigation lighting on the aircraft's exterior, realistically retracting
landing gear, etc. if the full-sized aircraft possessed such features as part of its
design.
Various scale sizes of RC scale aircraft have been built in the decades since
modern digital-proportional, miniaturized RC gear came on the market in the
1960s, and everything from indoor-flyable electric powered RC Scale models,
to "giant scale" RC Scale models, in scale size ranges that usually run from 20%
to 25%, and upwards to 30 to 50% size of some smaller full scale aircraft
designs, that can replicate some of the actual flight characteristics of the full
scale aircraft they are based on, have been enjoyed, and continue to be built and
flown, in sanctioned competition and for personal pleasure, as part of the RC
scale aeromodeling hobby.

A large (~40 inch wingspan) scale remote control P-51 Mustang.

Sailplanes and gliders[edit]

Shinden by Bryan Hebert

Main article: Radio-controlled glider
Gliders are planes that do not typically have any type of propulsion. Unpowered
glider flight must be sustained through exploitation of the natural lift produced
from thermals or wind hitting a slope. Dynamic soaring is another popular way
of providing energy to gliders that is becoming more and more common.
However, even conventional slope soaring gliders are capable of achieving
speeds comparable with similar sized powered craft. Gliders are typically partial
to slow flying and have high aspect ratio, as well as very low wing loading
(weight to wing area ratio). Two and three-channel gliders which use only
rudder control for steering and dihedral or polyhedral wing shape to
automatically counteract rolling are popular as training craft, due to their ability
to fly very slowly and high tolerance to error.
Powered gliders have recently seen an increase in popularity. By combining the
efficient wing size and wide speed envelope of a glider airframe with an electric
motor, it is possible to achieve long flight times and high carrying capacity, as
well as glide in any suitable location regardless of thermals or lift. A common
method of maximising flight duration is to quickly fly a powered glider upwards
to a chosen altitude and descending in an unpowered glide. Folding propellers
which reduce drag (as well as the risk of breaking the propellor) are standard.
Powered gliders built with stability in mind and capable of aerobatics, high
speed flight and sustained vertical flight are classified as 'Hot-liners'. 'Warm-
liners' are powered craft with similar abilities but less extreme thrust capability.
Jets[edit]
Jets tend to be very expensive and commonly use a micro turbine or ducted
fan to power them. Most airframes are constructed from fiber glass and carbon
fiber. For electric powered flight which are usually powered by electric ducted
fans, may be made of styrofoam. Inside the aircraft, wooden spars reinforce the
body to make a rigid airframe . They also have kevlar fuel tanks for the Jet A
fuel that they run on. Most micro turbines start with propane, burn for a few
seconds before introducing the jet fuel by solenoid. These aircraft can often
reach speeds in excess of 320 km/h (200 mph). They require incredibly quick
reflexes and very expensive equipment, so are usually reserved for the expert.
In the U.S.A. the FAA restricts flying of such aircraft to approved
AMA Academy of Model Aeronautics sites, where only certified turbine pilots
may fly. Also, the AMA requires model aviation enthusiasts who wish to
operate miniature gas turbine powered RC model aircraft, to be certified in the
operation of the type of gas turbine engine, and all aspects of safety in operating
such a turbine-powered model aircraft, that they need to know in flying their
model.[1]. Some military bases allow such high tech aircraft to fly within
limited airspace such as Kaneohe Marine base in Hawaii, and Whidbey Island
NAS in Washington State.
An average turbine aircraft will cost between $150$10,000 with more than
$20,000 all-up becoming more common. Many manufactures sell airframes
such as Yellow Aircraft and Skymaster. Turbines are produced from The
Netherlands (AMT) to Mexico (Artes Jets). The average microturbine will cost
between $2500 and $5000 depending on engine output.
Smaller turbines put out about 12 lbf (53 N) of thrust, while larger
microturbines can put out as much as 45 lbf (200 N) of thrust. Radio-control jets
require an onboard FADEC (full authority digital engine control) controller; this
controls the turbine, as on a full-size aircraft. RC jets also require electrical
power. Most have a lithium polymer (LiPo) battery pack at 812 volts that
controls the FADEC. There is also a LiPo for the onboard servos that control
ailerons, elevator, rudder, flaps and landing gear.
Of much less complexity are the types of RC jet aircraft that actually use an
electric motor-driven ducted fan instead to power the aircraft. So called "EDF"
models can be of much smaller size, and only need the same electronic speed
contoller and rechargeable battery technology as propeller-driven RC electric
powered aircraft use.
Radio-controlled jet aircraft are produced in the colors of various airlines.
Among the most popular airline liveries used by modelers are those
of American, Singapore, Pan Am, Etihad and Delta Airlines.[4]
Pylon racers[edit]
Racers are small propeller-driven aircraft that race around a 2, 3, or 4 pylon
track. They tend to be hard to see and can often go over 240 km/h (150 mph),
though some people do pylon races with much slower aircraft. Several different
types of aircraft are raced across the world, those flown primarily in the US are;
Q500 (424 or ARPRA, and 428), and Q40.
424 is designed as a starting point into the world of pylon racing. Inexpensive
(under $200 for the airframe) kits with wing areas of 3,200 square centimetres
(500 sq in) are flown with .40 size engines that can be purchased for less than
$100. The goal is for the planes to be not only inexpensive, but closely matched
in performance. This places the emphasis on good piloting. APRA is a version
of 424 with specific rules designed for consistency.
428 aircraft are similar to 424 in appearance. The difference is in engine
performance and construction. The planes are primarily made of fiberglass with
composites used at high load points. Wings are often hollow to save weight.
(All aircraft must meet a minimum weight. A lighter wing moves more of the
weight closer to the center of gravity. This requires less control deflection and
its resulting drag to change the planes attitude.) They also use .40 cu in size
engines but unlike 424 they are much more expensive. They have been designed
to put out the maximum amount of power at a specific RPM using a specific
fuel. Nelson manufactures the most predominantly used engine. Speeds are very
fast in this class with planes capable of reaching 265 km/h (165 mph).
Q40 is the highpoint of pylon racing, as their aircraft resemble full-size race
planes. They are not limited to the simple shapes that Q500 planes are, which
have much cleaner aerodynamics and less wing area. They use the same basic
Nelson engine used in 428, but the engine is tuned to turn a much smaller prop
at a much higher rpm. These planes can fly in excess of 320 km/h (200 mph) on
the course. Because of their limited wing area however, Q40 planes must fly a
larger arc around the pylons to conserve energy. Although faster, they
ultimately fly a larger course. The best times for a 10 lap 3 pylon Q40 race are
very close to the same in 428.
F3D is the fastest class in "glow-powered" pylon racing. These planes reach
speeds of over 100 m/s (225 mph) on the race course. The race course is the
same as in AMA 424 or AMA 428, but there are few limits on the airframe and
engine. The maximum engine displacement is .40ci, ignition must be a
glowplug, fuel must be 80% methanol/20% castor oil, all else is free. There are
airframe limits on wing thickness, fuselage dimensions, and weight for safety
reasons.
All this results in an extreme racing class, where R&D, trial and error, science,
and piloting skills meet to create a very fast and exciting sport.
Helicopters[edit]
Main article: radio-controlled helicopter
Radio-controlled helicopters, although often grouped with RC aircraft, are in a
class of their own because of the vast differences in construction, aerodynamics
and flight training. Hobbyists will often venture from planes, to jets and to
helicopters as they enjoy the challenges, excitement and satisfaction of flying.
Some radio-controlled helicopters have photo or video cameras installed and are
used for aerial imaging or surveillance. Newer "3d" radio-control helicopters
can fly inverted with the advent of advanced swash heads, and servo linkage
that enables the pilot to immediately reverse the pitch of the blades, creating a
reverse in thrust.
Flying bird models, or ornithopters[edit]
Some RC models take their inspiration from nature. These may be gliders made
to look like a real bird, but more often they actually fly by flapping wings.
Spectators are often surprised to see that such a model can really fly. These
factors as well as the added building challenge add to the enjoyment of flying
bird models, though some ARF (almost-ready-to-fly) models are available.
Flapping-wing models are also known as ornithopters, the technical name for an
aircraft whose driving airfoils oscillate instead of rotate.
Toy-class RC[edit]
Since about 2004, new, more sophisticated toy RC airplanes, helicopters, and
ornithopters have been appearing on toy store shelves. This new category of toy
RC distinguishes itself by:

Proportional (vs. "on-off") throttle control which is critical for preventing

the excitation of phugoid oscillation ("porpoising") whenever a throttle
 change is made. It also allows for manageable and steady altitude control
and reduction of altitude loss in turns.
LiPo batteries for light weight and long flight time.
EPP (Expanded Polypropylene) foam construction making them virtually
indestructible in normal use.
Low flying speed and typically rear-mounted propeller(s) make them less
harmful when crashing into people and property.
Stable spiral mode resulting in simple turning control where "rudder" input
results in a steady bank angle rather than a steady roll rate.
As of 2013, the toy class RC airplane typically has no elevator control. This is
to manage costs, but it also allows for simplicity of control by unsophisticated
users of all ages. The downside of lack of elevator control is a tendency for the
airplane to phugoid. To damp the phugoid oscillation naturally, the planes are
designed with high drag which reduces flight performance and flying time. The
lack of elevator control also prevents the ability to "pull back" during turns to
prevent altitude loss and speed increase.
Costs range from 20 to 40 USD. Crashes are common and inconsequential.
Throttle control and turning reversal (when flying toward the pilot) rapidly
become second-nature, giving a significant advantage when learning to fly a
more costly hobby class RC aircraft.
Types of kits and construction[edit]
There are various ways to construct and assemble an RC aeroplane. Various kits
are available, requiring different amounts of assembly, different costs and
varying levels of skill and experience.
Some kits can be mostly foam or plastic, or may be all balsa and ply wood.
Construction of wood kits typically consists of using formers and longerons for
the fuselage and spars and ribs for the wing and tail surfaces. Many designs use
solid sheets of balsa wood instead of longerons to form the fuselage sides and
may also use expanded polystyrene for the wing core covered in a wood veneer,
often balsa or obechi. Such designs tend to be slightly heavier but are typically
easier to build. The lightest models are suitable for indoor flight, in a windless
environment. Some of these are made by bringing frames of balsa wood and
carbon fiber up through water to pick up thin plastic films, similar to rainbow
colored oil films. The advent of "foamies," or craft injection-molded from
lightweight foam and sometimes reinforced with carbon fiber, have made
indoor flight more readily accessible to hobbyists. EPP (Expanded
Polypropylene) foam planes are actually even bendable and usually sustain very
little or no damage in the event of an accident, even after a nose dive. Some
companies have developed similar material with different names, such as
AeroCell or Elapor.
Amateur hobbyists have more recently developed a range of new model designs
utilizing corrugated plastic, also sold as Coroplast. These models are
collectively called "SPADs" which stands for Simple Plastic Airplane Design.
Fans of the SPAD concept tout increased durability, ease of building, and lower
priced materials as opposed to balsa models, sometimes (though not always) at
the expense of greater weight and crude appearance.
Flying models have to be designed according to the same principles as full-sized
aircraft, and therefore their construction can be very different from most static
models. RC planes often borrow construction techniques from vintage full-sized
aircraft (although they rarely use metal structures).
Ready to fly[edit]

Radio-controlled model of S.E.5a W.W.1 aircraft constructed from an E-flite

ARF kit (custom-made pilot added)
Ready to fly (RTF) airplanes come pre-assembled and usually only require wing
attachment or other basic assembly. Typically, everything that is needed is
provided, including the transmitter, receiver and battery. RTF airplanes can be
up in the air in just a few minutes and have all but eliminated assembly time (at
the expense of the model's configuration options.)[9]
Almost ready to fly[edit]

This Great Planes Supermarine Spitfire LF Mk XII wears the markings of

the 222 Squadron and is an example of an almost ready to fly model
Almost ready to fly (ARF or ARTF) airplanes require final assembly typically
including engine and fuel tank installation (or electric motor, speed controller,
and battery), servo and pushrod installation, control surface attachment, landing
gear attachment, and sometimes require gluing the left and right wing halves
together. The average ARF airplane can be built with less than 10 to 20 hours of
labor, versus 50 to 100+ hours (depending on detail and desired results) for a
typical wood kit. The fuselage, wing halves, tail surfaces and control surfaces
are already constructed. ARF airplanes typically only include the airframe and
some accessories such as pushrods, fuel tank, etc. Therefore, the power system
(glow engine, gas engine, or electric motor and any required accessories) and
radio system (servos, transmitter, receiver, and battery) must be purchased
separately.
Bind-N-Fly[edit]
Bind-N-Fly (BNF) aircraft are similar to Ready to fly aircraft, except they do
not come with a transmitter. Because they do not come with a transmitter, they
must be bound to one instead. This is desirable for flyers that already own a
transmitter. Like RTF aircraft, Bind-N-Fly models require minimal assembly.
There are several incompatible radio standards often found with Bind-N-Fly
models. Most commonly seen are the BNF[10] and Tx-R designations. BNF
models work with transmitters using the DSM2/DSMX standard, and Tx-R
models use the Tactic/AnyLink standard. A programmable transmitter which
can store custom parameters for multiple models is desirable so that trim and
other advanced functions do not need to be altered when switching models.
Receiver Ready (Rx-R) models are similar to BNF models in that they are
mostly assembled but let the user add their own receiver and battery, avoiding
the need to deal with transmitter incompatibilities.
Wood kit[edit]

Seniorita RC model aircraft of balsa construction, with transparent heat-shrink

covering revealing the balsa inner structure
A large model J-3 Cub, scale RC models are often made of balsa and covered
with lightweight heat-shrinkable polyester fabric covering for a more realistic
appearance.
Wood kits come in many sizes and skill levels. The wood, typically balsa and
light ply, may either be cut with a die-cut or laser. Laser cut kits have a much
more precise construction and much tighter tolerances, but tend to cost more
than die-cut kits.
Wood kits include the raw material needed to assemble the airframe, a
construction manual, and full-size plans. Assembling a model from plans or a
kit can be very labor-intensive. In order to complete the construction of a
model, the builder typically spends many hours assembling the airframe,
installing the engine and radio equipment, covering it, sometimes painting it,
installing the control surfaces and pushrods, and adjusting the control surfaces
travels. The kit does not include necessary tools, so they must be purchased
separately. Care must be taken when building models from wood kits since
construction flaws may affect the model's flying characteristics or even result in
structural failure.
Smaller balsa kits will often come complete with the necessary parts for the
primary purpose of non-flying modeling or rubber band flight. These kits will
usually also come with conversion instructions to fly as glow (gas powered) or
electric and can be flown free-flight or radio-controlled. Converting a kit
requires additional and substitution parts to get it to fly properly such as the
addition of servos, hinges, speed controls, control rods and better landing gear
mechanisms and wheels.
Many small kits will come with a tissue paper covering that then gets covered
with multiple layers of plane dope which coats and strengthens the fuselage and
wings in a plastic-like covering. It has become more common to cover planes
with heat-shrinking plastic films backed with heat-sensitive adhesive. These
films are generally known as 'iron-on covering' since a hand-held iron allows
the film to be attached to the frame; a higher temperature then causes the film to
tighten. This plastic covering is more durable and makes for a quick repair.
Other varieties of heat shrinkable coverings are also available, that have fibrous
reinforcements within the plastic film, or are actual woven heat shrinkable
fabrics.
It is common to leave landing gear off smaller planes (roughly 36" or smaller)
in order to save on weight, drag and construction costs. The planes can then be
launched by hand-launching, as with smaller free-flight models, and can then
land in soft grass. Flute board or Coroplast can be used in place of balsa wood.
Airframe materials[edit]
Several materials are commonly used for construction of the airframe of model
radio-controlled aircraft.
The earliest model radio-controlled aircraft were constructed of wood covered
with paper. Later, plastic film such as Monokote came to be widely used as a
covering material. Wood has relatively low cost, high specific Young's
modulus (stiffness per unit weight), good workability and strength, and can be
assembled with adhesives of various types. Light-weight strong varieties such
as balsa wood are preferred; basswood, pine and spruce are also used.[11]
Carbon fiber, in rod or strip form, supplements wood in more recent models to
reinforce the structure, and replaces it entirely in some cases (such as high
performance turbine engine powered models and helicopters). The disadvantage
of using carbon fiber is its high cost.
Expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene foam (Styrofoam) came to be
used more recently for the construction of the entire airframe. Depron (the type
of foam used for meat trays) blends rigidity with flexibility, allowing aircraft to
absorb the stress of flying. Expanded polypropylene (EPP) is an extremely
resilient variety of foam, often used in basic trainers, which take considerable
abuse from beginners. Foam is used either in an injection mold to make a
molded airframe or is cut out of sheet to make a built up airframe similar to
some wood airframes. Airplanes of foam construction are frequently referred to
as "Foamies"
Twinwall extruded polypropylene sheet has been used from the mid nineties.
Commonly known as Correx in the United Kingdom, it is mentioned in the
sections above. Currently the Mugi group based in West Yorkshire still promote
and use this material in 2mm thickness sheet form. Very tough and lightweight
it has only two disadvantages. Firstly it needs particular two-part contact glues.
Secondly the material is difficult to paint due to low surface adhesion. Self-
adhesive coloured tapes were the answer. Components are often laminated,
taking advantage of differing flute directions for strength and forming. Models
tend to exceed 900mm wingspan with carbon fibre tubing used for local
reinforcement. The thickness used among modellers is from 2mm to 4 mm
thickness. Models made out of this material are commonly known among
modellers as "Spad" types (simple plastic aeroplane design).

Plane characteristics[edit]
This .60 cubic inch/10cc glow-powered Vinh Quang Model Mudry CAP 10 is a
fully aerobatic, low-wing, "sport scale" model plane with slight dihedral

This Electrify/Great Planes model of a Yakovlev Yak-54 is an example of a

high-performance, fully aerobatic mid-wing plane with no dihedral
Number of channels[edit]
The number of channels a plane requires is normally determined by the number
of mechanical servos that have been installed (with a few exceptions such as the
aileron servos, where two servos can operate via a single Y harness (with one of
the two servos rotating in the opposite direction). On smaller models, usually
one servo per control surface (or set of surfaces in the case of ailerons or a split
elevator surface) is sufficient. Generally, for a plane to be considered fully
functional, it must have four channels (throttle, elevator, rudder and aileron).

Ailerons controls roll.

Elevator controls pitch (up and down).
Throttle or, if electric, motor speed.
Rudder (or vertical stabilizer) - controls yaw (left and right).
Gear/retracts controls retractable landing gear (usually in conjunction with
gear doors).
Flaps Increase lift, but also increase drag. Using flaps, an aircraft can fly
slower before stalling. Flaps are often used to steepen the landing approach
angle and let the plane land at a slower touchdown speed (as well as letting
the aircraft lift off at a slower takeoff speed). In both cases, flaps enable
using a shorter runway than would otherwise be required.
Auxiliary control Additional channels can control additional servos for
propeller pitch (such as on 3D planes), or control surfaces such as
spoilerons, flaperons, or elevons.
Misc bomb bay doors, lights, remote camera shutter can be assigned to
extra channels. Additionally, if there is a flight assist or autopilot module on
the craft (more common on the multi-rotor copters), features such as gyro-
based stabilization, GPS location hold, height hold, return home, etc., can be
controlled.
Three channels (controlling rudder, elevator and throttle) are common on trainer
aircraft. Four channel aircraft add aileron control.
For complex models and larger scale planes, multiple servos may be used on
control surfaces. In such cases, more channels may be required to perform
various functions such as deploying retractable landing gear, opening cargo
doors, dropping bombs, operating remote cameras, lights, etc. Transmitters are
available with as few as 2 channels to as many as 18 channels.
The right and left ailerons move in opposite directions. However, aileron
control will often use two channels to enable mixing of other functions on the
transmitter. For example, when they both move downward they can be used as
flaps (flaperons), or when they both move upward,
as spoilers (spoilerons). Delta winged aircraft designs commonly lack a separate
elevator, its function being mixed with the ailerons and the combined control
surfaces being known as elevons. V-tail mixing, needed for such full-scale
aircraft designs as the Beechcraft Bonanza, when modeled as RC scale
miniatures, is also done in a similar manner as elevons and flaperons.
Tiny ready to fly RC indoor or indoor/outdoor toy aircraft often have two speed
controllers and no servos, as very small and inexpensive servos are not yet
available. There can be one motor for propulsion and one for steering or twin
motors with the sum controlling the speed and the difference controlling the
turn (yaw).
Some .049 glow models use two controls: elevator and rudder with no throttle
control. The plane is flown until it runs out of fuel then landed like a glider.
Turning[edit]
Turning is generally accomplished by rolling the plane left or right and applying
the correct amount of up-elevator ("back pressure").
A three channel RC plane will typically have an elevator and a throttle control,
and either an aileron or rudder control but not both. If the plane has ailerons,
rolling the wings left or right is accomplished directly by them. If the plane has
a rudder instead, it will be designed with a greater amount of Dihedral Effect,
which is the tendency for the airplane to roll in response to sideslip
angle created by the rudder deflection. Dihedral Effect in model airplane design
is usually increased by increasing the Dihedral Angle of the wing (V-bend in
the wing). The rudder will yaw the plane so that it has a left or right sideslip,
dihedral effect will then cause the plane to roll in the same direction. Many
trainers, electric park fliers, and gliders use this technique.
A more complex four channel model can have both rudder and ailerons and is
usually turned like a full-sized aircraft. That is, the ailerons are used primarily
to directly roll the wings, and the rudder is used to "coordinate" (to keep the
sideslip angle near-zero during the rolling motion). Sideslip otherwise builds up
during an aileron-driven roll because of adverse yaw. Often, the transmitter is
programmed to automatically apply rudder in proportion to aileron deflection to
coordinate the roll.
When an airplane is in a small to moderate bank (roll angle) a small amount of
'back pressure' is required to maintain height. This is required because the lift
vector, which would be pointing vertically upwards in level flight, is now
angled inwards so some of the lift is turning the aircraft. A higher overall
amount of lift is required so that the vertical component remains sufficient for a
level turn.
Many radio-controlled aircraft, especially the toy class models, are designed to
be flown with no movable control surfaces at all. Some model planes are
designed this way because it is often cheaper and lighter to control the speed of
a motor than it is to provide a moving control surface. Instead, "rudder" control
(control over sideslip angle) is provided by differing thrust on two motors, one
on each wing. Total power is controlled by increasing or decreasing the power
on each motor equally. Usually, the planes only have only these two control
channels (total throttle and differential throttle) with no elevator control.
Turning a model with differential thrust is equivalent to and just as effective as
turning a model with rudder. Lack of elevator control is sometimes problematic
if the phugoid oscillation isn't well-damped leading to unmanageable
"porpoising". See "Toy class RC" section.
V-tail systems[edit]
A V-Tail is a way of combining the control surfaces of the standard "+"
configuration of rudder and elevator into a V shape. These ruddervators are
controlled with two channels and mechanical or electronic mixing. An
important part of the V-Tail configuration is the exact angle of the two surfaces
relative to each other and the wing, otherwise the ratio of elevator and rudder
outputs will be incorrect.
The mixing works as follows: When receiving rudder input, the two servos
work together, moving both control surfaces to the left or right, inducing yaw.
On elevator input, the servos work opposite, one surface moves to the "left" and
the other to the "right" which gives the effect of both moving up and down,
causing pitch changes in the aircraft.
V-Tails are very popular in Europe, especially for gliders. In the US, the T-
Tail is more common. V-Tails have the advantage of being lighter and creating
less drag. They also are less likely to break at landing or take-off due to the tail
striking something on the ground like an ant mound or a rock.
Powerplants[edit]
Main article: Model aircraft Power sources
Most planes need a powerplant to drive them, the exception being gliders. The
most popular types for radio-controlled aircraft are internal combustion engines,
electric motors, jet, and rocket engines. Three types of internal combustion
engines are available being small 2 and 4 stroke engines. Glowplug engines use
nitro-methanol as fuel, compressive ignition ('diesel') burn paraffin with ether as
an ignition agent. Larger engines can be glowplug but increasingly common
gasoline is the fuel of choice.
In recent years electric powered models have increased in popularity due to the
reducing cost and weight of components and improvements in technology,
especially lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries and the choice of brushed
motors and brushless motors. Electric systems are quieter and as they do not
require fuel/exhaust, are cleaner. The advantage of electric power is the ease of
starting the motor as compared to the starting of engines; electric motors that
are comparable to engines are cheaper. Any form of lithium-chemistry battery
cell technology packs have to be charged with "smart" chargers that have
connections to every electrical connection in the pack to "balance-charge" the
cells in the pack, and even with proper use of such chargers lithium-polymer
battery packs can have the serious risk of fire or explosion, which has led to the
increasing acceptance of lithium iron phosphate battery technology in their
place as a much more rugged and durable lithium-chemistry power source.
Frequencies and sub-channels[edit]

References[edit]

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underwater drone, U.S. says". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 10
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2. Jump up^ The Evolution of the Cruise Missile by Werrell, Kenneth
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3. Jump up^ Boddington, David (2004). Radio-Controlled Model Aircraft.
Crowood Press. ISBN 1-86126-679-0. Chapter 1.
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5. ^ Jump up to:a b c Windestl, David. "The FPV Starting guide".
RCExplorer. Retrieved 14 September 2011.
6. Jump up^ "FPV Distance Records By Airframe". RC Groups (forum).
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7. Jump up^ "AMA Document #550" (PDF). Academy of Model
Aeronautics.
8. Jump up^ "The Law - FPV UK". FPV UK. Retrieved 2017-01-11.
9. Jump up^ "Blade 400 3D RTF Electric Mini Helicopter". E-flite.
Horizon Hobby. Retrieved 2 July 2017: Example of an advanced RTF
helicopter at E-fliterc.com
10.Jump up^ "Example of BNF Planes at Modelflight".
11.Jump up^ Paul K. Johnson (2009-01-21). "Engineering RC Aircraft for
Light Weight, Strength & Rigidity". Airfield Models. Retrieved 2012-09-
06.
12.Jump up^ "FAI".
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frequencies". www.ukrcc.org. Retrieved 2017-01-11.
14.Jump up^ "OfW 311 - Radio-controlled models -
Ofcom". www.ofcom.org.uk. Retrieved 2017-01-11.
15.Jump up^ "FCC Part 97 Amateur Radio Service - Rule
97.215,Telecommand of model craft, section (c)".
16.Jump up^ RC-Network.de Fernsteuerfrequenzen fr den Modellbau -
Deutschland (Frequency bands for RC modeling - Germany) - "Am
31.12.2008 endet die Betriebserlaubnis fr Fernsteuerungen im
Frequenzbereich 433 MHz!" (As of 12/31/2008, RC use of the 433 MHz
bands ends in Germany!)
17.Jump up^ "Academy of Model Aeronautics - RC Frequencies".
18.Jump up^ "Canadian Frequency Chart - Model Aeronautics
Association of Canada".
19.Jump up^ "Operation of Radio Control Flying Sites - Frequency
Control of Non-2.4 GHz Spread Spectrum R/C Radio
Systems" (PDF). modelaircraft.org. Academy of Model Aeronautics.
December 18, 2014. Retrieved May 25, 2016. Use of frequency pins to
identify the frequency in use. Pins, often clothespins, are marked with the
color or channel number of the frequencies they represent. Only one pin
is available at the flying site for each frequency. Transmitters shall not
be operated without possession of a pin that identifies the frequency in
use.
20.Jump up^ "Huerta v. Pirker" (PDF). NTSB Office of Administrative
Law Judges.
21.Jump up^ "Huerta v. Pirker Decision" (PDF). National Transportation
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22.^ Jump up to:a b "Interpretation of the Special Rule for Model
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allemaal!". DroneVinder (in Dutch). Retrieved 10 January 2017.
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Aircraft" (PDF). Advisory Circular. Civil Aviation Safety Authority
Australia. July 2002. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
25.Jump up^ "Does Indian laws prohibit flying RC controlled airplanes in
cities? - Quora".