Written

in the Stars by Ai Sim

Figure 1 National Archives of Australia: A6135, K3/8/79/15, image taken by the AAT in 1979.

Written in the Stars

Australias transnational, social, and astronomical journey through
the lens of the Anglo-Australian Telescope (AAT)

By Ai Sim

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 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

Astronomy may not be a common

topic at most dinner tables in Australia,
yet it is certainly one of the most
important aspects of an advanced
society both technologically and socially.
The Anglo-Australian Telescope owned
by the Australian Astronomical
Observatory in Siding Springs, New
South Wales, has a transnational and
unifying history that encapsulated a
large portion of Australias national and
technological identity from the 1960s
until now. The telescopes past contains
parallels to Australias transnational
friendships that the country has
developed with innovative and
technological powerhouses such as the Figure 2 National Archives of Australia: A6135, K3/8/88/24, the
United Kingdom, the United States, and AAT at Siding Springs.
Japan.

Without doubt, the astronomical Origins:

advancements made by America and
England fuelled Australias desire to
make a confident step into the world of The Anglo-Australian Telescope
observational astronomy. Space is a large dome telescope that sits at the
observation and exploration during the Siding Springs Observatory of the
1960s and 1970s was the new frontier. Australian National University. As made
Societies could prove their evident by its name, the Anglo-
advancement in not only technology, but Australian Telescope has a
society as well. The gradual involvement predominantly Commonwealth origin.
of women in STEM assisted in the Planned and designed during the 1960s,
development of astronomical research the AAT was the collaborative brainchild
and it also reflected the sexual of the Royal Society of London and the
revolution that was taking place. Australian Academy of Science.i The
AAT was developed to be used by both
Through the observation of prominent British and Australian astronomers to
figures such as astronomer Bart Bok further their findings and research.ii
and familiar faces in Australian society,
one can see how optical astronomy and Australias unique position in the
modern Australia have grown hand in Southern Hemisphere was a prospect
hand. The future of the AAT will most that drew the attention of astronomers
likely continue to develop in conjunction who were eager to view and observe
with Australias technological and new information. Gathering data of the
societal progress. southern sky allowed for the study of
lesser known regions such as other
parts of the Milky Way.iii The AAT took - 2 -

 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

seven years to complete and $15 million between Australia, England, and
to construct.iv By legislation, both the America was reflected through the
British and Australian governments were AATs development alongside other
to split the funding equally.v societal changes.
In conjunction with Australias own
multicultural history, the complex
components and technological British Involvemen6:
fragments of the AAT were drawn
together from different countries such as
Japan and Switzerland.vi The design of The United Kingdom performed
the AAT was also based on the Kitt an integral role in the construction of the
Peak telescope at the Kitt Peak National AAT. The parallels between the AATs
Observatory in the United States.vii The history and Australias own begins here.
collaboration of global technology The relationship between England and
proved successful. Australia was especially represented by
the Anglo-Australian Telescope Board
that was comprised of three British
members and three Australian members
that met twice every year.ix

As mentioned before, the AAT was

based off the design for the Kitt Peak
telescope owned by the KPNO.
Although it would have also been
chosen to make constructing a new
telescope more efficient and convenient,
the decision to use an American
telescope design rather than a British
one was not entirely without bias.xxi
Perhaps the United States reputation
for advanced technology was a stronger
influence on this particular decision than
Australias ties to England. The AAT
may not have been developed at all due
to hesitation from the British side. The
most evident cause of reluctance was
Figure 3 National Archives of Australia: the belief that the funds could be
A6180, 1/8/74/95, working on the AAT in 1974. directed into an area of greater
importance.xii
The Australian Astronomical
Observatory took full ownership of the In England, actual plans to actively
telescope in 2010 as the British achieve the AATs creation did not
government chose to retract its unfold smoothly as they were rejected
cooperation and contribution.viii A unique by the National Science Foundation.xiii
feature of the AATs history is the After the completion of the AAT in 1974,
coinciding cultural climate that occurred Prince Charles inaugurated the
during its construction. The dynamic telescope on the 16th of October during - 3 -

 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

a tour of Australia and was greeted by States was only rivalled by the Soviet
the then Australian Prime Minister Union. Subsequently, the development
Robert Menzies.xiv The bond between of the AAT based on the Kitt Peak
the United Kingdom and Australia was telescope was an act of trust in
strengthened further whenever a American technology. The decision to
member of the British royal family paid a create a large telescope similar to one in
visit to the country. America could have also been the result
of societal pressure. Countries that were
The British and Australian collaboration armed with the knowledge to develop
on the AAT represented the close greater pieces of technology were seen
alliance between both nations that was as powerful and advanced. Japan was
also influential to the public and their also ahead in astronomical science and
respect for British influence. However, Mitsubishi Electric contributed the mount
the British government decided to of the AAT.
remove its contribution towards the AAT
in the mid 2000s. In 2010, the AAO had However, the more concerning influence
full ownership and responsibility over was the fact that such countries were
the AAT. The AAO replaced the Anglo- also much more attractive to young
Australian Telescope Board as a Australian scientists who required
result.xv modern facilities.xvi The individual who
held this belief was Bart Bok. Bok was a
Dutch-born American astronomer who
after studying extensively at Harvard
University, eventually moved to
Australia with his family where he
became director at Mount Stromlo
Observatory in Canberra. He later
developed a close friendship with
Robert Menzies.xvii

Beyond his own work in observational

astronomy, Bok was keenly observing
Figure 3 National Archives of Australia: A6135, and partaking in the globalisation of
K22/10/74/11, the AAT surrounded by scientific research and facilitation. Bok
Australian eucalyptus trees. had written of the International Society
for Science and its cooperation with

American Influence:
UNESCO in achieving widespread
facilities and programs that were
attractive to young scientists.xviii Boks
strong support of adequate facilitation
American astronomy was the led him to verbally encourage the
driving force behind the interest in space development of the AAT.
and space exploration around the world.
As the first nation to successfully land Boks contribution to observational
on Earths moon in 1969, the reputation astronomy emphasised the strength of
of astronomical sciences in the United Americas global astronomical influence
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 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

as well as multiculturalism in modern Bart Bok, penned several books about

Australia. His beliefs also highlighted the their research and discoveries.
importance of technological
advancement for the benefit of future Breaking into science as a woman
scientists in Australia. during the 1960s was not a simple
achievement. The difficulties that many
women faced especially in the realm of
education and employment caused their
minimal presence in the workforce. The
sexual revolution that peaked in the
1970s sought to give women the
opportunity to achieve their ambitions
and to gain more positions in the
workforce. The most direct female
contribution to the AAT was made by
the Japanese factory workers at
Mitsubishi Electric.xix

The limited female contribution to the

AAT was a clear reflection of the
prejudice and lack of encouragement
that women were confronted with during
Figure 4 National Archives of Australia: A1200,
the period in which it was completed.
L50804, Bart Bok and Priscilla Fairfield Bok at The gradual increase of women of all
Mount Stromlo Observatory in 1964. backgrounds in STEM and in astronomy
will make progress and results inclusive

Social Changes:
and complete.

Significance:
Although there are women working in
STEM and organisations such as the Part of Australias social,
AAO, the number of women working in technological, and transnational history
scientific and mathematical fields is still has been captured and encapsulated by
significantly lower than their male the development and use of the AAT.
counterparts. The written history so far However, it is important to identify its
about the AAT has not mentioned relevance to individuals living in
women that had directly taken part in its Australia and the rest of the world.
scientific development. However, there Ultimately, the study of space will have
have of course been female some level of impact on people as we
astronomers working in other fields are literally surrounded by it. Following
and/or countries. Prominent American the historical pattern and parallels
astronomer Dorrit Hoffleit who had between the AAT and Australian
worked closely with telescopes is an society, the advancement of the AAT
example. Priscilla Fairfield Bok was
another American astronomer who
alongside her aforementioned husband - 5 -

 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

will essentially lead to the advancement

of Australian society. Along with other
areas of STEM, the acquisition of
knowledge will simply benefit society as
a whole by encouraging the constant
improvement of life and wellbeing.

The AAT amongst other large

astronomical telescopes can assist in
answering the bigger questions that
many individuals have. For example,
whether there is life beyond our planet.
Of course, these questions will not effect Figure 5 National Archives of Australia: A6135,
our lives in this very moment, but K3/8/79/14, photo taken from the AAT in 1979.
discovering more about the universe will
States passion and investment in
allow humans to learn more about
astronomical observation also
themselves and what reality actually is.
encouraged Australia and the rest of the
Aside from their fundamental use and
world to follow suit. The development
purpose such as to collect light and to
and maintenance of the AAT was a
make things bigger, astronomical
result of the close relationship between
telescopes such as the AAT can provide
the United Kingdom and Australia. The
plenty of scientific data as well as
removal of British partaking in 2010 also
economic/societal growth. Since Galileo
mirrors and contributes to Australias
Galileis discovery of Saturns rings in
growing independence as an advancing
the seventeenth century, observational
country.
astronomy has and will continue to be a
staple of human society with the
As a result, the development of the AAT
assistance of advanced telescopy.
in conjunction with the importance of
science in society has been reflected
Astronomy is a study that not
through societal progression as well as
many average Australians have a firm
technological improvement. Although
grasp upon. The expertise and
there were not many female
knowledge that is seemingly foreign to
astronomers during this period, the
most is actually very much relevant to
gradual inclusion of women in STEM
our existence. The Anglo-Australian
over the years has been improving. The
Telescope has followed the steps of
AATs development and presence in
Australian transnational and national
Australia has provided scientific data
history until the present moment.
and economic stimulation that also tells
the story of technological
The AAT, like many other tools of
transnationalism during an era of rapid
science, has brought together several
changes and social confrontation.
countries that share both a political and
social bond. The influence of the United

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 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

Images:

Figure 1: Research - Astronomy and space - Stars and galaxies images from the Anglo-
Australian Telescope Board, 1979, National Archives of Australia, Canberra, in National
Archives of Australia [online database], accessed 3 Oct. 2017.

Figure 2: Research - Astronomy and space - Siding Spring Anglo-Australian Telescope in

Narrumbungle National Park, New South Wales [Photographer: M. Jensen], 1988, National
Archives of Australia, Canberra, in National Archives of Australia [online database], accessed 3
Oct. 2017.

Figure 3: Research - Astronomy and space - The Anglo-Australian telescope, Coonabarabran,

New South Wales, 1974, National Archives of Australia, Canberra, in National Archives of
Australia [online database], accessed 3 Oct. 2017.

Figure 4: Research - Astronomy and space - Anglo-Australian telescope at Siding Springs,

1974, 1974, National Archives of Australia, Canberra, in National Archives of Australia [online
database], accessed 3 Oct. 2017.

Figure 5: TITLE: Professor Bart Bok [Director of the Mount Stromlo Observatory Canberra,
Australian Capital Territory] and Mrs Priscilla Bok CATEGORY: Photograph PRINCIPAL
CREDIT: Australian News and Information Bureau, photographer, J Crowther FORMAT: b&w
negative TYPE: cellulose acetate STATUS: preservation material, 1964, National Archives of
Australia, Canberra, in National Archives of Australia [online database], accessed 3 Oct. 2017.

Figure 6: Research - Astronomy and space - Stars and galaxies images from the Anglo-
Australian Telescope Board, 1979, 1979, National Archives of Australia, Canberra, in National
Archives of Australia [online database], accessed 3 Oct. 2017.

Notes:
i
A Brief History, Australian Astronomical Observatory [website],
<https://www.aao.gov.au/about-us/a-brief-history>, para. 1, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.
ii
Donald C. Morton, Recent Developments of the Anglo-Australian Telescope,
Astrophysics and Space Science, 118/1-2 (1986), 31.
iii
Raymond Haynes et al., Explorers of the Southern Sky: A History of Australian
Astronomy, (: Cambridge University Press 1996), 371.
iv
Ben Gascoigne, Katrina Proust and Malcolm Robins, The Creation of the Anglo-
Australian Observatory, (New York: Cambridge University Press 1990), 30.
v
Bill Morrison (Minister for Science), Important Stage of Anglo-Australian Telescope
Completed [press release], 3 Mar. 1973, Parliament of Australia,
<http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22media/
pressrel/HPR06000192%22>, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.
vi
Gascoigne, Proust and Robins, op. cit., p. 20.
vii
Malcolm Fraser (Minister for Education and Science), Anglo-Australian Telescope
Agreement [press release], 25 Sept. 1969, Parliament of Australia, - 7 -

 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

<http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22media/
pressrel/1617604%22>, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.
viii
Australian Astronomical Observatory, loc. cit.
ix
Gascoigne, Proust and Robins, op. cit., p. 20.
x
Ibid.
xi
Anglo-Australian Telescope, Nature, 218/5140 (1968), 419.
xii
Raymond Haynes et al., op. cit., 385.
xiii
Ibid.
xiv
Australian Astronomical Observatory, loc. cit.
xv
Ibid.
xvi
Raymond Haynes et al., op. cit., 384.
xvii
Ben Gascoigne, 'Bok, Bart Jan (19061983)', Obituaries Australia, National Centre of
Biography, Australian National University, <http://oa.anu.edu.au/obituary/bok-bart-jan-
129/text130>, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.
xviii
Bart J. Bok, Science in International Cooperation, Science, 121/3155 (1955), 844.
xix
Gascoigne, Proust and Robins, op. cit., p. 112.

References:

Primary:

A Brief History, Australian Astronomical Observatory [website],

<https://www.aao.gov.au/about-us/a-brief-history>, para. 1, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.

Bok, Bart J., Science in International Cooperation, Science, 121/3155 (1955), 843-847.

Fraser, Malcolm (Minister for Education and Science), Anglo-Australian Telescope

Agreement [press release], 25 Sept. 1969, Parliament of Australia,
<http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22media/
pressrel/1617604%22>, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.

Morrison, Bill (Minister for Science), Important Stage of Anglo-Australian Telescope

Completed [press release], 3 Mar. 1973, Parliament of Australia,
<http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22media/
pressrel/HPR06000192%22>, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.

Secondary:

Anglo-Australian Telescope, Nature, 218/5140 (1968), 418-419.

Morton, Donald C., Recent Developments of the Anglo-Australian Telescope,

Astrophysics and Space Science, 118/1-2 (1986), 31-33.
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 Written in the Stars by Ai Sim

Gascoigne, Ben, Proust, Katrina, and Robins, Malcolm, The Creation of the Anglo-
Australian Observatory, (New York: Cambridge University Press 1990).

Gascoigne, Ben, 'Bok, Bart Jan (19061983)', Obituaries Australia, National Centre of
Biography, Australian National University, <http://oa.anu.edu.au/obituary/bok-bart-jan-
129/text130>, accessed 26 Sept. 2017.

Haynes, Raymond, et al., Explorers of the Southern Sky: A History of Australian

Astronomy, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1996).

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