ACKNOWLEGEMENT

I proudly express my respectful thanks to my esteemed educational institution

JMIETI. RADAUR which has blessed me to continue my technical education and
has provided me a bright future.

I respectfully express my earnest thanks to my Teachers who provided opportunity

and permitted me for practical summer training.

I also respectfully express my earnest thanks to the Staff Members of

CHANDERPUR WORKS PVT. LTD., who has taken care of all the students in
the aspects and has guided us professionally and technically helped in completing
my training.

SAURABH SHARMA

8513347

1
INRODUCTION

1.1 COMPANY PROFILE

Chanderpur Works Pvt. Ltd. is an ISO 9001:2008 certified Manufacturer, Exporter, Supplier,
and Service Provider. The company was incepted in the year 1962, at Yamuna Nagar, Haryana.
Under the headship ofMr. Sudhir Chandra, our CEO, we are scaling new heights of success.
With his vast knowledge and market expertise, we have carved an eminent position for ourselves.

1.2 RESOURCES

We have a full fledged facility for doing Stainless Steel fabrication work. We have plasma cutting
machine, TIG welding facility to do the welding and cutting of stainless steel. Our shop is equipped
with EOT cranes suitable to handle up to 100 tons single piece, bending machines suitable to bend
up to 50mm thick plate of 2.5 meters. We have cold condition, arrangement for Radiographic
welding, Submerged welding, MIG machines, TIG machines, welding generators and rectifiers in
workshop for manufacturing of our products.

The advanced machines which have been installed in our manufacturing unit include :

Vertical Turning Lathes Shaper

Floor Borer Universal Drilling machine
Horizontal Borers Milling machine
Planners Lathes

2
1.3 TEAM

We have around 300 persons working with us. Our team members include qualified Engineers,
Executives, Sales Persons, Managers, etc. Our highly diligent quality control personals assure that
the quality of our products is in tandem with the industrial standards. They make the best use of
facilities of destructive & non-destructive testing to produce matchless product line.

1.4 CLIENT SATISFACTION

With years of market experience, we have garnered a huge list of clients. We are regularly
supplying equipment to different engineering companies like :

Seimag

KHD humbo Ltd.

Voist Alpine Ltd.

F.L.Smith

Gebr Pfeiffer

Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd.

We constantly assist our clients in different projects as per the designs and drawings provided by
them.

3
 Name of CEO : Mr. Sudhir Chandra

Year of Establishment : 1962

Nature of Business : Manufacturer, Exporter, Supplier & Service Provider

Number of Employees : 350

Annual Turnover : Rs. 1,30,00,00,000 /-

Market Covered : Worldwide

Chanderpur Works is a leading turnkey solution provider & engineering company with state-of-
the-art designing & manufacturing facilities.we had been executing different turnkey business
solution for Cement Plants, Cement Machineries, Lime Plants, Mineral Processing, Fertilizer
Plants and Renewable Energy Industry, we also deals in products like ball mills, rotary
kilns etc. We are catering to major engineering majors like SMS Demag , Loesche (Germany),
KHD Humboldt Wedag (Germany), Voiest Alpine (Austria), F L Smith. Gebr Pfeiffer and others.
With systematic approach and a strong client base, we have maintained our front runner position
in the industry.

We offer turnkey solutions and undertake all aspects of plant construction, feasibility studies,
technical consultation, equipment supply, construction, supervisory services, commissioning etc.
Technology from Chanderpur Works is approved and is the answer to modern day's need of cost
effective production. With growing success, we are committed to achieve customer delight by
exceeding their expectations. We are also stepping towards achieving one of our goals, of making
a pollution free India, with Eco-friendly and energy efficient plant & machinery.

4
1.5 CEMENT PROJECTS

1.5.1 CEMENT PROJECT OVERVIEW

Cement manufacturing as a process and as a core industry has undergone many

stages of transformation in recent years. CPW holds deep domain knowledge of
the industry and hence, is equipped to offer customized service that are directed
to meet the needs of clients from cement plants.

CPW delivers reliable cement project execution for cement plants using advance
cement machineries. With the manufacturing of individual components of cement
plants and with fabrication, installation & commissioning of entire cement plant,
the Cement Division of CPW has supplied & commissioned more than 150
Cement Plants. We execute turnkey cement projects for Cement Plants,
Rotary Kiln Cement Plants, Vertical Shaft Cement Plants, Clinker Grinding
Units, Slag Cement Grinding Units and Slag Grinding Project. For successful
implementation of our turnkey cement projects, we conduct various types of
project development studies, feasibility studies etc. These are followed by
engineering, procurement & construction management (EPCM) services. We
supervise the construction, commissioning along with offering start-up and post
start-up services.

We have also upgraded existing cement plants for better productivity and
energy savings and have already supplied to various cement projects in India,
Latin America, Africa and other countries in Asia. Our pool of highly qualified
and experienced teams of technical designers and consultants work in tandem with
client's requirement to achieve the best possible plant design. Plant design and
fabrication / construct are made to suit the conditions where the plant is to be
installed.

5
 1.6 SERVICES

We undertake following activities in addition to turnkey

supply of cement plant machinery :

Market Studies, Techno-Economical studies, Project

Reports
Suitable project site selection & raw material testing
Project Engineering
Pollution control and environment engineering
Waste Management
Energy conservation and management
After sales services
Development of spares
Training of manpower
Recruitment of manpower for client

1.7 TURNKEY PROJECTS

Cement Plants
Paper Plants
Mineral Processing Plants
Fertiliser Plants
Biomass Gasifier
Specialised Plants
Lime plants

6
1.8 PRODUCTS

Besides the turnkey projects, CPW provide following products

Ball Mills Rotary Kilns

Vertical Kilns Rod Mills

Vibratory screens Classifiers/Dynamic Separators

Rotary Screens Crushers & Hammer Mills

Dryers, Coolers and Granulators Clarifiers

Screw Classifiers Belt Conveyors

Bucket Elevators Hammer Mills

Screw Conveyors Air Slides

Air Lifts Apron Conveyors

Drag Chain Conveyors Table Feeder

Weigh Feeder Rotary Vane Feeder

Screw Feeders E.O.T. Cranes

E.O.T. Grabbing Cranes Goliath Type Traveling Cranes

Heat Exchangers Pressure Vessels

7
1.9 HIGHLIGHTS OF FACILITIES
Full Fledged Workshop , spread over 200,000 Sq. Ft. area.

Well established Computerized Design & Drawing unit with latest software facilities like
AutoCAD, Solid Works, Inventor and other 3-D software .
Use of ERP system (Totally Computerized Working Environment)
Full Fledged Laboratory for inspection & analysis of the raw material
Full Fledged Library having 5000 Technical and other books and all International
Standards
Own Captive Power Generation Station of 1000 kW capacity

1.10 MACHINERY INSTALLED

We maintain world-class manufacturing set-up to meet the entire fabrication & installation
requirements. Our state-of-the-art infrastructure has integrated facilities for production, quality
assessment and delivery. For timely and effective product fabrication, we maintain excellent line
of equipment and machines. The details of the machinery installed is given below:

7 to 10 Meter bed heavy duty

CENTRE LATHES
lathe

VERTICAL TURNING LATHES Upto 7 Meter Diameter

HORIZONTAL BORERS Spindle 130 mm diameter

Capable to lift the material

CRANES
upto 100 Tonne Single Piece

To take job upto 5 Meter Dia x

FACING MACHINES
15 Meter

8
 Sub merged ARC Welding
Machines
WELDING MACHINES M.I.G. Welding Machines
T.I.G. Welding Machines
Welding Rectifiers

DRILL MACHINES To Drill upto 80 mm capacity

PLATE BENDING MACHINES 2500x55mm

- PLASMA Cutting Machine

CUTTING MACHINE & GAS CUTTING
- Profile Cutting Machine
EQUIPMENTS:
- Pug cutting machine

MOBILE CRANES & TRAILERS Upto 9.0 Ton capacity

9
QUALITY CONTOL IN MANUFACTURING

Quality control, or QC for short, is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors
involved in production. Using quality control in manufacturing ensures customers receive high
quality products.

2.1 QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING

In the rush to get products out the door quickly while minimizing cost and maximizing profit,
many manufacturers neglect the quality control testing of their products. The failure of some
companies to use a quality control system are well documented, as seen in product recalls from
Toyota, Firestone and other large manufacturers. Even the great Titanic suffered from quality-
control issues; many believe she sank so quickly in part because of faulty rivets weakening the
part of the hull that collided with the iceberg.

In manufacturing, quality control is a process used to ensure products meet a company's quality
requirements before they are sold into the external market. Quality control in manufacturing
emphasizes the importance of thoroughly examining and testing the quality of products to find
defects. Companies that use quality control in manufacturing processes typically have a team of
workers who focus on testing a certain number of products at random to determine whether they
meet the company's standards.

2.2 BENEFITS OF USING QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING

The most obvious beneficiary of quality control is the customer, who receives a high-quality
product. This in turn benefits the company by ensuring customer satisfaction, which leads to repeat
business, customer loyalty, and spreading the word about the quality of the company's product.
Therefore, quality control in manufacturing pays off for a company in both reputation and revenue.

Companies with quality control procedures in place are far less likely to face product recalls or
safety hazards from poorly constructed products. The cost associated with these recalls can be
steep: In 2009, Toyota had to recall 12.4 million cars for sticky gas pedals and floor mats that
could jam accelerators, at a cost of approximately $2 billion. This could have been avoided had
quality control been properly implemented.
10
2.3 INCORRECT IMPLEMENTATION OF QUALITY CONTROL IN
MANUFACTURING

Quality control in manufacturing is usually performed at the end of the production process, before
products go out to other companies or consumers. This approach has limited effectiveness, because
defects are uncovered only after the product is ready to be packaged or shipped. Therefore, time
and resources are wasted creating defective products.

2.4 USING QUALITY ASSURANCE WITH QUALITY CONTROL IN

MANUFACTURING

The aim of quality assurance is to streamline a production process such that finished products are
more likely to meet the company's quality criteria. The difference between quality control and
quality assurance is that quality control evaluates the finished product, while quality assurance
ensures the manufacturing process will produce high quality products. Quality assurance can be
combined with quality control to avoid the limitations of using only quality control in
manufacturing.

2.5 QUALITY CONTROL, QUALITY ASSURANCE AND LEAN

MANUFACTURING

Companies that use quality assurance to prevent problems during production and quality control
as a final check before distribution will benefit by wasting less resources. This is a component of
lean manufacturing, which aims to get rid of any part of the production process that is unnecessary,
resulting in a more efficient production process. By using both quality assurance and quality
control, a company can guarantee they are sending out the highest quality products possible while
saving time and money because of gains in efficiency.

11
2.6 HOW TO IMPLEMENT QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING

Quality assurance along the manufacturing process should adequately prevent defective products.
However, a quality control process should still be in place as a final check for product quality. To
implement an effective quality control program, a company should first decide which quality
standards the product is required to meet. Then, management must select what percent of each
batch of products will be tested for quality. Next, designated employees will test the products and
report the results to management. Product quality testing methods will vary greatly depending on
the type of products the company manufactures.

If defective products are found, management must decide whether to repair or reject those
products. If a large percentage of products have defects, management will bring production to a
halt until whatever is causing the problem is corrected. They will look over the quality assurance
process and see why the problem was not prevented. Management must ensure the quality
assurance and quality control in manufacturing processes are ongoing to ensure all defects have
been fixed and to detect new product defects as they come.

Some of the instruments used for checking the quality of products are :

Vernier Caliper
Micrometer
Poldi Hardness Tester
Bevel Protactor
Non Destructive Testing

12
VERNIER CALIPER

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A vernier scale is a device that lets the user measure more precisely than could be done by reading
a uniformly-divided straight or circular measurement scale. It is scale that indicates where the
measurement lies in between two of the marks on the main scale. Verniers are common on sextants
used in navigation, scientific instruments used to conduct experiments, machinists' measuring
tools (all sorts, but especially calipers and micrometers) used to work materials to fine tolerances,
and on theodolites used in surveying.

FIG. 1 READING ON VERNIER SCALE

An enlarged view of the above caliper shows it has a resolutionor precisionof 0.02 mm. The
reading is 3.58 mm. The 3 mm is read off from the upper (fixed) data scale. The 0.58 mm is
obtained from the lower (sliding) indicating scale at the point of closest alignment between the
two scales. The superimposed red markings show where the readings are taken.
Note In this photograph, parallax error makes it unclear whether the correct value is 0.58 mm or
0.60 mm

13
3.2 PARTS OF VERNIER CALIPER

FIG. 2 PARTS
OF VERNIER CALIPER

1. Outside large jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object

2. Inside small jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole
4. Main scale: scale marked every mm
5. Main scale: scale marked in inches and fractions
6. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better
7. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch
8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of a measurement

3.3 LEAST COUNT

The least count or the smallest reading which you can get with the instrument can be
calculated as;

9.
10. or

11.
12. First calculate the least count and only then place the object between the two jaws.

14
13. Record the position of zero of the Vernier scale on the main scale.

3.4 USE

FIG. 3 USING A VERNIER CALIPER

Vernier scale use 0.02 scale measurement is 19.44 mm

The main use of the vernier caliper is to measure the internal and the external diameters of
an object. To measure using a vernier scale, the user first reads the finely marked "fixed"
scale (in the diagram). This measure is typically between two of the scale's smallest
graduations. The user then reads the finer vernier scale (see diagram), which measures
between the smallest graduations on the fixed scaleproviding much greater accuracy.

15
3.5 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1:

FIG. 4 EXAMPLES OF USING A VERNIER CALIPER

3.6 ZERO ERROR

The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula: 'actual
reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error)'. Zero error may arise due to knocks that
cause the calibration at the 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching
each other.

FIG.5 POSITIVE ZERO ERROR

16
 when the jaws are closed and if the reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is referred to as
+0.10mm.The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the
formula 'actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error)' thus the actual
reading is 19.00 + 0.54 - (0.10) = 19.44 mm

Positive zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed,
the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00mm. If the reading is
0.10mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10mm.

FIG.6 NEGATIVE ZERO ERROR

when the jaws are closed and if the reading is -0.08mm, the zero error is referred to as
-0.08mm..The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the
formula 'actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error)' thus the actual
reading is 19.00 + 0.36 - (-0.08) = 19.44 mm

Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just
closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of 0.00mm. If the
reading is 0.08mm, the zero error is referred to as -0.08mm.

3.7 OTHER TYPES

3.7.1 DIAL CALIPER

FIG. 7 DIAL CALIPER

17
Instead of using a vernier mechanism, which requires some practice to use, the dial caliper reads
the final fraction of a millimeter or inch on a simple dial.

In this instrument, a small, precise rack and pinion drives a pointer on a circular dial, allowing
direct reading without the need to read a vernier scale. Typically, the pointer rotates once every
inch, tenth of an inch, or 1 millimeter. This measurement must be added to the coarse whole inches
or centimeters read from the slide. The dial is usually arranged to be rotatable beneath the pointer,
allowing for "differential" measurements (the measuring of the difference in size between two
objects, or the setting of the dial using a master object and subsequently being able to read directly
the plus-or-minus variance in size of subsequent objects relative to the master object).

The slide of a dial caliper can usually be locked at a setting using a small lever or screw; this allows
simple go/no-go checks of part sizes.

3.7.2 DIGITAL CALIPER

FIG.8 DIGITAL CALIPER

A refinement now popular is the replacement of the analog dial with an electronic digital
display on which the reading is displayed as a single value. Rather than a rack and pinion, they
have a linear encoder. Some digital calipers can be switched between centimeters or millimeters,
and inches. All provide for zeroing the display at any point along the slide, allowing the same sort
of differential measurements as with the dial caliper. Digital calipers may contain some sort of
"reading hold" feature, allowing the reading of dimensions even in awkward locations where the
display cannot be seen. Ordinary 6-in/150-mm digital calipers are made of stainless steel, have a
rated accuracy of 0.001 in (0.02mm) and resolution of 0.0005 in (0.01 mm). [9] The same

18
technology is used to make longer 8-in and 12-in calipers; the accuracy for bigger measurements
declines to 0.001 in (0.03 mm) for 100200 mm and 0.0015 in (0.04 mm) for 200300 mm.[10]

Many digital calipers are inexpensive and perform reasonably well. One point worth noting is
battery current when they are turned off. Many calipers do not stop drawing power when the switch
is in the off position; they shut down the display but continue drawing nearly as much current. The
current may be as much as 20 microamperes,[11] which is much higher than many established
brands. Sometimes calipers may not work properly when the battery voltage has dropped relatively
little; silver cells, preferably selected from a datasheet to have a constant voltage for most of their
life, may give a much longer usable life than alkaline button cells (e.g., SR44 instead of LR44).

19
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques

used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without
causing damage. The terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection (NDI),
and Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology.
Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable
technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research.

Nondestructive evaluation covers a wide group of analysis techniques used to evaluate the
properties of a material, part, product, weld, or system without causing damage.
NDT does not damage or permanently alter the article being inspected, which makes it a valuable
technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research.
Common NDT methods include ultrasonic or UT, magnetic-particle or MT, liquid penetrant or
PT, radiographic inspection or RT, visual inspection or VT, and eddy-current testing. NDT is a
commonly-used tool in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil
engineering, systems engineering, aerospace and aeronautical engineering, and medical
applications.

4.2 ULTRASONIC TESTING

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based in the propagation
of ultrasonicwaves in the object or material tested. In most common UT applications, very short
ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to
50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials. A
common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the thickness of the test object,
for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.

20
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be
used onconcrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is used in many industries
including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.

4.2.1 HOW IT WORKS

FIG. 9 ULTRASONIC TESTING

At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline weld for defects using an ultrasonic phased
array instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame with magnetic wheels, holds the probe in
contact with the pipe by a spring. The wet area is the ultrasonic couplant that allows the sound to
pass into the pipe wall.

FIG. 10 INTERPRETING THE RESULT OF UT

Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing spline cracking

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over

the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant

21
 (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted
with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and attenuation. In
reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the
pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an
interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object. The
diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing
the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In
attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface,
and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling
through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and
receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant
increases the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to
separation between the surfaces.

4.3 MORE INFORMATION ON NDT TEST METHODS

Radiography or RT: Using radioactive isotope (x-rays or gamma rays) a film is created, which
we process in our laboratory or mobile darkroom. The results show defects which might
otherwise be invisible. A vast array of material can be examined this efficient and reliable way
ranging from tiny electronic components to 20' freestanding concrete slabs.
Magnetic Particle or MT: For ferromagnetic materials such as castings, weldments, turbine
components, forgings, and machined or stamped parts, this is one of the most sensitive
nondestructive examinations. The sample is magnetized, and iron filings are applied, which
adhere to any breaks in the magnetic field. Defects too small to be visible can be further
examined with fluorescent inspection.
Liquid Penetrant or Dye Penetrant Inspection: Element scientists and technicians apply dye
to a sample and then examine it visually or under fluorescent light to locate defects. This is a
quick, economical NDT test method and easily set up in the field with our portable equipment.
Ultrasonic Inspection or UT: With this method, NDT inspectors only need access to one side
of a material. A transducer sends the ultrasound through the sample and the inner wall of a
22
 defect surface will send the wave bouncing back. Ultrasonic testing can also measure thickness,
detect corrosion, and examine groove welds, and its also very portable and efficient.
Eddy Current Inspection: A flow of periodic electrical currents in conductors called probes
creates varying electromagnetic fields. These probes are placed in close proximity to the
surfaces of the test materials, and can detect effects of processing and shaping operations during
production, as well as corrosion damage or cracking for most nonmagnetic metals and alloys.
Eddy current is a cost-effective and portable NDT method.
Visual Inspection or VT: Element Visual Inspectors receive specialized training to employ a
number of high-tech devices, including a Charge-Coupled Device (an advanced imaging and
color chip system) and a joystick-driven 50-foot long Steer Probe for very tight access, as well
as training on advanced computer programs that accurately measure defects, voids, pits,
corrosion, and wear, and store this information on a variety of media.
Positive Material Identification or PMI: Positive Material Identification (PMI) is the
identification and analysis of various metal alloys by their chemical composition through
nondestructive methods. PMI can be conducted on-site or in the laboratory.

23
 4.4 APPLICATION
4.4.1 WELD VERIFICATION

FIG.11 WELD VERIFICATION USING UT

1. Section of material with a surface-breaking crack that is not visible to the naked eye.
2. Penetrant is applied to the surface.
2. Excess penetrant is removed.
3. Developer is applied, rendering the crack visible.

In manufacturing, welds are commonly used to join two or more metal parts. Because these
connections may encounter loads andfatigue during product lifetime, there is a chance that they
may fail if not created to proper specification. For example, the base metal must reach a certain
temperature during the welding process, must cool at a specific rate, and must be welded with
compatible materials or the joint may not be strong enough to hold the parts together, or cracks
may form in the weld causing it to fail. The typical welding defects (lack of fusion of the weld to
the base metal, cracks or porosity inside the weld, and variations in weld density) could cause a
structure to break or a pipeline to rupture.

Welds may be tested using NDT techniques such as industrial radiography or industrial CT
scanning using X-rays or gamma rays,ultrasonic testing, liquid penetrant testing, magnetic
particle inspection or via eddy current. In a proper weld, these tests would indicate a lack of cracks

24
in the radiograph, show clear passage of sound through the weld and back, or indicate a clear
surface without penetrant captured in cracks.

Welding techniques may also be actively monitored with acoustic emission techniques before
production to design the best set of parameters to use to properly join two materials.[6] In the case
of high stress or safety critical welds, weld monitoring will be employed to confirm the specified
welding parameters (arc current,arc voltage, travel speed, heat input etc.) are being adhered to
those stated in the welding procedure. This verifies the weld as correct to procedure prior to
nondestructive evaluation and metallurgy tests.

4.4.2 STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Structure can be complex systems that undergo different loads during their lifetime. Some complex
structures, such as the turbo machinery in a liquid-fuel rocket, can also cost millions of dollars.
Engineers will commonly model these structures as coupled second-order systems, approximating
dynamic structure components with springs, masses, and dampers. The resulting sets of
differential equations are then used to derive a transfer function that models the behavior of the
system.

In NDT, the structure undergoes a dynamic input, such as the tap of a hammer or a controlled
impulse. Key properties, such as displacement or acceleration at different points of the structure,
are measured as the corresponding output. This output is recorded and compared to the
corresponding output given by the transfer function and the known input. Differences may indicate
an inappropriate model (which may alert engineers to unpredicted instabilities or performance
outside of tolerances), failed components, or an inadequate control system.

25
UNIVERSAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A protractor is a rectangular, square, circular or semicircular measuring instrument, typically

made of transparent plastic or glass, for measuring angles. Most protractors measure angles
in degrees (). Radian-scale protractors measure angles in radians.

They are used for a variety of mechanical and engineering-related applications, but perhaps the
most common use is in geometry lessons in schools.

Some protractors are simple half-discs. More advanced protractors, such as the bevel protractor,
have one or two swinging arms, which can be used to help measure the angle.

A bevel protractor is a graduated circular protractor with one pivoted arm; used for measuring or
marking off angles. Sometimes Vernier scales are attached to give more precise readings. It has
wide application in architectural and mechanical drawing, although its use is decreasing with the
availability of modern drawing software or CAD.

Universal bevel protractors are also used by toolmakers; as they measure angles by mechanical
contact they are classed as mechanical protractors. The bevel protractor is used to establish and
test angles to very close tolerances. It reads to 5 minutes or 1/12and can measure any angle from
0 to 360.

The bevel protractor consists of a beam, a graduated dial and a blade which is connected to a swivel
plate (with Vernier scale) by thumb nut and clamp. When the edges of the beam and blade are
parallel, a small mark on the swivel plate coincides with the zero line on the graduated dial. To
measure an angle between the beam and the blade of 90 or less, the reading may be obtained
direct from the graduation number on the dial indicated by the mark on the swivel plate. To
measure an angle of over 90, subtract the number of degrees as indicated on the dial from 180,
as the dial is graduated from opposite zero marks to 90 each way.

26
Since the spaces, both on the main scale and the Vernier scale, are numbered both to the right and
to the left from zero, any angle can be measured. The readings can be taken either to the right or
to the left, according to the direction in which the zero on the main scale is moved.

The above picture illustrates a variety of uses of the bevel protractor.

5.2 READING THE VERNIER SCALE

The bevel protractor Vernier scale may have graduations of 5 (minutes) or 1/12. Each space on
the Vernier scale is 5 less than two spaces on the main scale]. Twenty four spaces on the Vernier
scale equal in extreme length twenty three double degrees]. Thus the difference between the space
occupied by 2 on a main scale and the space of the Vernier scale is equal to one twenty-fourth of
2, or 5.

Read off directly from the main scale the number of whole degrees between 0 on this scale and the
0 of the Vernier scale. Then count, in the same direction, the number of spaces from the zero on
the Vernier scale to a line that coincides with a line on the main scale; multiply this number by 5
and the product will be the number of minutes to be added to the whole number of degrees.

For example: Zero on the vernier scale has moved 28 whole degrees to the right of the 0 on the
main scale and the 3rd line on the vernier scale coincides with a line upon the main scale as
indicated. Multiplying 3 by 5, the product, 15, is the number of minutes to be added to the whole
number of degrees, thus indicating a setting of 28 degrees and 15 minutes.

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POLDI HARDNESS TESTER

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The Poldi Hardness tester is one of the portable hardness testers.The indentation is obtained on the
test surface by striking a ball which also produces indendation on the standard bar .The diameter
of the indentation on the test surface and the standard bar are correlated in the manufacturers table
and the hardness number is measured in BHN.

FIG. 12 POLDI HARDNESS TESTER

6.2 FEATURES :

The hammer type Poldi Hardness Tester is suitable for measuring the Brinell Hardness of Steel,
Cast Iron , Brass Aluminium , Copper etc. This Poldi Hardness Tester is useful to test parts where
bench type model is not useful . This type of machine is most ideal and simple for
foundries,workshops,colleges,Technical Institutions etc.

6.3 PRINCIPLE

Load is applied by a hammer blow on the specimen and a standard test bar in linear direction
through a hardened stell ball of dia 10 mm . The impact load on both is the same .The extent of
indentation on the specimen and the test bar depends on their hardness .The two diameters of
indentations on test bar and specimen are measured by a magnifier supplied along with the tester.
The hardness of the specimen can be determined by referring got the chart supplied with the
machine

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6.4 TECHNICAL DATA :

Hardened Steel Ball :- 10 mm dia , fixed in a special holder with a spring loaded plunger

6.5 DIRECTIONS FOR USE OF POLDI HARDNESS TESTER MODEL

Insert the tapered end of the standard test bar after cleaning into the space provided between the
ball and the plunger and slide it further beyond the tapered position.The test bar will thus be firmly
gripped between the ball and the plunger pressed by a spring . The specimen to be tested be
properly ground or filed and polished at the surface where it is to be tested to ensure accurate
readings ,With standard test bar inserted . Place the tester vertically on the specimen such that the
ball touches the polished surface. Give a blow on the top of the plunger , with a hammer .

The blow should not be very hard and should be as vertical as possible . The blow will cause two
indentations , one on the standard test bar and the other on the specimen .The diameters of these
two indentations should be measured accurately with magnifier having , least count of 0.1 mm
provided with the machine . If the indentations so obtained are slightly elliptical , average diameter
should be found out . The distance between the centers of any two indentations on standard test
bar should be less than 15 mm. If the bar is fully utilized it has to be replaced . The limiting
indentation diameter on the standard test bar is 2.4mm .

SPECIFICATION OF POLDI TESTER

MATERIAL : ALLOY STEEL EN-8 OR EN-9

DIA : 30 MM
LENGTH : 85 MM

TUNGSTON CARBIDE BALL

DIA 10 MM

POLDI BAR

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 ALOOY STEEL EN-8 OR EN-9 OR
MATERIAL :
CARBEN STEEL- WPS
SIZE : 12mm x 12mm x 150mm
EYE PIECE : 8X
BRINELL MICROSCOPE 25 X (OPTIONAL AT EXTRA COST)

Tensile strength and Brinell Hardness Numbers of various metals can be found as under :

STEELS

The booklet contains 2 tables , one for steel in natural of annealed state and the other for steels in
hardened or hardened and tempered state . It is necessary to know the condition of specimens
before and if , however it is not known or cannot be determined then first tables for natural or
annealed steels be used for specimens having Brinell hardness of upto 360 . When the hardness of
the specimen exceeds 360 , the other tables are to be used .

OTHER METALS

Separate Tables have been provided for other metals , e.g . Brass , copper , aluminium , bronze
and cast iron. These tables do not show the tensile strength of these metals but only the Brinell
hardness number

6.6 PROCEDURE

After measuring the actual dia of indentation on standard test bar the column Dia of indentation
on standard test bar should be referred for the same value and for actual dia of indentation on
work piece the raw Dia of indentation on work piece should be referred .Where the horizontal
and vertical columns intersect the tensile strength in tones per sq. in (the upper figures ) and the
Brinell Hardness Numbers (the lower figures) can be read . To convert tensile strength from
tons/sq. in to kg/sq.mm use a multiplying factor of 1.575.

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6.7 EXAMPLE

Diameter of ball indentation :-

On the test bar 1.8mm.

On the specimen (steel in natural condition ) 1.7mm

Tensile Strength found from table is 50.8 tone/sq. inch after multiplying with 1.575 to convert
in to kg/sq. mm comes to 80 kg/sq.mm

Brinell Hardness Number found from tables 225 BHN

Multiplying factor inscribed on standard test bar :1.14. Therefore, the tensile strength of
specimen is 80*1.14=91.20kg/sq.mm and the Brinell hardness =225*1.14=256.5 BHN . When
after some use , the protruding end of the plunger gets deformed by blows , it may be
reconditioned and rounded off again or simply be replaced.

The Poldi Impact Hardness Tester has the advantage of easy handling and greater flexibility.

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 MICROMETER

7.1 INTRODUCTION

FIG.13 MODERN MICROMETER

A micrometer , sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporating a

calibrated screw widely used for precise measurement of components[1] in mechanical
engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades, along with
other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers. Micrometers are usually,
but not always, in the form of calipers (opposing ends joined by a frame), which is
why micrometer caliper is another common name. The spindle is a very accurately machined
screw and the object to be measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is
moved by turning the ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched by
both the spindle and the anvil.

7.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Micrometers use the principle of a screw to amplify small distances (that are too small to measure
directly) into large rotations of the screw that are big enough to read from a scale. The accuracy of
a micrometer derives from the accuracy of the thread-forms that are at its heart. In some cases it is
a differential screw. The basic operating principles of a micrometer are as follows:

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 1. The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw can be directly and precisely correlated
to a certain amount of axial movement (and vice versa), through the constant known as the
screw's lead (/lid/). A screw's lead is the distance it moves forward axially with one
complete turn (360). (In most threads [that is, in all single-start
threads], lead and pitch refer to essentially the same concept.)
2. With an appropriate lead and major diameter of the screw, a given amount of axial
movement will be amplified in the resulting circumferential movement.

For example, if the lead of a screw is 1 mm, but the major diameter (here, outer diameter) is 10 mm,
then the circumference of the screw is 10, or about 31.4 mm. Therefore, an axial movement of
1 mm is amplified (magnified) to a circumferential movement of 31.4 mm. This amplification
allows a small difference in the sizes of two similar measured objects to correlate to a larger
difference in the position of a micrometer's thimble. In some micrometers, even greater accuracy
is obtained by using a differential screw adjuster to move the thimble in much smaller increments
than a single thread would allow.

In classic-style analog micrometers, the position of the thimble is read directly from scale markings
on the thimble and shaft. A vernier scale is often included, which allows the position to be read to
a fraction of the smallest scale mark. In digital micrometers, an electronic readout displays the
length digitally on an LCD display on the instrument.

7.3 PARTS :

The different parts of a micrometer are shown in figure

FIG.14 PARTS OF A MICROMETER

7.4 READING

7.4.1 IMPERIAL SYSTEM

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 Micrometer thimble showing 0.276 inch

FIG. 15 READING A IMPERIAL SYSTEM

The spindle of an imperial micrometer has 40 threads per inch, so that one turn moves the spindle
axially 0.025 inch (1 40 = 0.025), equal to the distance between two graduations on the frame.
The 25 graduations on the thimble allow the 0.025 inch to be further divided, so that turning the
thimble through one division moves the spindle axially 0.001 inch (0.025 25 = 0.001). Thus, the
reading is given by the number of whole divisions that are visible on the scale of the frame,
multiplied by 25 (the number of thousandths of an inch that each division represents), plus the
number of that division on the thimble which coincides with the axial zero line on the frame. The
result will be the diameter expressed in thousandths of an inch. As the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., appear
below every fourth sub-division on the frame, indicating hundreds of thousandths, the reading can
easily be taken.

Suppose the thimble were screwed out so that graduation 2, and three additional sub-divisions,
were visible (as shown in the image), and that graduation 1 on the thimble coincided with the axial
line on the frame. The reading would then be 0.2000 + 0.075 + 0.001, or .276 inch.

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7.4.2 METRIC SYSTEM

Micrometer thimble reading 5.78mm

FIG.16 READING A METRIC SYSTEM

The spindle of an ordinary metric micrometer has 2 threads per millimetre, and thus one complete
revolution moves the spindle through a distance of 0.5 millimeter. The longitudinal line on the
frame is graduated with 1 millimetre divisions and 0.5 millimetre subdivisions. The thimble has
50 graduations, each being 0.01 millimetre (one-hundredth of a millimetre). Thus, the reading is
given by the number of millimetre divisions visible on the scale of the sleeve plus the particular
division on the thimble which coincides with the axial line on the sleeve.

Suppose that the thimble were screwed out so that graduation 5, and one additional 0.5 subdivision
were visible (as shown in the image), and that graduation 28 on the thimble coincided with the
axial line on the sleeve. The reading then would be 5.00 + 0.5 + 0.28 = 5.78 mm.

7.4.3 VERNIER

Micrometer sleeve (with vernier) reading 5.783mm

FIG. 17 READING A VERNIER SCALE

35
Some micrometers are provided with a vernier scale on the sleeve in addition to the regular
graduations. These permit measurements within 0.001 millimetre to be made on metric
micrometers, or 0.0001 inches on inch-system micrometers.

The additional digit of these micrometers is obtained by finding the line on the sleeve vernier scale
which exactly coincides with one on the thimble. The number of this coinciding vernier line
represents the additional digit.

Thus, the reading for metric micrometers of this type is the number of whole millimetres (if any)
and the number of hundredths of a millimetre, as with an ordinary micrometer, and the number of
thousandths of a millimetre given by the coinciding vernier line on the sleeve vernier scale.

For example, a measurement of 5.783 millimetres would be obtained by reading 5.5 millimetres
on the sleeve, and then adding 0.28 millimetre as determined by the thimble. The vernier would
then be used to read the 0.003 (as shown in the image).

Inch micrometers are read in a similar fashion.

Note: 0.01 millimetre = 0.000393 inch, and 0.002 millimetre = 0.000078 inch (78 millionths) or
alternatively, 0.0001 inch = 0.00254 millimetres. Therefore, metric micrometers provide smaller
measuring increments than comparable inch unit micrometersthe smallest graduation of an
ordinary inch reading micrometer is 0.001 inch; the vernier type has graduations down to
0.0001 inch (0.00254 mm). When using either a metric or inch micrometer, without a vernier,
smaller readings than those graduated may of course be obtained by visual interpolation between
graduations.

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 REFERENCES

1. www.chanderpurLtd.co.in
2. www.howstuffworks.com
3. www.freshersworld.com
4. Brochures, Lectures and study material given by Chanderpur Works Pvt. Ltd.

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