Solar Energy Chap5

Chapter 5: Solar Energy
Dr. Imad Khatib

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birzeit University
First, 2012/2013
Solar Energy Concept: Energy from Sun
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at
the upper atmosphere.
Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds,
oceans and land masses.
The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible
and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises
their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
causing atmospheric circulation or convection.
When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor
condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water
cycle.
The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric

phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones.
Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average
temperature of 14 C.
By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which
produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year.
Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass.

The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one
year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-
renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly
depending on distance from the equator.
Below Table shows the yearly solar fluxes and human energy consumption:
Flux and Use Magnitude in EJ

Solar 3,850,000
Wind 2,250
Biomass 3,000
Primary energy use (2005) 487
Electricity (2005) 56.7
Solar Energy Concept: Energy Balance
Solar Energy Distribution on Land Areas
Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply
with solar electricity. 18 TW [=568 Exajoule (EJ)] per year.
Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2 or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m2/day.
Solar Energy Applications
Agriculture and
horticulture Heating, cooling and
Photovoltaic (PV) ventilation
Solar lighting
Water treatment
Concentrated solar power

(Heliostat)
Water heating
Cooking
Solar Energy Analysis, Introduction
Solar energy is defined as that radiant energy transmitted by the sun and
intercepted by earth.
It is transmitted through space to earth by electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths ranging between 0.20 and 15 m. The availability of solar flux for
terrestrial applications varies with season, time of day, location, and collecting surface
orientation. In this chapter we shall treat these matters analytically.
Two motions of the earth relative to the sun are important in determining the
intensity of solar flux at any time:
The earths rotation about its axis, and
The annual motion of the earth and its axis about the sun. below.
The earth rotates about its axis once in a day called. Hence the definition of a Solar
Day is the time that elapses between two successive crossings of the local meridian
by the sun.
The local meridian at any point is the plane formed by projecting a northsouth
longitude line through the point out into space from the center of the earth.
The length of a solar day on the average is slightly less than 24 hour, owing to the
forward motion of the earth in its solar orbit. Any given day will also differ from the
average day owing to orbital eccentricity, axis precession, and other secondary effects
embodied in the equation of time described below.
The earths orbit about the sun is elliptical with eccentricity of 0.0167. This results in
variation of solar flux on the outer atmosphere of about 7% over the course of a year.
Of more importance is the variation of solar intensity caused by the inclination of the
earths axis relative to the ecliptic plane of the earths orbit. The angle between the
ecliptic plane and the earths equatorial plane is 23.45o.
The earths motion is quantified by two angles varying with season and time of day.
First: The angle varying on a seasonal basis that is used to characterize the
earths location in its orbit is called the solar declination. It is the angle between
the earthsun line and the equatorial plane. The declination s is taken to be
positive when the earthsun line is north of the equator and negative otherwise.
The declination varies between 23.45o on the summer solstice (June 21 or 22) and
23.45o on the winter solstice (December 21 or 22).
The declination angel is given by the equation:
Where, N is the day number counted from 1st January as 1.

Second: the angle used to locate the sun, which is called the solar-hour angle.
Its value is based on the nominal 360o rotation of the earth occurring in 24 hour.
Therefore, 1 hr is equivalent to an angle of 15o. The hour angle is measured from
zero at solar noon. It is denoted by hs and is positive before solar noon and
negative after noon in accordance with the right-hand rule.
hs = 15(12 h)
For example: 2:00 PM corresponds to hs=30o

and 7:00 AM corresponds to hs=75o.
Another parameter used for solar energy calculation is the solar time, as
determined by the position of the sun, and clock time is variable and differ for two
reasons.
First, the length of a day varies because of the ellipticity of the earths orbit; and
Second, standard time is determined by the standard meridian passing through
the approximate center of each time zone.
Any position away from the standard meridian has a difference between solar and
clock time given by [(local longitude - standard meridian longitude) / 15] in units of
hours. Therefore, solar time and local standard time (LST) are related by:
In unit hour, and EoT is the Equation of Time expressed in hours as:
And the parameter x is given by:

Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Position
The sun is imagined to move on the celestial sphere, an imaginary surface centered
at the earths center and having a large but unspecified radius.
Since the sun moves on a spherical surface, two angles are sufficient to locate the
sun at any instant. The two most commonly used angles are:
The solar-altitude angle (), and
Azimuth angle (as).
Occasionally, the solar-zenith angle, defined as the complement of the altitude

angle, is used instead of the altitude angle.
The solar-altitude angle is related to the previously defined declination and hour
angles by:
in which L is the latitude, taken positive for sites north of the equator and negative for
sites south of the equator.
The solar-azimuth angle is given by:
To find the value of as, the location of the sun relative to the eastwest line through the
site must be known. This is accounted for by the following two expressions for the
azimuth angle:
Where typical values of altitude (L) and azimuth (as) angles for different latitudes are
listed in Tables (will be uploaded on Ritaj)
Diagram showing solar-altitude angle and solar-azimuth angle as:

Solar Energy Analysis, Sunrise and
Sunset
Sunrise and sunset occur when the altitude angle =0.
This occurs when the center of the sun intersects the horizon plane. The hour
angle for sunrise (hsr) and sunset (hss) can be found by equating solar- to zero. If
this is done, the hour angles for sunrise and sunset are found to by equating solar
azimuth angle equation to ZERO.
=0
Then, the hour angles of the for sunrise and sunset are found to be:
Solar Energy Analysis, Sunrise and
Sunset
Example: The Equinoxes
The path of the sun for the solstices and the equinoxes (length of day and night are
both 12 hr on the equinoxes). This drawing indicates the very different azimuth and
altitude angles that occur at different times of year at identical clock times. The
sunrise and sunset hour angles can be read from the figures where the sun paths
intersect the horizon plane.
E.g. Sun paths for the summer solstice (6/21), the equinoxes (3/21 and 9/21), and the winter solstice
(12/21) for a site at 40 N.
Isometric View
Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Incident
Angle
For a number of reasons, many solar collection surfaces do not directly face the sun
continuously.
The angle between the sunearth line and the normal to any surface is called the
incidence angle (i).
The intensity of off-normal solar radiation is proportional to the cosine of the

incidence angle.
Example, the figure shows a fixed planar surface with solar radiation intersecting the
plane at the incidence angle i measured relative to the surface normal. The intensity of
flux at the surface is Ib cos i, where Ib is the beam radiation along the sunearth line;
Ib is called the direct, normal radiation. For a fixed surface such as that in Fig. 5 facing
the equator, the incidence angle is given by
Angle
Example, the figure shows a fixed planar surface with solar radiation intersecting the
plane at the incidence angle i measured relative to the surface normal. The intensity of
flux at the surface is Ib x cos i, where Ib is the beam radiation along the sunearth
line; Ib is called the direct, normal radiation. For a fixed surface facing the equator, the
incidence angle is given by:
Where, aw = the wall azimuth angle, and

= the surface tilt angle relative to
the horizontal plane,
= Solar altitude angle,
For fixed surface facing due south;

Angle
A large class of solar collectors move in some fashion to track the suns diurnal
motion, thereby improving the capture of solar energy. This is accomplished by
reduced incidence angles for properly tracking surfaces vis-a-vis a fixed surface for
which large incidence angles occur in the early morning and late afternoon (for
generally equator-facing surfaces).
Solar Energy Analysis, Solar Flux
Quantification
The effect of weather on solar energy availability cannot be analyzed theoretically; it is
therefore, necessary to rely on historical weather reports and empirical correlations for
calculations of actual solar flux, this is done using the following terms:
1. Extraterrestrial Solar Flux: the flux intensity at the edge of the atmosphere can
be calculated strictly from geometric considerations if the direct-normal intensity is
known. Solar flux incident on a terrestrial surface, which has traveled from sun to
earth with negligible change in direction, is called beam radiation and is denoted
by Ib,0.
The extraterrestrial value of Ib averaged over a year is called the solar constant,
denoted by Isc. Its value is 429 Btu/hr.ft2 or 1353 W/m2. Owing to the eccentricity
of the earths orbit, however, the extraterrestrial beam radiation intensity varies
from this mean solar constant value. The variation of Ib,0 over the year is given by:
Quantification
The instantaneous solar flux on a horizontal, extraterrestrial surface is given by:
And the daily total horizontal radiation denoted by Io is given by the integration;
The monthly averaged, horizontal, extraterrestrial solar flux is denoted by;

Quantification
Solar Incidence Angle Equations for Tracking Collectors
Quantification
Average Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface in SI Units and in
English Units Based on a Solar Constant of 429 Btu/hr.ft2 or 1.353 kW/m2
Quantification
2. Terrestrial Solar Flux
Values of instantaneous or average terrestrial solar flux cannot be predicted
accurately owing to the complexity of atmospheric processes that alter solar flux
magnitudes and directions relative to their extraterrestrial values. Air pollution,
clouds of many types, precipitation, and humidity all affect the values of solar flux
incident on earth. Rather than attempting to predict solar availability accounting
for these complex effects, one uses long-term historical records of terrestrial solar
flux for design purposes.
3. Hourly Solar Flux Conversions

Measured, horizontal solar flux consists of both beam and diffuse radiation
components. Diffuse radiation is that scattered by atmospheric processes; it
intersects surfaces from the entire sky dome, not just from the direction of the
sun. Separating the beam and diffuse components of measured, horizontal
radiation is the key difficulty in using NWS measurements.
Quantification
beam
Schematic drawing of a pyranometer

used for measuring the intensity of total
(beam plus diffuse) solar radiation.
Quantification
The recommended method for finding the beam component of total (i.e., beam plus
diffuse) radiation is by using the parameter kT, which is called the clearness index
and defined as the ratio of terrestrial to extraterrestrial hourly flux on a horizontal
surface, and given by;
Where Ih is the measured, total horizontal flux.
The beam component of the terrestrial flux is then given by the empirical equation;
in which the empirical constants a and b

are given in the Table->
Quantification
Having found the beam radiation, the horizontal diffuse component Id,h is found by
the simple difference;
The separate values of horizontal beam and diffuse radiation can be used to find
radiation on any surface by applying appropriate geometric tilt factors to each
component and forming the sum accounting for any radiation reflected from the
foreground.
The beam radiation incident on any surface is simply Ib cos i. If one assumes that
the diffuse component is isotropically distributed over the sky dome, the amount
intercepted by any surface tilted at an angle is Id.h cos2(/2).
The total beam and diffuse radiation intercepted by a surface Ic is then;
Where is the reflectance.

Quantification
4. Monthly Averaged, Daily Solar Flux Conversions
Most performance prediction methods make use of monthly averaged solar flux
values. Horizontal flux data are readily available (see the appendix), but monthly
values on arbitrarily positioned surfaces must be calculated using a method
similar to that previously described for hourly tilted surface calculations. The
monthly averaged flux on a tilted surface is given by;
in which is the monthly averaged, daily total of horizontal solar flux and is the
overall tilt factor given by the equation below for a fixed, equator-facing surface:
The ratio of monthly averaged diffuse to total flux is given by;

Quantification
in which is the monthly averaged clearness index analogous to the hourly
clearness index, and is given by;
where H0 is the monthly averaged, extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal

surface at the same latitude at which the terrestrial radiation was recorded. The
monthly averaged beam radiation tilt factor is;
The sunrise hour angle is found from equation and the value of hsr is the smaller
of (1) the sunrise hour angle hsr and (2) the collection surface sunrise hour angle
found by setting i = 90o in Eq. (11). That is, hsr is given by;
Quantification
Expressions for solar flux on a tracking surface on a monthly averaged basis are of
the form;
in which the tilt factors rT and rd are given in Table below.

Concentrator Tilt Factors2 (monthly averaged)
Solar Energy Measurements
Pyranometer: An instrument used to

measure global (beam or direct and diffuse)
solar radiation on a surface. This instrument
can also be used to measure the diffuse
radiation by blocking out the direct radiation
with a shadow band.
Pyrheliometer: This instrument is used to

measure only the direct solar radiation on a
surface normal to the incident beam. It is
generally used with a tracking mount to keep
it aligned with the sun.
Solar Radiation Data
Average Daily Total Solar Radiation (MJ/m2) on South-Facing Surfaces in Northern Hemisphere;
Latitude 30oN, with clearness number=1.0, and ground reflection=0.2.
Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors
Flat-Plate Collectors
Collectors that are capable of producing heat at
temperatures up to 100C.
Flat-plate collectors are so named since all
components are planar (figure).
From the top down it contains a glazing system;
normally one pane of glass, a dark colored metal
absorbing plate, insulation to the rear of the absorber,
and, finally, a metal or plastic weatherproof housing.
The glazing system is sealed to the housing to
prohibit the ingress of water, moisture, and dust.
The piping shown is thermally bonded to the
absorber plate and contains the working fluid by which
the heat produced is transferred to its end use. The
pipes shown are manifolded together so that one inlet
and one outlet connection, only, are present.
The energy produced by flat-plate collectors is the difference between the solar
flux absorbed by the absorber plate and that lost from it by convection and radiation
from the upper (or front) surface and that lost by conduction from the lower (or
back) surface.
The solar flux absorbed is the incident flux Ic multiplied by the glazing system
transmittance and by the absorber plate absorptance .
The heat lost from the absorber in steady state is given by an overall thermal
conductance Uc multiplied by the difference in temperature between the collector
absorber temperature Tc and the surrounding, ambient temperature Ta.
In equation form the net heat produced qu (called utilizable) is then:
Where, Uc , , and are characteristics of the collector independent of where or how

it is used.
Collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat produced to incident flux, i.e.;
Or by using the definition and rearranging, efficiency could be written as;
As collector plate temperature is difficult to measure in practice, it is commonly

possible to use fluid inlet temperature to collector (Tf,i) instead. And by introducing a
Removal Factor (FR) that accounts for the use of Tf,i, the efficiency is written as;
FR depends on the absorber plate thermal characteristics and heat loss conductance.
Efficiency can be plotted with the group of operational characteristics as the
independent variable as shown. The intercept of the efficiency curve is the optical
efficiency o= and the slope is -FRUc.
The glazing transmittance and absorber absorptance decrease with solar incidence
angle, then the efficiency curve migrates toward the origin with increasing incidence
angle, as shown in the figure.
The best-fit efficiency curve at normal incidence (i=0) is determined numerically by

a curve-fit method. The slope and intercept of the experimental curve, so determined,
are the preferred values of the collector parameters as opposed to those calculated
theoretically.
Improving Flat-Plate Collectors Efficiency

One method of improving efficiency is to reduce radiative heat loss from the
absorber surface.
This is commonly done by using a low emittance (in the infrared region) surface
having high absorptance for solar flux. Such surfaces are called (wavelength)
selective surface and are used on very many flat-plate collectors to improve
efficiency at elevated temperature.
Table below lists emittance and absorptance values for a number of common
selective surfaces. Black chrome is very reliable and cost effective.
Efficiencies for
different fluids and
selective surfaces:
o
Palestinian Flat-Plate collectors measured

efficiency: Neirokh Solar Collectors
Test o U U/o
(FR = 1) W/ m2 k W/m2 k Comments
Single collector 0.79 9.00 11.39 Measured
value
Tow in series 0.63 7.13 11.32 Theoretical
Tests conducted accordance to
value ASHRAE in the Renewable Energy
Tow in series 0.66 7.38 11.18 Measured and Environment Research Unit of
Palestine Polytechnic University.
value
o
Palestinian Thermal Storage measured

Performance: Neirokh Solar Collectors
Mixing Test
50
45
Temperature Difference
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
Ration of the Drawn-Off volum to the storage volume
Tests conducted accordance to

ASHRAE in the Renewable Energy
and Environment Research Unit of
Palestine Polytechnic University.
o
Palestinian Thermal Storage measured

Performance: Neirokh Solar Collectors
Draw-off Test
o
Concentrating Collectors
A method of improving the efficiency of solar collectors is to reduce the parasitic
heat loss by reducing the size of the absorber relative to the aperture area.
Relatively speaking, the area from which heat is lost is smaller than the heat
collection area and efficiency increases.
Collectors that focus sunlight onto a relatively small absorber can achieve excellent
efficiency at temperatures above which flat-plate collectors produce no net heat
output. The are called concentrating collectors.
A concentrating
collector type in
Parabolic trough
which the mirror is
Collector that
fixed and the
could track the
absorber pipe
sun by moving
moves to maintain
collector.
a focus on the
focal line.
o
Fresnel-type concentrators: in which the large reflector surface is subdivided into

several smaller, more easily fabricated and shipped segments. The smaller reflector
elements are easier to track and offer less wind resistance at windy sites; furthermore,
the smaller reflectors are less costly.
o
The useful heat produced Qu by any concentrator is given by;
in which the concentrator optical efficiency is 0, the aperture area is Aa, the receiver or
absorber area is Ar, and the absorber heat loss conductance
is Uc.
Collector efficiency can be found from;
The aperture area-receiver area ratio Aa /Ar >1 is called the geometric
concentration ratio CR. It is the factor by which absorber heat losses are reduced
relative to the aperture area:
o
Based on Flat-Plate collector, and by assigning Tf,i, efficiency could be expressed
as;
Where;
o
Concentrating Collectors: Other Designs
Paraboloidal dish
concentrator focuses
solar flux at a point
instead of along a
line as with trough
collectors.
As a result the
achievable For very large aperture areas it is impractical to
concentration ratios construct paraboloidal dishes consisting of a
are approximately single reflector. Instead the mirror is segmented
the square of what as shown.
can be realized with
single curvature, This collector system called the central receiver
trough collectors. has been used in several solar thermal power
plants in the 1- to 15-MW range. This power
production method is discussed in the next
section.
o
Concentrating Collectors (Module and Farm):

o
Concentrating Collectors Power Plant:

Solar Radiation, Non-thermal Collectors
The Photovoltaic (PV)
The principal on non-thermal solar conversion technology is based on the direct
conversion of solar flux into electric power.
This process, first demonstrated in the 1950s, holds considerable promise for
significant use.
Photovoltaic conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs in a thin layer of
semiconductor material exposed to solar flux.
Photons free electric charges, which flow through an external circuit to produce
useful work. The semiconductor materials used for solar cells are tailored to be able to
convert the majority of terrestrial solar flux; however, low-energy photons in the
infrared region are usually not usable.
The maximum theoretical conversion efficiency depends on PV materials used.
Each material has its own threshold band-gap energy, which is a weak function of
temperature.
The energy contained in a photon is E=h. If E is greater than the band-gap
energy, conversion can occur.
Light and Photovoltaic Effect:
Certain semiconductor materials absorb certain wavelengths
The shorter the wavelength the greater the energy
Ultraviolet light has more energy than infrared light
Crystalline silicon
Utilizes all the visible spectrum plus some infrared radiation
Heat vs. electrical energy
Light frequencies that is too high or too low for the semiconductor to absorb
turn into heat energy instead of electrical energy
Energy Conversion within a silicon cell:
When a photon of light hits a piece of silicon, three scenarios happens:
A photon that can pass straight through the silicon cell, where its energy is lower
than the band-gap energy of the silicon semiconductor.
A photons that is reflected off the silicon surface.
A photon that is absorbed by the silicon when its energy is greater than the band-
gap energy of silicon.
The absorbed photon gives its energy to an
electron in the crystal lattice. which "excites" it
into the conduction band, where it is free to
move around within the semiconductor. The
movement of the electron produce a hole, which
allows other electron from neighboring atoms to
move into the "hole," leaving another hole
behind, and in this way a hole can move through
the lattice.
Photons that are absorbed by the silicon when its energy is greater than the band-
gap energy of silicon.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band-gap in order to excite
an electron into the conduction band.
However, the solar frequency spectrum approximates a black body spectrum at
~6000 K, and as such, much of the solar radiation reaching the earth is composed of
photons with energies greater than the band-gap of silicon.
These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in
energy between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via
lattice vibrations - called phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy.
A PV cell is made of Silicon as it is abundant (sand), non-toxic and safe material.
Silicon PC cell is made of Wafers, very similar to computer chip but much bigger
and much cheaper.
Manufacturing a PV Cell
Silicon wafer ingots

of different sizes:
1, 2, 3, 5
Manufacturing a PV Cell
A PV Cell
The PV System
Benefits of Solar Energy:
The sun is an infinite source of energy,
Silicon is the raw material which is endlessly available,
There are no Carbon (CO2) emissions,
A good chance for electricity at a competitive price.
Incident Solar
Radiation
Electricity
Silicon PV Cell
Dissipated
Heat
The PV System
An individual PV cell typically produces
about 1 or 2 watts of power. To boost
the power output of PV cells, they are
connected together to form larger units
called modules. Modules, in turn, can
be connected to form even larger units
called arrays, which can be
interconnected to produce more power.
Systems also include structures that point them toward the sun and components that
take the direct-current electricity produced by modules and "condition" that electricity,
usually by converting it to alternate-current electricity. PV systems may also include
batteries. These items are referred to as the balance of system (BOS) components.
Combining modules with BOS components creates an entire PV system. This system
is usually everything needed to meet a particular energy demand, such as powering a
water pump, the appliances and lights in a home, providing electrical requirements of
a community.
The PV System
Specifications:
A Cells - Typically generate 1.5 - 3 watts of power (around 0.5 Volts);
Modules or panels - multiple cells;
Arrays - multiple modules;
Typical array costs about US$3 US$5/watt;
Typical system cost about US$6/watt;

The PV System
Off-Grid Photovoltaic System:
Battery AC Loads
PV Array Distribution
Inverter Panel
The PV System
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System:
AC Loads
PV Array Distribution
Inverter Panel
Electric
Utility
The PV System
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve:
Module Marking:
Open Circuit Voltage: Voc
Operating Voltage: Vmp
Max. Perm. Sys. Voltage: (600 V)
Operating Current: Imp
Short-circuit current: Isc
Maximum Power: P
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve:
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve and Resistance Loads:
Low Resistance
High Resistance
The PV System
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve and Temperature and Shading (Low Ic):
The PV System
PV Power Rating:
Module are rated at Standard Test Conditions (STC) which are the following:
Irradiance = 1000 W/m2

Module Temperature = 25 oC
With the increase in irradiance Voltage increases;

With the increase in PV temperature PV Voltage decreases
V(Temp) = V25 oC + Cv(Temp 25 oC), and Cv is the Module Temperature Coefficient
The PV System
Technical Tools:
Surface Temperature
Insolation
Pyranometer Laser Thermometer

The PV System
PV Wiring:
The PV System
The PV System
PV Module Connection:
Parallel Connection: Series Connection:

Currents are added and Volt is equal Volts are added and Current is equal
The PV System
Inverters:
Function:
An electronic device used to convert direct current (DC) electricity into alternating
current (AC) electricity.
Drawbacks:
Efficiency penalty
Complexity (read: a component which can fail)
Cost
The PV System
Different Design and Use:
The PV System
Photovoltaic System Size and Delivery:
Solar System Size Annual Energy Delivery

Prated =Ldaily/Imax Es = Prated . Iave . 365 / generator
Prated = rated PV power (kW) I ave = average solar radiation (sun

hours/day)
Ldaily = Daily Load (kWh/day)
generator = auxiliary generator efficiency
Imax = maximum daily solar radiation
(kWh per gallon, typically 9 kWh/g)
(sun hours/day)
The PV System
Solar Energy System Cost and Savings:
Solar System Cost Annual Cost Savings

S = Es Ce
C = csolar . Prated for photovoltaics
S = annual cost savings ($/year)
C = Installed Cost of Solar System ($) Ce = cost of auxiliary energy
csolar = per-unit cost of installed solar system typically:
= $10/watt for photovoltaics Electricity $0.084/kWh
Natural Gas $0.020/kWh
Propane $0.040/kWh
Oil $0.025/kWh

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Chapter 5: Solar Energy

Dr. Imad Khatib

The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric

Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass.

Flux and Use Magnitude in EJ

Concentrated solar power

It is transmitted through space to earth by electromagnetic radiation with

The declination angel is given by the equation:

Where, N is the day number counted from 1st January as 1.

For example: 2:00 PM corresponds to hs=30o

And the parameter x is given by:

Occasionally, the solar-zenith angle, defined as the complement of the altitude

The solar-azimuth angle is given by:

Diagram showing solar-altitude angle and solar-azimuth angle as:

The intensity of off-normal solar radiation is proportional to the cosine of the

Where, aw = the wall azimuth angle, and

For fixed surface facing due south;

The monthly averaged, horizontal, extraterrestrial solar flux is denoted by;

3. Hourly Solar Flux Conversions

Schematic drawing of a pyranometer

Where Ih is the measured, total horizontal flux.

in which the empirical constants a and b

The total beam and diffuse radiation intercepted by a surface Ic is then;

Where is the reflectance.

The ratio of monthly averaged diffuse to total flux is given by;

where H0 is the monthly averaged, extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal

in which the tilt factors rT and rd are given in Table below.

Pyranometer: An instrument used to

Pyrheliometer: This instrument is used to

Where, Uc , , and are characteristics of the collector independent of where or how

Or by using the definition and rearranging, efficiency could be written as;

As collector plate temperature is difficult to measure in practice, it is commonly

The best-fit efficiency curve at normal incidence (i=0) is determined numerically by

Improving Flat-Plate Collectors Efficiency

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Palestinian Flat-Plate collectors measured

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Palestinian Thermal Storage measured

Tests conducted accordance to

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Palestinian Thermal Storage measured

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Fresnel-type concentrators: in which the large reflector surface is subdivided into

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Concentrating Collectors: Other Designs

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Concentrating Collectors (Module and Farm):

Solar Energy, Solar Thermal Collectors

Concentrating Collectors Power Plant:

Silicon wafer ingots

The sun is an infinite source of energy,

Silicon is the raw material which is endlessly available,

There are no Carbon (CO2) emissions,

A good chance for electricity at a competitive price.

A Cells - Typically generate 1.5 - 3 watts of power (around 0.5 Volts);

Modules or panels - multiple cells;

Arrays - multiple modules;

Typical array costs about US$3 US$5/watt;

Typical system cost about US$6/watt;

Open Circuit Voltage: Voc