Concrete Structures and Foundations

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN

(APPLICABLE TO Section 2.30 THROUGH Section 2.39)

SECTION 2.30 STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS

2.30.1 REQUIRED STRENGTH (2005)

Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the
required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations as stipulated in Article 2.2.4c
,
which represent various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be subjected. Each part of such
structure shall be proportioned for the group loads that are applicable, and the maximum design required shall be
used. Members shall also follow all other requirements of this Chapter to ensure adequate performance at service
load levels.

2.30.2 DESIGN STRENGTH (1992)

a. For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to load factors and strengths, the design strength
provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial
load, and shear, shall be taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with the requirements and
assumptions of LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, multiplied by a strength reduction factor .

b. Strength reduction factor shall be taken as follows:

For flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.90

For shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.85
For spirally reinforced compression members, with or
without flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.75
For tied reinforced compression members with or without flexure. . . . . . = 0.70
NOTE: The value of may be increased linearly from the value
for compression members to the value for flexure as the
axial load strength Pn decreases from Pb to zero.
For bearing on concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.70

NOTE: Development and splices of reinforcement specified in Section 2.13 through Section 2.22 do not
require a factor.

SECTION 2.31 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS

2.31.1 STRENGTH DESIGN (2005)

Strength design of members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions given in this article, and
on satisfaction of the applicable conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains.

a. Strain in the reinforcing steel and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis.

b. Maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.

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c. Stress in reinforcement below the specified yield strength fy for the grade of steel used shall be taken as Es
times the steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy the stress in the reinforcement shall
be considered independent of strain and equal to fy .

d. Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations of reinforced concrete.

e. The relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be assumed to
be a rectangle, trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial
agreement with the results of comprehensive tests.

f. The requirements of Article 2.31.1e may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular concrete
stress distribution defined as follows: A concrete stress of 0.85 fc shall be assumed uniformly distributed
over an equivalent compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a straight line located
parallel to the neutral axis at a distance (a = 1c) from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. The
distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis is measured in a direction perpendicular to
that axis. The factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strength fc up to and including 4000 psi (28
MPa). For strengths above 4000 psi (28 MPa) 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000
psi (7 MPa) of strength in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa), but 1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.

SECTION 2.32 FLEXURE

2.32.1 MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992) 1

a. For flexural members, the reinforcement provided shall not exceed 0.75 of that ratio b which would
produce balanced strain conditions for the section under flexure.

For flexural members with compression reinforcement, the portion of b balanced by compression
reinforcement need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor. 3
b. Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield
strength fy just as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.

2.32.2 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)

a. For rectangular sections, when 0.75 b the design moment strength Mn may be computed by: 4

0.6f
M n = A s f y d 1 -----------------y EQ 2-28
f c

= A s f y d --a- EQ 2-29
2

where:

Asf y
a = ----------------------
0.85f c b

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b. The balanced reinforcement ratio b for rectangular sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:

0.85 1 f c 87 000
b = ------------------------ EQ 2-30
fy ------------------------------
87 000 + f y
-

0.85 1 f c 600
b = ------------------------ EQ 2-30M
fy ---------------------
600 + f y

2.32.3 I- AND T-SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)

a. When the compression flange thickness is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rectangular
stress block a and 0.75 b, the design moment strength Mn may be computed by the equations given in
Article 2.32.2.

b. When the compression flange thickness is less than a, the design moment strength Mn may be computed
by:

M n = A s A sf f y d --a- + A sf f y d 0.5h f EQ 2-31

2

where:

h
Asf = 0.85f c b b w -----f
fy

A s A sf f y
a = --------------------------------
0.85f c b w

c. The balanced reinforcement ratio b for I- and T-sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:

b w 0.85 1 f c 87 000
- ------------------------ ------------------------------- + f
b = ------ EQ 2-32
b fy 87 000 + f y

b w 0.85 1 f c 600
b = ------
- ------------------------ --------------------- + f EQ 2-32M
b fy 600 + f y

where:

A sf
f = ----------
-
bw d

d. When the compression flange thickness is greater than a, the design moment strength, Mn, may be
computed by using the equations in Article 2.32.2.

e. For T-girder and box-girder construction defined by Article 2.23.10 and Article 2.23.11, the width of the
compression face b shall be equal to the effective slab width.

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2.32.4 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT (2005)

a. For rectangular sections when 0.75 b, the design moment strength Mn may be computed by:

M n = A s A s f y d --a- + A s f y d d EQ 2-33
2

where:

A s A s f y
a = -------------------------------
-
0.85f c b

and the following condition shall be satisfied:

A s A s 0.85 1 f c d 87 000
- ------------------------------ -------------------------------
-------------------- EQ 2-34
bd f yd 87 000 + f y

A s A s 0.85 1 f c d 600
- ------------------------------ ---------------------
-------------------- EQ 2-34M
bd f yd 600 + f y

b. When the value of (As As)/bd is less than the value given by EQ 2-34, so that the stress in the compression 1
reinforcement is less than the yield strength fy or when effects of compression reinforcement are neglected,
the moment strength may be computed by the equations in Article 2.32.2, except when a general analysis is
made based on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31.

c. The balanced reinforcement ratio b for rectangular section with compression reinforcement is given by:

0.85 1 f c 87 000 f sb 3
b = ------------------------ - + -------------- EQ 2-35
fy ------------------------------
87 000 + f y fy

0.85 1 f c 600 f sb
b = ------------------------ + -------------- EQ 2-35M
fy ---------------------
600 + f y fy
4
where:

f sb is stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions

f sb = 87 000 d ----- 87 000 + f y f y

d
f sb = d
600 ----- 600 + f y f y (metric)
d

2.32.5 OTHER CROSS SECTIONS (1992)

For other cross sections the design moment strength Mn shall be computed by a general analysis based on stress
and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The requirements of Article 2.32.1 shall also
be satisfied.

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SECTION 2.33 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE

2.33.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (2005)

a. Design of cross sections subject to axial load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress
and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. Slenderness effects shall be included
in accordance with Section 2.34.

b. Members subject to compressive axial load shall be designed for the maximum moment that can accompany
the axial load. The factored axial load Pu at given eccentricity shall not exceed that given in Article 2.33.1c.
The maximum factored moment Mu shall be magnified for slenderness effects in accordance with
Section 2.34.

c. Design axial load strength Pa of compression members shall not be taken greater than the following:

(1) For members with spiral reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2a:

P a (max) = 0.85 0.85f c A g A st + f y A st EQ 2-36

(2) For members with tie reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2b:

P a (max) = 0.80 0.85f c A g A st + f y A st EQ 2-37

2.33.2 COMPRESSION MEMBER STRENGTHS (2005)

The following provisions may be used as a guide to define the range of the load-moment interaction relationship for
members subjected to combined flexure and axial load.

a. Pure Compression.

(1) The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity Po may be computed by:

P o = 0.85f c A g A st + A st f y EQ 2-38

(2) For design, pure compression strength is a hypothetical loading condition since Article 2.33.1c limits
the axial load strength of compression members to 85% and 80% of the design axial load strength at zero
eccentricity.

b. Pure Flexure. The assumptions given in Section 2.31, or the applicable equations for flexure given in
Section 2.32 may be used to compute the design moment strength Mn in pure flexure.

c. Balanced Strain Conditions. Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are defined in Article 2.32.1b.
For a rectangular section with reinforcement in one or two faces and located at approximately the same
distance from the axis of bending, the balanced load strength Pb and balanced moment strength Mb may
be computed by:

P b = 0.85f c ba b + A s f sb A s f y EQ 2-39

and
a
M b = 0.85f c ba b d d -----b- + A s f sb d d d + A s f y d EQ 2-40
2

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where:

87 000 - d
ab = ------------------------------
87 000 + f y
1

ab = --------------------- 1 d
600
(metric)
600 + f y

f sb = 87 000 d
----- 87 000 + f y f y
d

f sb = 600 d
----- 600 + f y f y (metric)
d

d. Combined Flexure and Axial Load.

(1) The design strength under combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The strength of a cross section is controlled
by tension when the nominal axial load strength Pn is less than Pb. The strength of a cross section is
controlled by compression when the nominal axial load strength Pn is greater than Pb.

(2) The nominal values of axial load strength Pn and moment strength Mn must both be multiplied by the
appropriate strength reduction factor for spirally reinforced or tied compression members as given in
Article 2.30.2. The value of may be increased linearly from the value for compression members to the 1
value for flexure as the design axial load strength Pn decreases from 0.10f c A g or Pb whichever is
smaller, to zero.

2.33.3 BIAXIAL LOADING (1992)

In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and strain compatibility for a loading condition of biaxial
bending, the strength of non-circular members subject to biaxial bending may be computed by the following
3
approximate expressions:

1
P nxy = --------------------------------------------------------- EQ 2-41
---------
1 + 1 - ------ 1
P - --------- P P
nx ny o
4
where the factored axial load,

P u 0.1f c A g

or

M ux M uy
-1
- + ---------------
--------------- EQ 2-42
M nx M ny

when the factored axial load,

P u 0.1f c A g

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SECTION 2.34 SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS

2.34.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (2005)

a. Design of compression members shall be based on forces and moments determined from an analysis of the
structure. Such an analysis shall take into account the influence of axial loads and variable moment of
inertia on member stiffness and fixed-end moments, the effect of deflections on the moments and forces, and
the effects of the duration of the loads.

b. In lieu of the procedure described in Article 2.34.1a, the design of compression members may be based on
the approximate procedure given in Article 2.34.2.

2.34.2 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS (2005)

a. Unsupported length lu of a compression member shall be taken as the clear distance between slabs, girders,
or other members capable of providing lateral support for the compression member. When haunches are
present, the unsupported length shall be measured to the lower extremity of the haunch in the plane
considered.

b. Radius of gyration r may be taken equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction in which
stability is being considered for rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circular
compression members. For other shapes, r may be computed from the gross concrete section.

c. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effective length factor k shall be taken as 1.0, unless
an analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For compression members not braced against sidesway,
the effective length factor k shall be determined with due consideration of cracking and reinforcement on
relative stiffness, and shall be greater than 1.0.

d. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected when klu/r is
less than 34 12M1b/M2b. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness
may be neglected when klu/r is less than 22. For all compression members with klu/r greater than 100, an
analysis as defined in Article 2.34.1a shall be made. M1b = value of smaller end moment on compression
member calculated from a conventional elastic analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature,
negative if bent in double curvature, M2b = value of larger end moment on compression member calculated
from a conventional elastic analysis, always positive.

e. Compression members shall be designed using the factored axial load Pu from a conventional frame analysis
and a magnified factored moment Mc defined by EQ 2-43. For members braced against sidesway, s shall be
taken as 1.0. For members not braced against sidesway, b shall be evaluated as for a braced member and s
as for an unbraced member.

M c = b M 2b + s M 2s EQ 2-43

where:

Cm
- 1.0
------------------
b = Pu
1 ----------
P c

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1 - 1.0
----------------------
s = P u
1 ------------- -
P c

and

2
Pc = EI
----------------
2
kl u

In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI may be taken either as

Ec Ig
------------ + Es Is
5
EI = ------------------------------
1 + d

or conservatively

Ec Ig
------------
2.5 -
EI = ---------------
1 + d 1
For members braced against sidesway and without transverse loads between supports, Cm may be taken as:

M 1b
C m = 0.6 + 0.4 ----------
- but not less than 0.4. EQ 2-44
M 2b
3
For all other cases Cm shall be taken as 1.0.

f. When a group of compression members on one level composes a bent, or when they are connected integrally
to the same superstructure, and all collectively resist the sidesway of the structure, the value of s shall be
computed for the member group with Pu and Pc equal to the summations for all compression members in
the group.
4
g. If computations show that there is no moment at both ends of a compression member or that computed end
eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm); M2b in EQ 2-43 shall be based on a
minimum eccentricity of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm) about each principal axis separately. Ratio
M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44 shall be determined by either of the following:

(1) When computed end eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm), computed end
moments may be used to evaluate M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44.

(2) If computations show that there is essentially no moment at both ends of a compression member, the
ratio M1b/M2b shall be taken equal to one.

h. When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment about each axis
shall be amplified by computed from the corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis.

i. In structures which are not braced against sidesway, the flexural members shall be designed for the total
magnified end moments of the compression members at the joint.

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SECTION 2.35 SHEAR

2.35.1 SHEAR STRENGTH (2005)

a. Factored shear stress vu shall be computed by:

Vu
v u = ---------------
- EQ 2-45
b w d

where:

bw = the width of web

d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension
reinforcement

For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter, and d need not be taken less than the distance from
the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the
member.

b. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the
member and loads are applied at or near the top of the member, sections located less than a distance d from
the face of the support may be designed for the same shear vu as that computed at a distance d. An exception
occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case
sections closer than d to the support shall be designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.

c. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.35.2. When vu exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.35.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall
be added.

NOTE: The design criteria for combined shear and torsion given in Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete ACI318-02 may be used.

d. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.

2.35.2 PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS (2010)

NOTE: The value fc used in computing vc shall not be taken greater than 10,000 psi (69
MPa).

a. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 2 f c (or 0.17 f c in metric) unless a more detailed
analysis is made in accordance with Article 2.35.2b or Article 2.35.2c. For members subject to axial tension,
vc shall not exceed the value given in Article 2.35.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of
Article 2.35.2f shall apply.

b. Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:

Vud
v c = 1.9 f c + 2500 w ----------
- EQ 2-46
Mu

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Vud
v c = 0.16 f c + 17 w ----------
- EQ 2-46M
Mu

Vud
but vc shall not exceed 3.5 f c (or 0.29 f c in metric). The quantity ----------
- shall not be taken greater than
Mu
1.0, where Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section considered.

c. For members subject to axial compression, vc may be computed by:

N
v c = 2 1 + 0.0005 -------u- f c EQ 2-47
Ag

N
v c = 0.17 1 + 0.072 -------u- f c EQ 2-47M
A g

N
The quantity -------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag

d. For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total
shear, unless a more detailed analysis is made using 1

N
v c = 2 1 + 0.002 -------u- f c EQ 2-48
Ag

N 3
v c = 0.17 1 + 0.29 -------u- f c EQ 2-48M
Ag

where:

Nu is negative for tension

4
N
the quantity -------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag

e. Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill,
shear stress vc may be computed by:

Vud
v c = 2.14 f c + 4600 ----------
- EQ 2-49
Mu

Vud
v c = 0.18 f c + 32 ----------
- EQ 2-49M
Mu

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1
but vc shall not exceed 4 f c (or --- f c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less
3
f 5
than 3 f c (or ----------c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 2.5 f c (or ------ f c in metric) for slabs
4 24
Vud
simply supported. The quantity ----------
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu is factored moment
Mu
occurring simultaneously with Vu at section considered.

f. The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight
aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:

(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) for

f c , but the value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) used shall not exceed f c .

(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.

2.35.3 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)

a. Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:

v u v c b w s
A v = --------------------------------
- EQ 2-50
fy

b. When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:

(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:

v u v c b w s
A v = ------------------------------------------
- EQ 2-51
f y sin + cos

(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the
same distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:

v u v c b w d
A v = ---------------------------------
- EQ 2-52
f y sin
f
in which (vu vc) shall not exceed 3 f c (or ---------c- in metric).
4
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars
at different distances from the support, required area shall be computed using Article 2.35.3b(1).

(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any one longitudinal bar that is bent shall be
considered effective for shear reinforcement.

c. When more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member,
required area shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more
than 2/3 of the total shear resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.

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f
d. When (vu vc) exceeds 4 f c (or ----------c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be
3
reduced by one-half.

2 f
e. The value of (vu vc) shall not exceed 8 f c (or --------------c in metric).
3

f. When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is
terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1f.

2.35.4 SHEAR-FRICTION (2005)

a. Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a
given plane, such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an
interface between two concretes cast at different times.

b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction
reinforcement Avf across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.35.4c or any other shear
transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of
comprehensive tests. Provisions of Article 2.35.4d through Article 2.35.4h shall apply for all calculations of
shear transfer strength.

c. Shear-friction design method. 1

(1) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforcement
Avf shall be computed by:

Vu
A vf = ------------ EQ 2-53
f y
3
where:

= the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.35.4c(3).

(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension
in shear-friction reinforcement, area of shear friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by: 4

Vu
A vf = ------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 2-54
f y sin f + cos f

where:

f = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane

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(3) Coefficient of friction in EQ 2-53 and EQ 2-54 shall be:

concrete placed monolithically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4

concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface
intentionally roughened as specified in Article 2.35.4g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by
reinforcing bars (see Article 2.35.4h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7
where = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.

d. Shear stress vu on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.2f c nor 800 psi (5.5
MPa).

e. Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression
across shear plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A v f f y , when
calculating required A v f .

f. Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to
develop the specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.

g. For the purpose of this paragraph, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the
interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If is assumed equal to 1.0, interface shall
be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm).

h. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing
bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint.

2.35.5 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL

MEMBERS (2005)

a. In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of
interconnected elements.

b. Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.35.5c
or Article 2.35.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in
substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.

c. Design horizontal shear stress vuh at any cross section may be computed by

Vu
v uh = ------------
- EQ 2-55
b v d

where:

Vu = factored shear force at section considered

d = depth of entire composite section

Horizontal shear vuh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:

(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not
exceed 80 psi (0.55 MPa).

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(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e, and contact surface is clean and
free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi (0.55 MPa).

(3) When ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e and contact surfaces are clean, free of
laitance and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress, vh, shall be
taken equal to (260 + 0.6vfy in psi [(1.8 + 0.6vfy in MPa]; but not greater than 500 psi (3.5 MPa).

(4) When factored shear stress, vu, at section considered exceeds 500 psi ( 3.5 in MPa), design for
horizontal shear shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4.

d. Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span,
the actual change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that
force as horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear stress shall not
exceed the horizontal shear strength vuh in accordance with Article 2.35.5c, except that length of segment
considered shall be substituted for d.

e. Ties for horizontal shear.

(1) A minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall
not be less than 50bws/fy (or 0.35bws/fy in metric), and tie spacing s shall not exceed 4 times the least
web width of support element, nor 24 inches (600 mm).

(2) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of
welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected
elements by embedment or hooks. 1
(3) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement
may be used in satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.

2.35.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS (2005)

a. Shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by 3
the more severe of the following conditions:

(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire
width and located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this
condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.1 through Article 2.35.3.

(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and 4
located so that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the
concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance
with Article 2.35.6b and Article 2.35.6c.

(3) For footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:

(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall
be considered as producing shear on that section.

(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be
considered as producing no shear on that section.

(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as
producing shear on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at
dp/2 outside the section and zero value at dp/2 inside the section.

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b. Factored shear stress for two-way action shall be computed by:

Vu
v u = -------------- EQ 2-56
b o d

where:

Vu and bo = are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2).

c. Factored shear stress vu shall not exceed vu given by EQ 2-57, EQ 2-58, or EQ 2-59 unless shear
reinforcement is provided in accordance with Article 2.35.6d.

s d
v c = --------- + 2 f c EQ 2-57
b
o

s d f
v c = --------- + 2 ----------c EQ 2-57M
b 12
o

v c = 2 + ----
4- f EQ 2-58

c
c

f
v c = 1 + ----- ----------c
2
EQ 2-58M
6
c

v c = 4 f c EQ 2-59

1
v c = --- f c EQ 2-59M
3

c is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. s is 40 for interior
concentrated loads or reaction areas, 30 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas, and 20 for corner
concentrated loads or reaction areas.

d. If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.35.3, vc at any
section shall not exceed 2 f c (or f c 6 in metric) and vu shall not exceed 6 f c (or f c 2 in metric).
Shear stresses shall be investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2) and at successive
sections more distant from the support.

2.35.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS (2005)

a. The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio and av/d not
greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nuc not larger than Vu. Distance d shall be
measured at face of support.

b. Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.

c. Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu, a moment
[Vuav + Nuc(h d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nuc .

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(1) In all design calculations in accordance with this paragraph, strength reduction factor shall be taken
equal to 0.85.

(2) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear Vu shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4.
For normal weight concrete, shear stress vu shall not exceed 0.2 f c nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa). For sand-
lightweight concrete, shear stress vu shall not exceed (0.2 0.07a v /d) f c nor (800 280a v /d) psi (5.5
1.9a v /d MPa).

(3) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vuav + Nuc(h d)] shall be computed in accordance with
Section 2.31 and Section 2.32.

(4) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall be computed by An = Nuc/fy . Tensile force Nuc shall
not be taken less than 0.2Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces.

(5) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2 A v f /3 + An).

d. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area of Ah not less than 0.5(As An), shall be uniformly
distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.

e. Ratio = As/bd shall not be taken less than 0.04 (f c /fy).

f. At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the
following:
1
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield
strength fy of As bars;

(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or

(3) some other means of positive anchorage.

3
g. Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars
As, nor project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).

SECTION 2.36 PERMISSIBLE BEARING STRESS (2005) 4

Design bearing stress shall not exceed (0.85f c), except when the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the
loaded area, then the design bearing stress on the loaded area shall be permitted to be multiplied by A 2 A 1 , but
not more than 2,

where:

A1 = load area
A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest frustrum of a pyramid, cone, or tapered
wedge contained wholly within the support and having for its upper base the
loaded area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.

Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).

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SECTION 2.37 SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS

2.37.1 APPLICATION (1992)

For flexural members designed with reference to load factors and strengths by LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, stresses
at service load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements for fatigue in Section 2.38, and the requirements for
distribution of reinforcement in Section 2.39. The requirements for deflection control in Section 2.40 shall also
apply.

2.37.2 SERVICE LOAD STRESSES (1992)

For investigation of service load stresses to satisfy the requirements of Section 2.38 and Section 2.39, the straight-
line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be used, and the assumptions given in Section 2.27 shall apply.

SECTION 2.38 FATIGUE STRESS LIMIT FOR REINFORCEMENT (2005)

a. The range between a maximum tension stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live
load plus impact at service load shall not exceed:

ff = 21 0.33fmin + 8(r/h)

ff = 145 0.33fmin + 55(r/h) (metric)

where:

ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa)

fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi (MPa)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; when the actual value is
not known, use 0.3

b. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range.

SECTION 2.39 DISTRIBUTION OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)

a. Tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension. When the design yield
strength fy for tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi (280 MPa), cross sections of maximum positive and
negative moment shall be so proportioned that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load fs in
ksi (MPa), does not exceed the value computed by:

Z - but f shall not be greater than 0.5 f

f s = -------------- EQ 2-60
s y
3 d A
c

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where:

A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the
same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When
the main reinforcement consists of several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the
total steel area divided by the area of the largest bar used
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest
thereto, inches (mm), but dc shall not exceed (2 inches + 1/2 db) (or (50 mm + 1/2 db) in metric).

b. The quantity Z in EQ 2-60 shall not exceed 170 kips per inch (30 kN/mm) for members in moderate
exposure conditions and 130 kips per inch (23 kN/mm) for members in severe exposure conditions. Where
members are exposed to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments, such as deicer chemicals, the
denseness and nonporosity of the protecting concrete should be considered, or other protection, such as a
waterproof protecting system, should be provided in addition to satisfying EQ 2-60.

SECTION 2.40 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS

2.40.1 GENERAL (1992)

Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or any 1
deformations which may adversely affect the strength or serviceability of the structure at service load.

2.40.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE DEPTH LIMITATIONS (1992)

The minimum thicknesses stipulated in Table 8-2-10 are recommended unless computation of deflection indicates
that lesser thickness may be used without adverse effects.
3

C - COMMENTARY

The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 2 Reinforced
Concrete Design. In the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the C- correspond to the
4
section/paragraph being explained.

C - SECTION 2.1 GENERAL

C - 2.1.5 PIER PROTECTION (2005)

C - 2.1.5.1 Adjacent to Railroad Tracks

a. The provisions of this section are not intended to create a structure that will resist the full impact of a direct
collision by a loaded train at high speed. Rather, the intent is to reduce the damage caused by shifted loads
or derailed equipment. This is accomplished by: deflecting or redirecting the force from the pier; providing a
smooth face; providing resisting mass; and distributing the collisions forces over several columns.

b. Research by the National Transportation Safety Board found no clear break point in the distribution of the
distance traveled from the centerline of the track by derailed equipment. It was therefore decided to retain

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