UTILITY PLANT ASSIGNMENT :

SOLAR ENERGY

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WHAT IS SOLAR ENERGY?

Solar energy is very simple and self-explanatory. It is energy gathered from the sun that is converted into thermal
or electrical energy. It is also the cleanest and most abundant sources of renewable energy. Currently, with our
modern technology, this energy can be used for powering many different things. They include generating
electricity, providing light, and even heating water domestically, commercially or industrially.

Solar energy is extremely flexible. Generators can be made for personal or industrial use. Many people have solar
panels installed on their houses. There are also solar power plants used by companies in an attempt to be greener
when it comes to their energy use. There is a lot of research going on right now into solar energy. Better ways to
harness it, ways to boost production of solar panels and reduce manufacturing costs. More and more people are
starting to go solar and it is a great step towards going green and reducing our carbon emissions.

THE SOURCE OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is radiant energy that is produced by the sun. Every day the sun radiates, or sends out, an enormous
amount of energy. The sun radiates more energy in one day than the world uses in one year. For this reason, it is
considered to be a renewable resource.
WHERE DOES THE ENERGY COME FROM THAT CONSTANTLY
RADIATES FROM THE SUN?

It comes from within the sun itself. Like other stars, the sun is a big ball of gasesmostly hydrogen and helium
atoms. The hydrogen atoms in the suns core combine to form helium and generate energy in a process called
nuclear fusion.

During nuclear fusion, the suns extremely high pressure and temperature cause nuclei to separate from their
electrons. At this extremely energized state, the nuclei are able to fuse, or combine. Hydrogen nuclei fuse to
become one helium atom of a higher atomic number and greater mass, and one neutron remains free. This new
helium atom, however, contains less mass than the combined masses of the hydrogen isotopes that fused. This
transmutation of matter results in some mass being lost. The lost matter is emitted into space as radiant energy.
The process of fusion occurs most commonly with lighter elements like hydrogen, but can also occur with heavier
nuclei, until iron (Fe) is formed. Because iron is the lowest energy nucleus, it will neither fuse with other
elements, nor can it be fissioned (split) into smaller nuclei.

It can take hundreds of thousands of years for the energy in the suns core to make its way to the solar surface,
and then just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93 million miles to Earth. The solar energy travels to the
Earth at a speed of 186,000 miles per second, the speed of light (3.0x108 meters per second). Only a small portion
of the energy radiated by the sun into space strikes the Earth, one part in two billion. Yet this amount of energy is
enormous. Each hour the sun provides enough energy to supply our nations energy needs for one year.
WHERE DOES ALL THIS ENERGY GO?

About 30 percent of the suns energy that hits the Earth is reflected back into space. Another 25 percent is used
to evaporate water, which, lifted into the atmosphere, produces rainfall. Solar energy is also absorbed by plants,
the land, and the oceans. The rest could be used to supply our energy needs.

HOW THE SOLAR ENERGY IS EASILY RENEWED?

The solar energy is actually a type of energy that is easily to be renewed because as long as the sun is shining,
there will always be enough energy available. But, the problem is the sun does not shine for 24 hours a day. The
amount of solar energy that the earth receives each day is many times greater than the total amount of all energy
that people consume. However, on the surface of the earth, solar energy is a variable and intermittent energy
source. The amount of sunlight and the intensity of sunlight varies by time of day and location. Weather and
climate conditions affect the availability of sunlight on a daily and seasonal basis. The type and size of a solar
energy collection and conversion system determines how much of the available solar energy we can convert into
useful energy.

THE TECHNOLOGY THAT USES SOLAR ENERGY

Solar technology is characterized as either passive or active which depends on the way they capture, convert and
distribute sunlight that will enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly
depending on distance from the equator.

Active solar techniques use photovoltaics, concentrated solar power, solar thermal collectors, pumps, and fans to
convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favourable thermal
properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun.
Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive
solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side
technologies.

PASSIVE SOLAR TECHNIQUE

Passive systems do not use mechanical devices such as fans, blowers, or pumps to distribute solar heat from a
collector. Instead, they take advantage of natural heat flow to distribute warmth. An example of a passive system
for space heating is a sunspace or solar greenhouse. Passive systems also make use of materials with large heat
capacities (stone, water, or concrete) to store and deliver heat. These are called thermal masses. Passive systems
can be categorized into three types:

Direct Gain - Allows the solar energy to come in through the south-facing window panes.

Indirect Gain - Allows the solar radiation to heat a wall and then the energy is slowly delivered
into the interior of the house. Openings in the wall will able to promote convective currents
whereby the cold room air enters the space between the glass panel and the wall through the
bottom opening. As this cold air gets heated, it rises to the top and comes in through the top
opening.
 Greenhouse Addition - An attached sunspace and/or solar greenhouse heated by the solar energy
where some of the energy is used to grow the plants and some of it is used to heat the interior of
the house.

ACTIVE SOLAR TECHNIQUE

For solar thermal collectors, it can be either direct circulation or indirect circulation. Direct circulation systems
circulate domestic water through the collectors and to the storage tank. These are best-suited for mild climates
where temperatures seldom drop below freezing. Indirect circulation systems circulate a non-freezing heat
transfer fluid through the collectors and then through a heat exchanger in the storage tank. These are preferred
in cold climates where the pipes in a direct circulation system might freeze.

Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto a single point
where it is collected and converted into heat. This thermal energy can then be used to produce electricity.
Concentrating solar power systems are generally used for utility-scale projects. The mirrors in CSP plants focus
sunlight onto a receiver that heats a high-temperature fluid, which is used to spin a turbine or power an engine
that drives a generator. The final product is electricity. Smaller CSP systems can be located directly where power
is needed.

There are several varieties of CSP systems.

 Linear Concentrator Systems

Linear concentrating solar power (CSP) collectors capture the sun's energy with large mirrors that reflect and
focus the sunlight onto a linear receiver tube. The receiver contains a fluid that is heated by the sunlight and then
used to heat a traditional power cycle that spins a turbine that drives a generator to produce electricity.
Alternatively, steam can be generated directly in the solar field, which eliminates the need for costly heat
exchangers.

Linear concentrating collector fields consist of large number of collectors in parallel rows that are typically aligned
in a north-south orientation to maximize annual and summer energy collection. With a single-axis sun-tracking
system, this configuration enables the mirrors to track the sun from east to west during the day, which ensures
that the sun reflects continuously onto the receiver tubes.

Dish Systems
Dish/engine systems use a parabolic dish of mirrors to direct and concentrate sunlight onto a central engine that
produces electricity. The dish/engine system is a concentrating solar power (CSP) technology that produces
smaller amounts of electricity than other CSP technologiestypically in the range of 3 to 25 kilowattsbut is
beneficial for modular use. The two major parts of the system are the solar concentrator and the power
conversion unit.

A. Solar Concentrator
The solar concentrator, or dish, gathers the solar energy coming directly from the sun. The resulting beam
of concentrated sunlight is reflected onto a thermal receiver that collects the solar heat. The dish is mounted on a
structure that tracks the sun continuously throughout the day to reflect the highest percentage of sunlight
possible onto the thermal receiver.

B. Power Conversion Unit

The power conversion unit includes the thermal receiver and the generator. The thermal receiver is the
interface between the dish and the generator. It absorbs the concentrated beams of solar energy, converts the
energy to heat, and transfers the heat to the generator. A thermal receiver can be a bank of tubes with a cooling
fluid which usually consists of hydrogen or helium that typically is the heat-transfer medium and also the working
fluid for an engine. Alternate thermal receivers are heat pipes, where the boiling and condensing of an
intermediate fluid transfers the heat to the engine. The generator system is the subsystem that takes the heat
from the thermal receiver and uses it to produce thermal to electric energy conversion.

Power Tower Systems

In power tower concentrating solar power systems, a large number of flat, sun-tracking mirrors, known as
heliostats, focus sunlight onto a receiver at the top of a tall tower. A heat-transfer fluid heated in the receiver is
used to heat a working fluid, which, in turn, is used in a conventional turbine generator to produce electricity.
Some power towers use water/steam as the heat-transfer fluid. Other advanced designs are experimenting with
high temperature molten salts or sand-like particles to maximize the power cycle temperature.
 Thermal Storage Systems
The thermal energy storage (TES) system is used in CSP to store heat during sunshine periods and release it during
the periods of weak or no solar irradiation. This is a current commercially used technology to store the heat
collected by concentrated solar power (e.g., from a solar tower or solar trough). The heat can later be converted
into superheat steam to power conventional steam turbines and generate electricity in bad weather or at night. It
was demonstrated in the Solar Two project from 1995-1999. Estimates in 2006 predicted an annual efficiency of
99%, a reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity, versus converting heat
directly into electricity. Various eutectic mixtures of different salts are used such as sodium nitrate, potassium
nitrate and calcium nitrate. Experience with such systems exists in non-solar applications in the chemical and
metals industries is known as heat-transport fluid. The salt melts at 131 C (268 F). It is kept liquid at 288 C (550
F) in an insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar collector where the
focused sun heats it to 566 C (1,051 F). It is then sent to a hot storage tank. With proper insulation of the tank
the thermal energy can be usefully stored for up to a week.
When electricity is needed, the hot salt is pumped to a conventional steam-generator to produce superheated
steam for a conventional turbine/generator set as used in any coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100-megawatt
turbine would need a tank of about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in diameter to drive it for four
hours by this design.
Photovoltaics

Photovoltaics is the science behind the most popular form of harnessing solar energy whereby it is known as the
process of converting sunlight directly into electricity. The photovoltaic (PV) effect was first observed in 1839.
Photovoltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and volt, a measurement of electricity. Sometimes
photovoltaic cells are called PV cells or solar cells for short. You are probably already familiar with solar cells.
Solar-powered calculators, toys, and telephone call boxes all use solar cells to convert light into electricity.
Current PV cell technology is not very efficient. Todays PV cells convert only about 1824 percent of the radiant
energy into electrical energy. Fossil fuel plants, on the other hand, convert about 35 percent of their fuels
chemical energy into electrical energy. The cost per kilowatt-hour to produce electricity from PV cells can
sometimes be as much as three times as expensive as from conventional sources. However, PV cells make sense
for many uses today, such as providing power in remote areas or other areas where electricity is difficult to
provide. Scientists are researching ways to improve PV cell technology to make it more competitive with
conventional sources, and costs per kilowatt-hour from PV cells are expected to continue to decrease.
There are four major steps involved in generating electricity from the silicon in PV cells.

Step 1

A slab (or wafer) of pure silicon is used to make a PV cell.

The top of the slab is very thinly diffused with an n
dopant such as phosphorous. On the base of the slab a
small amount of a p dopant, typically boron, is diffused.
The boron side of the slab is 1,000 times thicker than the
phosphorous side. Dopants are similar in atomic structure
to the primary material. The phosphorous has one more
electron in its outer shell than silicon, and the boron has
one less. These dopants help create the electric field that
motivates the energetic electrons out of the cell created
when light strikes the PV cell. The phosphorous gives the
wafer of silicon an excess of free electrons; it has a negative
character. This is called the n-type silicon (n = negative). The
n-type silicon is not chargedit has an equal number of
protons and electronsbut some of the electrons are not
held tightly to the atoms. They are free to move to different
locations within the layer. The boron gives the base of the
silicon a positive character, because it has a tendency to
attract electrons. The base of the silicon is called p-type
silicon (p = positive). The p-type silicon has an equal
number of protons and electrons; it has a positive character
but not a positive charge.

Step 2

Where the n-type silicon and p-type silicon meet, free

electrons from the n-layer flow into the p-layer for a split
second, then form a barrier to prevent more electrons from
moving between the two sides. This point of contact and
barrier is called the p-n junction. When both sides of the
silicon slab are doped, there is a negative charge in the p-
type section of the junction and a positive charge in the n-
type section of the junction due to movement of the
electrons and holes at the junction of the two types of materials. This imbalance in electrical charge at the p-n
junction produces an electric field between the p-type and n-type silicon.
Step 3

If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons in the p-n junction and energize them,
knocking them free of their atoms. These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the n-type silicon and
repelled by the negative charge in the p-type silicon. Most photon-electron collisions actually occur in the silicon
base.

Step 4

A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an electrical load, such as a light or battery, and then back to the
n-type silicon, forming a complete circuit. As the free electrons are pushed into the n-type silicon they repel each
other because they are of like charge. The wire provides a path for the electrons to move away from each other.
This flow of electrons is an electric current that travels through the circuit from the n-type to the p-type silicon. In
addition to the semiconducting materials, solar cells consist of a top metallic grid or other electrical contact to
collect electrons from the semiconductor and transfer them to the external load, and a back contact layer to
complete the electrical circuit.

THE OBSTACLE OF USING SOLAR ENERGY

The sun provides a tremendous resource for generating clean and sustainable electricity without toxic pollution or
global warming emissions. The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power which consists of
land use and habitat loss, water use, and the use of hazardous materials in manufacturing that are vary greatly
depending on the technology, which includes two broad categories: photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or concentrating
solar thermal plants (CSP). The scale of the system is ranging from small, distributed rooftop PV arrays to large
utility-scale PV and CSP projects that also plays a significant role in the level of environmental impact.

Land Use

Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise concerns about land degradation and
habitat loss. Total land area requirements vary depending on the technology, the topography of the site, and the
intensity of the solar resource. Estimates for utility-scale PV systems range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt,
while estimates for CSP facilities are between 4 and 16.5 acres per megawatt.

Unlike wind facilities, there is less opportunity for solar projects to share land with agricultural uses. However,
land impacts from utility-scale solar systems can be minimized by siting them at lower-quality locations such as
brownfields, abandoned mining land, or existing transportation and transmission corridors. Smaller scale solar PV
arrays, which can be built on homes or commercial buildings, also have minimal land use impact.

Water Use
Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However, as in all manufacturing processes, some water
is used to manufacture solar PV components.

Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP), like all thermal electric plants, require water for cooling. Water use
depends on the plant design, plant location, and the type of cooling system. CSP plants that use wet-recirculating
technology with cooling towers withdraw between 600 and 650 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of electricity
produced. CSP plants with once-through cooling technology have higher levels of water withdrawal, but lower
total water consumption (because water is not lost as steam). Dry-cooling technology can reduce water use at
CSP plants by approximately 90 percent. However, the tradeoffs to these water savings are higher costs and lower
efficiencies. In addition, dry-cooling technology is significantly less effective at temperatures above 100 degrees
Fahrenheit. The consideration of having these water tradeoffs is essential for those country with the driest
climate.

Hazardous Materials

The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous materials, most of which are used to clean and
purify the semiconductor surface. These chemicals, similar to those used in the general semiconductor industry,
include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and acetone. The
amount and type of chemicals used depends on the type of cell, the amount of cleaning that is needed, and the
size of silicon wafer. Workers also face risks associated with inhaling silicon dust. Thus, PV manufactures must
follow U.S. laws to ensure that workers are not harmed by exposure to these chemicals and that manufacturing
waste products are disposed of properly.

Thin-film PV cells contain a number of more toxic materials than those used in traditional silicon photovoltaic
cells, including gallium arsenide, copper-indium-gallium-diselenide, and cadmium-telluride. If not handled and
disposed of properly, these materials could pose serious environmental or public health threats. However,
manufacturers have a strong financial incentive to ensure that these highly valuable and often rare materials are
recycled rather than thrown away.

Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with generating electricity from solar energy, there are
emissions associated with other stages of the solar life-cycle, including manufacturing, materials transportation,
installation, maintenance, and decommissioning and dismantlement. Most estimates of life-cycle emissions for
photovoltaic systems are between 0.07 and 0.18 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

Most estimates for concentrating solar power range from 0.08 to 0.2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per
kilowatt-hour. In both cases, this is far less than the lifecycle emission rates for natural gas (0.6-2 lbs of
CO2E/kWh) and coal (1.4-3.6 lbs of CO2E/kWh).
THE COST OF SOLAR ENERGY

Most companies offer special financing options to help the everyday homeowner become less
dependent on the power grid. The government also offers tax breaks for individuals interested in
promoting green energy, often paying for up to 30 percent of the system. With the drop of solar energy
costs, many homeowners are finding the overall price well within their budget, and installing the panels
has become a growing trend.

THE POSITIVE ASPECTS OF USING SOLAR ENERGY

1. Renewable

Solar energy is a renewable energy source. This means that the solar energy cannot be run out, as
opposed to non-renewable energy sources which consists of fossil fuels, coal and nuclear. The solar
energy can be access for as long as the sun is alive for another 6.5 billion years according to NASA.

2. Abundant

The potential of solar energy is beyond imagination. The surface of the earth receives 120,000 terawatts
of solar radiation (sunlight) 20,000 times more power than what is needed to supply the entire world.

3. Sustainable

An abundant and renewable energy source is also sustainable. Sustainable energy sources meet the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. In
other words, solar energy is sustainable because there is no way we can over consume.
4. Environmentally Friendly

Harnessing solar energy does generally not cause pollution. However, there are emissions associated
with the manufacturing, transportation and installation of solar power systems almost nothing
compared to most conventional energy sources. It is clear that solar energy reduces our dependence on
non-renewable energy sources. This is an important step in fighting the climate crisis.

5. Good Availability

Solar energy is available all over the world. Not only the countries that are closest to the Equator can
put solar energy to use, Germany has the highest capacity of solar power in the world.

6. Reduces Electricity Costs

With the introduction of net metering and feed-in tariff (FIT) schemes, homeowners can now sell
excess electricity, or receive bill credits, during times when they produce more electricity than what
they actually consume. This means that homeowners can reduce their overall electricity expenses by
going solar.

7. Many Applications

Solar energy can be used for many different purposes. It can be used to generate electricity in places
that lack a grid connection, for distilling water in Africa, or even to power satellites in space.

Solar power is also known as The People`s Power, which refers to how easily deployable solar panels
are at the consumer level (both photovoltaic and solar thermal).

With the introduction of flexible thin-film solar cells, solar power can even be seemingly integrated into
the material of buildings (building integrated photovoltaics) Sharp, a solar panel manufacturer with
headquarters in Japan, recently introduced transparent solar power windows.
8. Silent

There are no moving parts involved in most applications of solar power. There is no noise associated
with photovoltaics. This compares favourable to certain other green-techs such as wind turbines.

9. Low Maintenance

The majority of today`s solar power systems do not required a lot of maintenance. Residential solar
panels usually only require cleaning a couple of times a year. Serious solar manufacturers ship 20- or 25-
year warranties with their solar panels.

10. Technology is Improving

Technological advancements are constantly being made in the solar power industry. Innovation in
nanotechnology and quantum physics has the potential to triple the electrical output of solar panels.

THE NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF USING SOLAR ENERGY

1. Expensive

Is solar power really expensive? This is probably the most debatable aspect on the entire solar energy
pros and cons list. The driving forces behind the development of solar energy are rooted in politics. Solar
power is incentivized to compete against other energy sources on the market. On the other hand, the
U.S. government, similarly to the rest of the world, provides incentives to every major energy
production market.

In 2010, coal received $1,189 billion in federal subsidies and support for electricity production while
solar is not far behind at $968 billion. Nowadays, the best solar panels can in many situations be cheaper
than buying electricity from the utility. This wouldn`t have been possible without incentives.
2. Intermittent

Solar energy is an intermittent energy source. Access to sunlight is limited at certain times such as
morning and night. Predicting overcast days can be difficult. This is why solar power is not the first
choice when it comes to meeting the base load energy demand. However, solar power has fewer
problems than wind power when it comes to intermittence.

3. Energy Storage is Expensive

Energy storage systems such as batteries will help smoothen out demand and load that makes the solar
power more stable, but these technologies are also expensive. Luckily, there is a good correspondence
between our access to solar energy and human energy demand. Our electricity demand peaks in the
middle of the day, which also happens to be the same time there is a lot of sunlight.

4. Associated with Pollution

While solar power certainly is less polluting than fossil fuels, some problems do exist. Some
manufacturing processes are associated with greenhouse gas emissions. Nitrogen trifluoride and sulphur
hexafluoride has been traced back to the production of solar panels. These are some of the most potent
greenhouse gases and have many thousand times the impact on global warming compared to carbon
dioxide. Transportation and installation of solar power systems can also indirectly cause pollution.

5. Exotic Materials

Certain solar cells require materials that are expensive and rare in nature. This is especially true for thin-
film solar cells that are based on either cadmium telluride (CdTe) or copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS).
6. Requires Space

Power density, or watt per square meter (W/m), is essential when looking at how much power can be
derived from a certain area of real estate of an energy source. Low power density indicates that too
much real estate is required to provide the power we demand at reasonable prices.

The global mean power density for solar radiation is 170 W/m. This is more than any other renewable
energy source, but not comparable to oil, gas and nuclear power.

When the solar energy is accessible to general public?

Malaysia Investment Development Authority (MIDA) chief executive officer Datuk Azman Mahmud said
between 2014 and 2018, Asia would see the installation of another 37 GW in photovoltaic cells (PV)
capacity. Other than that, Malaysia that known as the key exporter of PV cells and modules is well
positioned to benefit from the spill over effects of growing solar power usage worldwide, which is
expected to see growth of between 12% and 20% over the next five years.