OBE GUIDELINES FOR NORTHERN SOTHO

FIRST LANGUAGE TEACHING

by

SOPHIE SEBOLAI MOHOPE

MINI-DISSERTATION

submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
in
CURRICULUM STUDIES
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY

SUPERVISOR: PROF HC GEYSER

CO-SUPERVISOR: DR JHM KOCK

OCTOBER 1998
 ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My supervisor, Prof HC Geyser, for her constructive expert guidance, support and
keen interest in my work throughout the completion of this project.

My co-supervisor, Dr JHM Kock, for his inspiration, advice and unfailing encourage-
ment he wholeheartedly offered to me especially in the area of Northern Sotho.

Leonora de Villiers, Patricia Strauss, Riana Blom for all the translations, and the
other members of the Education Department at Vista University (Soweto Campus),
for all their help and support.

Veronica Martin for editing this dissertation. Her valuable contribution helped in the
final completion of this study.

The RAU library staff and the Vista library staff with special thanks to Tshidi
Mosuetsa for all the new information on OBE.

Lillygirl Kganyago, for her valuable help in the typing of this work.

Above all, I thank God, for His strength, health, love and wisdom, without which this
study would not have been completed.
 iii

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my mother

Susana Nomgqibelo Kganyago
for her unyielding faith displayed towards education

My beloved husband, Thomas Mohale Mohope, and my lovely daughters

Tebogo, Madichaba, Refiloe and Lehlohonolo
to whom I attribute much of my success, for having stood by my side
through difficult times
 iv

SINOP=

Die hoofdoel van hierdie navorsingsondersoek is om uitkomsgebaseerde riglyne vir

die onderrig van Noord-Sotho te ontwikkel. Die rede vir hierdie poging is die
instelling van Kurrikulum 2005 in Suid-Afrikaanse skole. Hierdie transformasie in
ons skole noodsaak 'n uitkomsgebaseerde benadering tot die onderwyspraktyk.
Hierdie verskuiwing het gelei tot navorsing oor die onderrig van Noord-Sotho met
die oog daarop om hierdie verandering die hoof te bied.

Twee doelwitte vloei voort uit die hoofdoel, naamlik om riglyne vir eerstetaal-
onderrig te ontwikkel en verder om riglyne vir onderrig wat in ooreenstemming met
die uitkomsgebaseerde benadering is, te ontwerp.

Deur middel van beskrywende, verkennende en kontekstuele navorsing, is 'n

ondersoek onderneem na die algemeen-aanvaarde benadering tot eerstetaal-
onderrig tesame met 'n studie van benaderings wat tot op hede vir die onderrig van
Noord-Sotho ontwikkel is. Bevindinge van hierdie navorsing het gelei tot die
bereiking van die eerste doelwit. Verder is daar ter bereiking van die tweede
doelwit, navorsing gedoen ten opsigte van internasionale uitkomsgeba-seerde
praktyke, asook 'n kritiese bespreking van die implementering van uitkoms-
gebaseerde onderwys in Suid-Afrika. Bevindinge van hierdie doelwitte het gelei tot
die ontwikkeling van uitkomsgebaseerde riglyne vir die onderrig van Noord-Sotho.

Dit het aan die lig gekom dat eerstetaalonderrig volgens 'n pragmatiese benadering
nou verwant is aan die uitkomsgebaseerde benadering. Die uitkomsgebaseerde
riglyne wat in hierdie studie ontwikkel is, kan soos voig opgesom word:

Identifisering en beskrywing van Ieeruitkomstes gebaseer op die oorsprong

van hierdie uitkoms hetsy op die tradisionele (inhoudsgebonde) vlak; die
oorgangsvlak (waarin hoerordevaardighede figureer) of die transformasionele
vlak (met beduidende uitkomstes wat met die beroep, huis en gemeenskap
verband hou).
 V

Die keuse van geskikte leeraktiwiteite en -kontekste wat toeneem in

kompleksiteit vanaf die tradisionele na die transformasionele vlakke. In
eerstetaalonderrig geld dat hoe formeler die funksie, hoe komplekser is die
konteks.

Laastens voig die assessering van leeruitkomites gebaseer op spesifieke

kriteria.

In die studie is 'n eksemplaarles uitgewerk (in Engels en Noord-Sotho) wat twee
leerareas integreer, naamlik, Taal, Geletterdheid en Kommunikasie en Tegnologie.
Die Ies dien as 'n praktiese voorbeeld van die implementering van die uitkomsge-
baseerde taalonderrigbeginsels wat geidentifiseer is.
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND, STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM, AIM OF STUDY, METHODOLOGY AND CLARI-
FICATION OF CONCEPTS

1.1 BACKGROUND 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 2
1.3 AIM OF STUDY 3
1.4 METHODOLOGY 3
1.5 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 4
1.5.1 Outcomes 4
1.5.2 Outcomes-based education 5
1.5.3 Curriculum 5
1.6 SUMMARY 6

CHAPTER 2: GUIDELINES FOR FIRST LANGUAGE

TEACHING

2.1 INTRODUCTION 7
2.2 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
NORTHERN SOTHO 7
2.2.1 The classical period (1826-1926) 7
2.2.2 The functional period 8
2.2.3 The structural period 9
2.2.4 The modern period 10
2.3 THE DIDACTICS OF NORTHERN SOTHO 11
2.4 A HISTORICAL-LINGUISTICAL PERSPECTIVE 13
2.4.1 The comparative-descriptive approach 13
2.4.2 Ferdinand de Saussure's approach 14
2.4.3 Bloomfield's approach 15
 vi'

PAGE
2.4.4 Noam Chomsky's approach 16
2.4.5 Communicative competence 17
2.4.5.1 Dell Hymes 17
2.4.5.2 Canale and Swain 19
2.4.5.3 Sandra Savignon 19
2.4.6 The functionalist approach 20
2.4.6.1 John Firth 20
2.4.6.2 Michael Halliday 20
2.4.7 The communicative approach 21
2.4.8 The pragmatic approach 23
2.5 GUIDELINES FOR FIRST LANGUAGE TEACHING 26
2.6 CONCLUSION 29

CHAPTER 3: OUTCOMES-BASED TEACHING GUIDE-

LINES

3.1 INTRODUCTION 31
3.2 THE ORIGIN OF OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION 31
3.2.1 Competency-based education 31
3.2.2 Mastery learning 32
3.2.3 Criterion-referenced assessment 32
3.3 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS 32
3.4 KEY ISSUES IN OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION 33
3.4.1 Identifying and defining outcomes versus content 33
3.4.2 Selection of an appropriate outcomes-based approach 34
3.4.3 Learner experience 36
3.4.4 Selection of learning activities in context versus teaching 37
3.4.5 Assessing outcomes versus grading 38
3.4.5.1 Why do we assess? 38
3.4.5.2 Who assesses? 39
3.4.5.3 When do they assess? 40
 viii

PAGE
3.4.5.4 How do they assess? 40
3.5 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN OUTCOMES-BASED
EDUCATION 43
3.5.1 Strengths 43
3.5.2 Weaknesses 44
3.6 OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA 45
3.6.1 Motivation 45
3.6.2 Adoption of outcomes-based education 46
3.6.3 Instructional programming 51
3.7 GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING ACCORDING TO AN OUT-
COMES-BASED APPROACH 52
3.8 CONCLUSION 55

CHAPTER 4: OUTCOMES-BASED GUIDELINES FOR

TEACHING NORTHERN SOTHO

4.1 AIM OF THE STUDY 56

4.2 INTEGRATION OF FIRST LANGUAGE AND OUTCOMES-
BASED TEACHING GUIDELINES 56
4.2.1 Identify and describe learning outcomes 57
4.2.2 Selection of suitable activities and contexts 61
4.2.3 Assessment of learning outcomes 66
4.3 A LESSON SAMPLE: NORTHERN SOTHO FIRST
LANGUAGE 56
4.4 FURTHER RECOMMENDATIONS 74
4.5 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS 76
4.5.1 Strengths 76
4.5.2 Limitations 77
4.6 CONCLUSION 77

BIBLIOGRAPHY 79
 1

CHAPTER 1

BACKGROUND, STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, AIM OF

STUDY, METHODOLOGY, CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

1.1 BACKGROUND

The Ministry of Education in South Africa has provided for an outcomes-based

approach to education in schools. The draft white paper, on Education and Training
(South Africa, 1994:14), clearly propagated that "the advent of democracy in South
Africa has made it possible and imperative to undertake an overhaul of the learning
programmes in the nation's schools and colleges". According to a document
compiled by the National Curriculum Development Committee (South Africa,
1996:9), which is completely different to earlier policy, an outcomes-based lifelong
learning development framework for South African schooling was declared. These
changes are a result of the National Qualifications Framework, which integrates
Education and Training and promotes lifelong learning. It also allows for both
informal and formal education, recognises and will accredit different kinds of
learning (South Africa, 1997:2).

The new curriculum is a shift of paradigm from the objectives-based curriculum that
focuses on input from the teacher to an outcomes-based curriculum that focuses on
output from the learner. The focus of the new curriculum is transformational
outcomes-based, which, according to Spady (1994:21), "...operates with authentic
life context as the backdrop and these demand complex role performance."

In 1997 the South African Minister of Education, Professor Bhengu, unveiled

Curriculum 2005, the Government's revolutionary, outcomes-based school
curriculum through which pupils will be encouraged to develop at their own pace
(Rantao & Naidu, 1997:1). This new curriculum will encompass a culture of human
rights, multi-lingualism, multiculturalism and nation building. Moreover, this
curriculum will adopt an integrated approach to learning which incorporates life
skills in all subject areas (Rohan, 1997:2).
 2

According to the Gauteng Institute for Life Long Learning Development, the new
transformative outcomes-based education approach, was supposed to be phased
in, starting in 1998 in Grades 1 and 7 and moving annually to completion in 2003
with Grades 6 and 12 (South Africa, 1996:12). The intensive preparation that was
required for such implementation, in a system so foreign to the practitioners, only
made it possible for the implementation of Gradel in 1998. The demand to meet
the requirements of this new curriculum in the teaching and learning of Northern
Sotho first language, at high school level demands immediate attention.

In the past, Northern Sotho first language used an objective-based curriculum,

wherein the final examination was the most important form of assessment in the
schools. Tests, assignments and half yearly examinations were all written in
preparation for the final examination, yet such results were not recognised in the
compilation of the final promotion mark. Content did not integrate other learning
areas to prepare the learner for success after they have left school or completed
their training. It is for this reason that Northern Sotho was regarded as the
"language of ordinary occasions and home, while the other (English) is subsidiary
and serves special occasions" (Mawasha, 1976:4, as quoted by Masenya, 1991:2).
This inferior position for Northern Sotho learning in Gauteng schools is over, in the
wake of the new outcomes-based education approach.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The phasing in of the outcomes-based education approach in the schools of the

Gauteng Province, became operative in Grade 1 this year, 1998. This necessitates
that Northern Sotho first language teaching should be revised in line with the
principles for teaching according to the outcome-based education. The research
undertaken in this regard will be considering the fact that whilst the Minister of
Education, Professor Bhengu launched this new way of learning for South African
schooling, the "Department of Education has not yet completed work on the
curriculum" as reported in the local newspaper (Sowetan, 1997:3). Research in
various fields should thus be undertaken to help make the new curriculum a
success. Hence research in Northern Sotho first language at high school level,
Senior Phase, shall be done in this study.
 3

The major research problem, which emerges, is: What are the outcomes-based
guidelines for Northern Sotho first language teaching, for Grades 7-12. This main
question can be divided into two sub-questions which can be presented as the
following:

What are the guidelines for first language teaching?

What are the guidelines for teaching according to an outcomes-based
approach?

1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY

In this dissertation the aim is to develop outcomes-based guidelines for Northern

Sotho first language teaching, in the Senior Phase. This main aim can be further
divided into two objectives which should be initially accomplished in order to reach
the main aims:

Firstly, guidelines for first language teaching need to be developed.

Secondly, guidelines for teaching according to an outcomes-based approach
need to be developed.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

A literature study will be undertaken and shall be descriptive and exploratory. It

shall be descriptive because the research shall describe the adoption of the new
developing curriculum in the Gauteng Province schools, to be able to find the place
of the teaching of Northern Sotho within this context, as Lovell and Lawson
(ANON:13), maintain that descriptive research describes and interprets what it is. It
is concerned with conditions that exist "...processes that are ongoing and trends
that are developing. It is exploratory because the researcher will investigate about
outcomes in Northern Sotho, which is not yet a known field in Gauteng schools".
Marshall and Rossman (1995:44) explain exploratory research as being able "to
investigate little understood phenomena, discover important variables and to
generate hypotheses for further research".
The following steps will be followed in this research:
 4

Step 1:
Identification of the problem, aim of study, description of methodology, and the
clarification of key concepts. These are discussed in this chapter.

Step 2:
A literature review of approaches development to date in Northern Sotho teaching
together with the study of the development of linguistics, which shall reveal various
approaches developed over the years in first language shall be undertaken in order
to develop guidelines for teaching a first language. These will be discussed in
chapter 2.

Step 3:
Outcomes-based teaching guidelines shall be developed by reviewing international
literature on outcomes-based practice and assessing the adoption of outcomes-
based education in South Africa. These will be discussed in chapter 3.

Step 4:
A set of outcomes-based guidelines, for teaching Northern Sotho as a first
language in the Senior Phase shall be established by integrating findings from
literature reviews done in chapters 2 and 3. Finally the strengths and shortcomings
pertaining to this research undertaking will be outlined. These will be discussed in
chapter 4.

1.5 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

The definition of concepts that will be used frequently in this research shall be given
below but they will all be preliminary definitions. Full definitions of these concepts
shall be given in chapters 2 and 3.

1.5.1 Outcomes

Different definitions exist on what outcomes are but most proponents have one
aspect in common that "they are demonstrations of learning, displayed by learners
at the end of instruction". Spady (1994:18) defines outcomes as "high quality,
 5

culminating demonstrations of significant learning in context". According to King and

Evans (1991:73), outcomes are defined as "the end-products of the instructional
process, which may be observable or external changes in the learner". Jasa and
Enger (1994:31) define outcomes as "...defining in broad terms what the
competencies should be after they (learners) have completed the course". These
proponents of outcomes differ only in that some places stress on "high quality"
(Spady, 1994:18), who thus only purports outcomes of high quality found on the
highest level of his demonstration mountain, the "transformational level" (Spady,
1994:19). The other two definitions do not restrict the outcome to any particular
level, but they all agree that they are demonstrations that learners will show.

1.5.2 Outcomes-based education

Most proponents of this paradigm define it in a way that main properties of this
paradigm come to the fore. Capper and Jamison (1993:430-432) states that it "can
be characterised as traditional, transitional or transformational and pivots on
objectives tied to learner outcomes, core and extended curriculum, mastery
learning, accountability via information management systems and criterion-
referenced assessment". The authors here highlight the three levels at which
outcomes-based education can operate, the traditional, transitional and trans-
formational levels expounded by Spady (1994:19); the importance that this
paradigm attaches to mastery learning, learner outcomes; assessment based on
criteria and accountability that this system has to the learner and community in
general about the type of results produced. McGhan (1994:70) defines this system
similar to Capper and Jamison (1993) only in respect to "a common set of
requirements" as in the latter's "objectives tied to learner outcomes" thus outcomes
are central to this system.

1.5.3 Curriculum

There are many definitions to the concept "curriculum" as Carl (1995:31) observes,
that it is better at times to list the characteristics displayed by this concept than
define it, for example, the curriculum "...is a programme of planned activities, is an
instrument of social reconstruction where values and skills are acquired which may
 6

help to improve the community" (Carl 1995:32). It is defined also as a "generic term
used to describe programmes of learning, including broad core and subject
curricular" (South Africa, 1995:1). In an outcomes-based practice though such
concepts as subject curricular will be replaced by areas or fields of knowledge.

For the purpose of this research the concept shall be limited to a programme of
planned learning activities in selected contexts, designed around learning outcomes
based on identified generic outcomes.

1.6 SUMMARY

The background to this dissertation, identification of the problem, aim of study,

description of methodology and clarification of concepts frequently used in this
study has been done in this chapter.

An examination of generally accepted approaches for first language teaching,

together with an assessment of approaches developed for the teaching of Northern
Sotho first language to date, will be undertaken. Findings from these studies will be
used to develop guidelines for teaching a first language. This will be done in
chapter 2.
 7

CHAPTER 2

GUIDELINES FOR FIRST LANGUAGE TEACHING

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of this chapter is to develop guidelines for first language teaching. A
literature review of approaches developed to date in Northern Sotho teaching
together with a general study of the development of linguistics will be undertaken in
order to reveal various approaches developed over the years to date in language
teaching. These approaches will lead to principles that will translate into guidelines
that are relevant for first language teaching. Such conclusions are vital for this
study because Northern Sotho is a young language in its development as a first
language because of its history that shall be briefly discussed below. It is for this
reason that ongoing research has to be undertaken in this language, especially
when new changes emerge in education, as is the case with the new Curriculum
2005 for South Africa.

2.2 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHERN

SOTHO

Four periods in the historical development of the African language since 1826 are
identified as the classical, functional, structural and the modern periods by Wilkes
(1978:108, as quoted by Kock, 1992:3). These periods also saw the historical
development of Northern Sotho as one of the African languages.

2.2.1 The classical period (1826-1926)

The first period can be identified as the classical period between (1826-1926),
which can be regarded as the descriptive period, traditional period or pre-Dokeian
era, during which a number of publications emerged, written mainly by missionaries
(Kock, 1992:3). This period is regarded as the classical period because the
classical European languages were used as the basis of description (Kosch,
1993:13). The first words in Northern Sotho appeared in an article written by
 8

Merensky (Esterhuyse, 1974:7/8). During this period missionaries decided to

develop a writing system with the aim of reaching African people with the gospel in
their own language (Kosch, 1993:16). This was a third language approach where
language is regarded as "a practical guide to missionaries..." (Kosch, 1993:19), and
would fail to serve as an approach for first language teaching.

During this period, before 1926, everyone wrote Northern Sotho the way they
thought best, because there was no co-ordinating body to control the development
of this language (Esterhuyse, 1974:xiii). This led to a variety of symbols and tone
signs. The work done by Endemann (1876), Beyer (1920), Meinhof's "Ur-Bantu",
and Schwellnus' "Sepedi-Transvaal Sesotho" are examples of this period.

The classical period resulted in some grammatical classification and concepts being
forced upon the African languages without recognition of the uniqueness of their
grammatical structure. Internationally, this era was marked by emphasis on
historical and comparative studies. This trend also found its way into some African
linguistic field, as in the work of Meinhof, Bleek (1862, 1869) and Torrend (1895)
(Kosch, 1993:15). The teaching of African languages emphasised translation
exercises, a third language approach and the explanation of grammatical
phenomenon where students were expected to accept and learn in a stereotyped
way without questioning the material presented (Kosch, 1993:27). Language study
was thus based only on grammatical competence, which failed to recognise
function and negotiation of meaning in various social contexts, an approach that
would not be suitable for first language teaching. Due to these factors, this era will
only be recognised for the solid linguistic foundation that it provided for African
languages and be rejected on the grounds that it provides a narrow description of
language not relevant to this study.

2.2.2 The functional period

This period is identified between the beginning of the twentieth century and the
early sixties. It is better known as the Dokeian period. Doke, a great missionary
linguist, addressed two major issues in African languages, namely, the identification
of the Bantu word and the classification of word categories (Kosch, 1993:30). Doke
 9

defined the Bantu word as "that sound or group of sounds which is subject to one
main stress and only one" (Doke, 1935:220, as quoted by Louwrens, 1991:3). His
findings subscribe to the conjunctive method of word division. These theories made
a deep impact on Bantu grammatical description. The principles underlying Doke's
classification of word categories, which viewed function as dominating over form,
have probably been responsible for this period being labelled as the functional
period (Wilks, 1978a:150, as quoted by Kosch, 1993:31). Therefore it should not
be confused as synonymous with the functional linguistic approach of the Prague
School. It is important to note that in Northern Sotho the traditional approach was
mostly still adhered to during this era (Kosch, 1993:104). This attitude prevented
the development of Northern Sotho, which leaves this language a distance behind
as new language approaches emerges.

Internationally, this era coincided with the Bloomfieldian linguistic model.. Doke, like
Bloomfield, regarded the study of language as mechanistic in that he believed that
linguistic competence is a set of habits acquired by learning (Kosch, 1993:34/35).
Such a structural view to language study, is limiting because it is only interested in
what is observable and neglects the underlying cognitive processes of the speaker-
hearer of a language, a view more relevant to first language studies, and thus is
limited for this study.

2.2.3 The structural period

The structural period emerged during the 1960's. It is also known as Van Wyk's
period, in order to differentiate it from the functional period which displays some
affinities with Bloomfieldian structuralism. This period is also referred to as the
"new" structural model (Kosch, 1993:53). Until this period, there were debates
around the identification and division of the Bantu word. Credit is given to Van
Wyk's doctoral thesis, titled "Woordverdeling in Noord-Sotho en Zulu", which made
him the first South African linguist to develop his own method and technique for the
identification and division of words in African languages. His theory was based on
two fundamental scientific principles, namely, isolability and mobility (Louwrens,
1991:7). His work paved the way for descriptive Bantu linguistic and thus advanced
the study of Bantu grammar as a scientific discipline (Kosch, 1993:54). Works of
 10

Mojapelo, Mokgokong, Mashabela, Louwrens and Lombard are some Northern

Sotho contributions of this period. Van Wyk's research was based on a theory by a
Dutch linguist, Reichling, which was more mentalistically oriented while Bloomfield's
believed that all scientific knowledge was based on and should be derivable from
experience. Reichling, on the other hand, believed that the language is a system
which underlay language performance, was not directly accessible to primary
observations (Kosch, 1993:55). This period focused on structural issues and had
little attention to semantics and syntax which limits its relevance to this study,
because it fails to recognise that language study involves structure, function and
negotiation of meaning in various contexts.

2.2.4 The modern period

The seventies saw the beginning of a modern period to the study of language the
transformational-generative grammar. The modern period also led to the study and
description of African languages based on synchronic studies of syntax (Kock,
1992:5). This period saw Bantu linguistic description opening to a variety of
international developments at approximately the same time. Not much work used
the transformational grammar approach in Bantu linguistics, except in word
categories like adjectives, pronouns, relative clauses and conjoined subjects, which
lend themselves to such a study. Most work done was in the Nguni languages, but
its dominance did not last because many analysis especially in Northern Sotho
used the taxonomic approach of the structural era (Kosch, 1993:75). The trend
during this era was towards other approaches as discourse analysis, functional
sentence perspective, relational grammar, rank-shifting and natural developmental
approaches (Kosch, 1993:76). Contributions done in Northern Sotho in this era
include works from Nchabeleng, Nokaneng and Louwrens, Legodi, Kock, Grobler
and Mawasha (Kosch, 1993:88-90). Louwrens' publications played a major role in
introducing the functional approach to Bantuists and he worked within a discourse
analytical perspective in the Northern Sotho doctoral thesis (Kosch, 1993:83).

Northern Sotho linguists did not use the possibilities offered by Chomsky's
transformational generative grammar because they were reluctant to exchange Van
Wyk's concrete structural approach for the more abstract theoretical approach of
 11

Chomsky (Kosch, 1993:101). As much as these Bantuists have worked, they

cannot be expected to keep up with the latest developments in the international
linguistic field when they still have the primary task of researching grammatical
issues in Bantu languages. This era highlights important issues in the study of
Northern Sotho. Firstly, that even though many approaches were introduced during
this period, Northern Sotho remained to operate within structuralism. Secondly,
that in the wake of new changes in linguistics, researchers will always know from
which framework they begin their work.

The conclusion reached in this study, presupposes some knowledge of the didactic
of Northern Sotho to date. Such a study will supply relevant information regarding
the methodological approach practitioner employed in this language.

2.3 THE DIDACTICS OF NORTHERN SOTHO

The various developmental eras in the history of African languages and current
studies in Northern Sotho, indicate the following approaches in the teaching of
these languages and hence Northern Sotho.

During the classical period, initial scholars in African languages were the
missionaries who used western language approaches in the teaching of these
languages and hence Northern Sotho. Subject didactic was a neglected aspect in
the African languages as the main interest in these languages was translation, a
third language approach.

The functional period saw the introduction of the audio-lingual method in the
teaching of African languages. Though a teaching model was not formulated
clearly by Doke, methods used during this era can only be inferred from the
applications of his model. Habit-producing activities, namely pattern practice, drills
and mimicry of the teacher and memorisation of dialogues included some of the
methods used. These methods were not relevant for first language teaching.

Van Wyk's era saw linguists more concerned about the structure of the word in
African languages, which placed emphasis on morphological analysis -
 12

concentration on the structural approach.

The modern era saw a number of approaches emerging. For example, Louwrens
drew Bantuists attention to a functional approach, yet many were too busy with
researching grammatical issues than concern themselves with the didactic of these
languages. The pragmatic approach was used in Northern Sotho works by
Louwrens and Sekhukhune, yet these made wonderful reading with no remarkable
results in practice.

During the late 1980's, the concern by the Department of Education and Training to
design a first language approach for the teaching of African languages was a result
of these languages being taught as second and third languages with Afrikaans or
English second approach (Masola, 1989:90). New syllabi were therefore designed
for standards five to ten between 1987 and 1989. These syllabi failed as first
language syllabi, because even though they emphasised a first language approach,
the content was "traditional", because it did not allow for differentiated teaching and
the grading of subject matter as sections of grammar were repeated in all standards
without variation (Masenya, 1991:92). The only positive move in Northern Sotho
was that these new syllabi were written in the main language unlike the previous
syllabi.

According to Masenya (1991:142-146, 149), a number of approaches are

recommended for the teaching of Northern Sotho. The integrated approach to
language teaching, where teaching oral communication, reading, literature study,
written work and language study should be treated as an integral whole. The
functional-inductive approach, where language should be based on every day
practical language of the pupil, the teacher should select the material, the pupil
should study that material and draw their conclusions; "the structure, syntax and
semantics content of a given aspect should not only be defined, but its form,
meaning and use in a particular situation should be sought" (Masola, 1989:92).
Further, emphasis should be more on language skills than knowledge of formal
grammar and the teaching of mother tongue should be child-centred and practical.
The use of the communicative approach, where the spoken language is taken as
the point of departure, and aspects of language teaching are taught in the context
 13

of everyday spoken language. Tests and assignments to be given regularly and

external examinations to be applied at grade twelve. Finally, we have two types of
syllabi - one for learners who will not need to use Northern Sotho for career
purposes, except as a cultural heritage; and one for those students who want to
continue with the subject at tertiary institutions with a future vision of using it as a
career after school.

In conclusion, the methodology of Northern Sotho has been more structural in

practice and the other approaches have remained more as theories than practice.
It is for this reason that there is a need to investigate international approaches,
mentioned above, and to probe into other new approached. Such a study shall lead
to a broader picture of first language approaches in order to develop authentic first
language teaching guidelines.

2.4 A HISTORICAL LINGUISTICAL PERSPECTIVE

Requirements emerging from linguistic study indicate that there is an ongoing

development of new approaches which necessitate that recently discovered
language approaches be taken into consideration. Thus, general historical
linguistic perspectives will help to develop valid guidelines for first language
teaching relevant for this study. These linguistical perspectives are discussed
below.

2.4.1 The comparative-descriptive approach

In the nineteenth century, the emphasis of language study was on writing

comparative grammars, following an Englishman, Sir William Jones' Sanskrit (the
old Indian language) that indicated striking structural similarities among Indo-
European languages (Aitchison, 1992:22). There was also an attempt to set up a
hypothetical ancestor for these languages. .

According to these linguists, the study of language was purely historical and failed
to even concentrate on the structure of any single language. Particular items were
selected that indicated changes in a number of different languages. This view was
 14

thus a very narrow outlook to language study, because language was not studied
from its structure, functions and various contexts, where social interaction and
negotiation of meaning takes place. What is interesting to observe is that amidst all
the weaknesses, the influence of the nineteenth century scholars was strong, as
there are still linguists who are concerned with linguistic changes and
reconstruction of Proto-Indo European. The strength of this view is also that it did
pave a way to the following century that concentrated on the description of a single
language (Aitchison, 1992:23).

2.4.2 Ferdinand de Saussure's approach

In the twentieth century the emphasis shifted from the study of language change
appearing in a number of different languages to single language description. It was
the Swiss scholar, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) whose theory published
under the title Cours de linguistique generale is regarded as a basis for the whole of
modern linguistics because few linguists would now disclaim structural thinking in
their work (Aitchison, 1992:22/23). De Saussure distinguished between:
Langue, the language system or structure
Parole, the language behaviour or speech
Language, that indicates the power to can be able to speak (Bynon, 1985:1, as
quoted by Geyser, 1992:120).

According to De Saussure, only langue could be the subject of linguistic analysis.

He was the first to suggest that language was like a game of chess; a system in
which each item is defined by its relationship to al the others (Aitchison, 1992:24).
He concentrated on phonology and semantics and did not include syntax because it
is part of parole. De Saussure thus placed emphasis on the structure of a
language initiating the era of structural linguistica.

From De Saussure's theory it is evident that the function of language as social

interaction or negotiation of meaning was not considered. He also views language
in a narrow sense since he restricted linguistics to the study of langue, neglecting
parole, which leads to an impoverished view of language and teaching guidelines.
Such a view of language would not be suitable for this study though it is important
 15

to acknowledge De Saussure's contribution to the structure of language, a vital part

in linguistics. De Saussure's theory was indisputably superior to that of the
historical comparative period of the nineteenth century, in that it moved towards
grammatical description of individual languages, thus observing that each language
is unique. The observation of language behaviour, De Saussure's parole, which
was not mentioned in earlier theories, formed a future basis for further research into
"performance". For the purpose of this study, language structure parole shall be
recognised as an important aspect of language study but not as the only important
subject of linguistic investigation, an idea held by De Saussure. It is for this reason
that De Saussure's theory is irrelevant to this study.

2.4.3 Bloomfield's approach

In 1933, Leonard Bloomfield's (1887-1949) publication entitled Language, emerged

and influenced the study of language for the following twenty years. Bloomfield was
an empiricist who believed that linguistics should deal objectively and systematically
with observable data (Aitchison, 1992:24). Thus Bloomfield looks at language from
what is observable, reducing it to pure science, the linguist should handle what he
could handle within his science, relying on a set of publicly observable operations
directed at publicly observable data (Robins, 1990:239).

Bloomfield rejected the view that language existed in the mind. He was a
behaviourist who believed that language is a stimulus-response process.
Language enables one person to make a reaction (R) when another person has the
stimulus (S) (Bloomfield, 1967:24). He was also an advocate of structuralism.

Bloomfield's theory is in agreement with the behaviouristic approach, the first

language acquisition that focuses on the immediately perceptible aspects of
linguistic behaviour - the publicly observable responses (Brown, 1983:17). This
approach with its emphasis on empirical and scientific method failed to touch the
vast domain that can be explored only by an approach that probes deeper.

According to Bloomfield, linguistics is a science. This view is not concomitant with

the function of language at social interaction or negotiation of meaning. The
 16

structural view of language thus is limiting because it is only interested in the

,

observable, neglecting the underlying cognitive processes of the speaker-hearer of

a language. Such a view to language study shall be limiting for this study in that it
relates to only that which is observable and this study believes that the first
language speaker also has a wealth of knowledge about his/her language that is
displayed in various contexts and which was not acquired through learning of
grammatical rules. The study shall acknowledge that the first language speaker
initially learns language through imitation, an aspect of behaviourism.

2.4.4 Noam Chomsky's approach

A turning point in linguistics was the appearance of syntactic structures in 1957

by American linguist, Noam Chomsky, then teacher at the Massachusetts' Institute
of Technology. In this publication Chomsky introduced what was to be known as
"transformational generative grammar" (Robins, 1990:238). Chomsky looks at
language from the inside, at the competence of the native speaker to use and
understand his own language (Robins, 1990:239).

Chomsky is a rationalist who regarded language as a mental process. First

language acquisition was regarded as a "special activity and capability" that
depended on a particular genetically given component in the mind or brain, the
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) (Robins, 1990:240). Chomsky differed
drastically with structuralism and behaviourism because the latter relied on the
observable data, looking at language from outside when the former looks at
language from inside. Chomsky's view led to distinguishing between competence,
the fluent native speaker's knowledge of his/her language and performance, the
actual use of language in concrete situations (Newmeyer, 1986:71).

Chomsky's approach is in line with the Nativist approach to first language

approach. The latter approach too is derived from the fundamental assertion that
first language acquisition is innately determined, a build-in device is born with us
that predisposes us to language acquisition (Brown, 1983:19). The Nativist
approach, like Chomsky's theory, thus contributed to a freedom from restrictions of
the "scientific method" to explore the unseen, unobservable underlying abstract
 17

linguistic structures being developed in the child; and the description of a child's
language as a legitimate, rule-governed consistent system (Brown, 1983:21/22).

According to Chorrisky, linguistics is primarily concerned with a native speakers'

competence, knowledge of his language and performance should be studied later
(Radford, 1984:2). This generative grammar is a description of a native speaker's
knowledge of his language and thus also narrows the scope of language study with
communicative purpose that acknowledges the sociolinguistic perspective to
language study.

Chomsky openly rejects performance, which is language behaviour, one of the

important aspects of language relevant to a study of language as composed of
structure, functions (Chomsky's performance) and various contexts. For these
reasons, Chomsky's approach is a narrow outlook to language study and would not
be suitable for this study. . Northern Sotho Bantuists too did not employ the
transformational generative grammar because they felt it was abstract and
theoretical and the concrete structural approach was more suitable to their
situation.

2.4.5 Communicative competence

Dell Hymes, Canale and Swain and Sandra Savignon laid a foundation for the
communicative approach.

2.4.5.1 Dell Hymes

In the early seventies, the American anthropologist, Dell Hymes, coined the term
communicative competence, which enables us to convey and interpret messages
and to negotiate meanings interpersonally and within specific contexts (Brown,
1983:199).

Hymes communicative competence (Berns, 1990:30) was a reaction to two aspects

of Chomskyan's view of language and linguistics. For Hymes, the linguist's talk is
not only the description of what a speaker knows about grammar, Chomsky's
 18

grammatical competence, but also knowledge of appropriateness, which is

knowledge of sociolinguistic rules and is separate from knowledge of grammatical
rules. Hymes also conceded that language use is a meaning making activity and
thus no account of language can be considered descriptively adequate without the
performance features, the kind Chomsky excluded, were allowed in, because they
can influence meaning (Berns, 1990:30).

According to Brumfit and Johnson (1979:14), Dell Hymes listed four sectors of
competence. The first sector concerns whether or not something is "formally
possible" and is roughly equivalent to Chomsky's restricted notion of competence
as grammatical. The second, deals with whether and to what degree something is
"feasible". A sentence can be grammatically possible but be hardly feasible in
virtue of the means of implementation available. For example: The mouse the cat
the dog the man the woman married beat chased ate had a white tail.

This sentence is grammatically possible but because of our restricted powers of

processing such a sentence, it cannot be said to form part of our competence. The
third sector covers appropriateness to context, that is whether something is
appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used
and evaluated. The fourth concerns whether or not something is in fact done,
actually performed and what its doing entails. A sentence may be possible,
feasible, appropriate and not occurs.

Competence thus includes variables such as attitude, motivation and a number of

socio-cultural factors and is the way we use language in different registers. The
latter is regarded as a variety of languages used for a specific purpose (Brown,
1983:208). This ability to be able to converse in a different style depending on the
need of a situation is vital for first language speakers. In these ways the notion of
competence is not restricted to competence as grammatical. Together with the
functionalist approach of British functional linguists like Halliday and Firth,
communicative competence laid a foundation for the communicative approach to
language teaching.
 19

2.4.5.2 Canale and Swain

According to Richards and Rodgers (1986:71) in 1980, Canale and Swain

suggested four components of communicative competence which were further
refined by Canale in 1983. The first component covers grammatical competence,
which is knowledge of the sentence of a language. The second component
describes sociolinguistic competence, which is an understanding of the social
context in which communication takes place including role relationships, the shared
information of participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction. The
third covers discourse competence, the interpretation of individual message
elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented
in relationship to the entire discourse or text. The fourth component concerns
strategic competence, the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate,
terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication. Like Hymes, Canale and
Swain's interpretation of communicative competence laid a foundation for
communicative approach to language teaching.

2.4.5.3 Sandra Savignon

In 1983, Sandra Savignon's view of communicative competence, an extension and

reinterpretation of Hymes' concept, was based on the work of Canale and Swain
(Berns, 1990:89). Savignon believed that the goal of any teaching programme is
the development of a learner's communicative competence, which is the
expression, interpretation and negotiation of meaning involving interaction between
two or more persons, or between one person and a written or oral text (Savignon,
1983:249).

Savignon recognised the role played by social and cultural experience, in the act of
communication aspects that were not considered by the comparative linguists of the
nineteenth century and the structuralists of the twentieth century. Her theoretical
framework thus lays a foundation for the communicative approach to language
teaching, yet communicative competence fails to strike a balance between the two
extremes, those who lay emphasis on structure and those who put stress on
function in language study. It is for this reason that this approach cannot be
 20

adopted for this study.

2.4.6 The functionalist approach

Functional approaches to linguistics were a brainchild of the Prague School, which

can be described as "structuralist" and "functionalist" (Berns, 1990:2). Structuralists
describe Prague School scholars' concern that elements of a language can be
viewed in relation to other elements coexisting in the same language, whilst
functionalists apply to Prague School because any item of language exists solely
because it serves some function (Berns, 1990:2). The British functional linguists
like John Firth and Michael Halliday, shall now be discussed.

2.4.6.1 John Firth

Firth, a British historian-turned-linguist insisted upon seeing language primarily as a

means used by people to function in society, what he termed the sociological
component of linguistic studies (Berns, 1990:6). He defined meaning as function
in context, thus in agreement with Michael Halliday as discussed hereunder..

2.4.6.2 Michael Halliday

Michael Halliday, a functionalist linguist, acknowledged as the most outstanding in

taking Firth's ideas and developing them into a theory of language commonly
known as systemic-functional, maintains that language is organised into meta-
functions (Berns, 1990:11, 15). Halliday proposed seven basic functions that
language performs for children learning their first language. These functions are as
follows: the instrumental function: using language to get things; the regulatory
function: using language to control the behaviour of others; the interactional
function: using language to create interaction with others; the personal function:
using language to express personal feelings and meanings; the heuristic function:
using language to learn and to discover; the imaginative function: using language to
create a world of the imagination; and the representational function: using language
to communicate information.
 21

Halliday makes connections between context, situation and language varieties, and
he developed the concept register whilst investigating the interaction of language
and the social system. The concept, register, will be an important concept in this
research. Halliday and Dell Hymes laid foundations towards a communicative
approach to language teaching whilst leaving structuralism behind.

A list of function in language study gives a third language approach element, where
language is seen as a facilitating instrument to perform certain functions and only
those that are listed. In practice, a first language performs unlimited functions in
various contexts. On the other hand, those functions cannot be performed outside
a particular structure of a language as the impression given by the functionalist
approach. For these reasons, this approach shall be unacceptable for purposes of
this study.

2.4.7 The communicative approach

The term communicative approach has largely been understood to describe any
approach to language teaching that claims to be based on a view of language as
communication. According to Brown (1983:213), four interconnected charac-
teristics are given as a definition to communicative language teaching. These
characteristics include firstly, that classroom goals are focused on all the
components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or
linguistic competence. Secondly, that form is not the primary framework for
organising and sequencing lessons - function is the framework through which forms
are taught and that accuracy is secondary to conveying a message. Thirdly, that
fluency may take on more importance than accuracy because the ultimate criterion
for communicative success is the actual transmission and receiving of intended
meaning. Fourthly, that in the communicative classroom students ultimately have
to use language productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contents.

This approach is a departure from the attention traditionally paid to presentation

and discussion of grammatical rules. The communicative approach suggests that
grammatical structure might be better subsumed under various functional
categories. Use of authentic language as an attempt to build fluency is encouraged
 22

(Brown, 1983:213). Spontaneity is emphasised in communicative classrooms and

thus students are encouraged to deal with unrehearsed situations under the
guidance, but not control of the teacher.

Students must engage in communicative processes such as information sharing,

negotiation of meaning and interaction (Richards & Rodgers, 1986:76). These
processes appear in Savignon's interactionary approach, which is the
"...interpretation and negotiating of meaning involving interaction between two or
more persons" (Berns, 1990:88/89). Grammatical structures are still a vital
component in communicative classrooms, yet they should be subsumed under
various functional categories. Contextualisation, a basic premise of functionalism
and development of communicative competence, presupposes that teachers should
create real context so that the social context of a communicative event can give
meaning to the utterances (Larsen-Freeman, 1986:128).

According to Berns (1990:104), some of the characteristics of the communicative

language teaching approach include first that language is used as a social tool,
which speakers use to make meaning as speakers communicate about something
to someone for some purpose, either orally or in writing. Canale and Swain's
discourse competence that can be "...units of spoken or written texts", and
Savignon's "...application to both spoken and written language" (Savignon, 1983:8).
The second characteristic maintains that culture is recognised as playing an
instrumental role in shaping a speaker's communicative competence both in their
first and subsequent languages. The third, that no single methodology or fixed set
of techniques is prescribed. The fourth, maintains that it is essential that learners
be engaged in doing things with language, that is, that they use language for a
variety of purposes in all phases of learning, and finally, that language use is
recognised as serving an ideational, the interpersonal and the textual functions and
is related to the development of learners' competence in each.

The interpersonal function represents the speakers' potential to establish and

maintain social relationships and identifies and reinforces the speaker as an
individual. The textual functions of the ideational function represents the meaning
potential of speakers as observers of the situation (Berns, 1990:15).
 23

Advocates of communicative competence discussed above, mention other

components of language study, including grammatical knowledge, yet they still fail
to recognise the dynamic interrelationship that exists between language function
and language structure and that this link occurs in a particular context. The various
components of language are regarded as isolated entities and thus the impression
given is that in classroom situations each component should be dealt with
individually.

There is also a tendency for adherents of the communicative approach to place

emphasis on communication at the expense of form. Goslin (in Kosch, 1993:102)
aptly verbalises that an outright functional teaching model without a structural
(grammatical) component would be inadequate. Thus, there is a need to describe a
more balanced approach between these two extremes, namely strict formalism and
strict functionalism because such an approach would be more suitable to this study.
It is for this reason that a brief review of pragmatics is inevitable.

2.4.8 The pragmatic approach

The study of pragmatics emerged in the early eighties. It is concerned with the
origin, uses and effects of utterances and is very closely related to the speech act
theory as an illocutionary act (Kosch, 1993:85). Pragmatics thus study speech acts
as goal-directed communication units which need to be understood in relation to the
particular context of the situation in which they are used (Kosch, 1993:85). Austin
with his work entitled "How to do things with words", is a person who is credited with
generating interest in pragmatics (Thomas, 1995:28). This definition of pragmatics
as a study of the language user's correct use of sentences in context, places
pragmatics on an equal footing with socio-linguistics and the communicative ability
(Van Jaarsveld, 1986:22 as quoted by Geyser, 1992:124). Pragmatics is thus
viewed as another component of linguistic theory (the communicative function of
language), next to other components being grammar and semantics (the structure
of language) (Geyser, 1992:126). Semantics are also placed in the domain of
grammar (the linguistic system or code) which is descriptive, whilst pragmatics is
regarded as the domain of the rhetoric (the implementation of the code) which is
principle governed, thus normative in nature (Leech, 1980:4).
 24

This approach to language study thus closes the gap between the two extremes of
approaches to language study namely, strict formalism on one hand and strict
functionalism on the other. A pragmatic approach begins by placing the student
directly in the world of experience, because it assumes that the world is a
spatio/temporal reality with the properties of wholeness and continuity. Yet it is also
notable that pragmatics goes to related situations, not to unrelated situations.

This approach shall be regarded as relevant to this study because it begins from
forming a dynamic relationship between language functions and language structure
within particular contexts. This approach maintains that contexts is primary in the
interaction between the two poles, a component that was not envisaged in this
manner by approaches that emphasised structuralism nor those that emphasised
functionalism.

The pragmatic perspective in language study can be diagrammatically represented

as follows:

LANGUAGE

Pragmatic perspective

Language functions Language structure

An informative function A dynamic interaction Grammar

An intentional function Semantics
A socialisation function within context Pragmatics
A contextual function

Figure 2.1: The Pragmatic perspective of language (Geyser, 1992:127)

Pragmatics thus is concerned with two kinds of contexts. The first is the linguistic
context - the discourse. Discourse suggests the second kind of context - situational
 25

or knowledge of the world (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998:190/191). Discourse is know-

ledge of combining sentences together to express complex thoughts and ideas.
Discourse analysis is concerned with linguistic competence and linguistic
performance. Pragmatics is also about language use, thus performative verbs are
used or implied in discourse, like bet in "I bet you twenty rands Bafana Bafana will
win"; challenge as in "I challenge you to a game of chess". The speech acts theory
describes how language is used to do things (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998:197).

Context in language teaching refers to the situation in which two or more persons
communicate. Such contexts differ depending on the function of language. For
example, language used for advertisements has a convincing, persuasive function,
and thus the context would be formal and business like, whereas the structure
would be formal since the buyers are not known people to the seller. But if the
same seller would come home to her children and talk about the products she is
selling, the function would be informative. Where such children are informally
informed about her business venture and probably seek help with no intention of
selling to the family members, the context would be informal and relaxed. Hence
the structure of the language would be informal and familiar to the home. It is for
such reasons that Halliday developed the concept of register as a variety of
language used for a specific purpose.

Key issues in pragmatics are closely related to key issues in outcomes-based

education. The outcomes of significance are related to the functions that relate to
life situations in pragmatics as indicated in the above figure. Language can be
used, for example, for socialisation purposes; for informational purposes and for
persuasion. Learning experiences should occur in life contexts and similarly
pragmatics requires that language functions occur in life contexts. These learning
experiences imply activity on the part of the participants, as is the case in
pragmatics where the speakers are actively involved in speech. The obvious
difference is that in outcomes-based education language will be used not for its
sake, but to involve participants in preplanned activities designed to help them after
they have graduated. Thus, in first language teaching using the pragmatic
approach, it shall be important to begin by stating the outcomes, then selecting the
proper language to help achieve such outcomes. Pragmatics is related to
 26

discourse analysis, situational context and use of language to fulfil certain functions
that will benefit learners in later life.

Flowing from the literature review undertaken in African languages above, it is

important to realise that some Bantuists were aware of such an approach, and
contributions relating to the general pragmatic trend can be attributed to authors like
Mokgokong with his work entitled "Context as a. determinant of meaning with
special reference to Northern Sotho", and Sekhukhune's "Pragmatics of discourse
in Northern Sotho" (Kosch, 1993:99). These publications were written, but did not
in practice remarkably change studies of Northern Sotho first language from its
ongoing emphasis on structure to that of a dynamic interrelationship between
structure and function in contexts. It is for this reason that guidelines based on the
pragmatic approach should be developed for first language teaching.

205 GUIDELINES FOR FIRST LANGUAGE TEACHING

The following guidelines for first language teaching are recommended:

The starting point in first language teaching should be to identify and describe the
learning outcome, in the particular language. This will indicate the function that
language will fulfil in the life of the learner. The use of operational verbs like
analyse, organise, design, write, produce, dramatise, versus verbs like appreciate,
remember, understand, think, reflect, when writing outcomes, because with the
latter verbs internal mental processes are implied and does not directly translate
into observable action. These outcomes should indicate the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that learners will achieve after that language experience. For example:

You have been at a scene of an accident and have been called upon to be a
witness. How would you use nouns, adverbs and adjectives to describe the
scene of this accident? instead of,

Identify four types of nouns, adverbs and adjectives that you remember from
the lesson.
 27

The former example provides a learner with a life situation, and the latter leaves the
learner surprised as to what is the use of such an activity in the learning of his/her
mother tongue.

The teacher should then find suitable activities and contexts relevant for a
pragmatic approach to first language teaching. Therefore such contexts and
activities should start with recognising the dynamic relationship that exist between
language structure and language functions in particular contexts. Thus, for
example, suitable paragraphs, comprehension passages, extracts from prescribed
books, available newspaper cuttings, illustrations, videos, creation of scenarios,
visits to libraries, all from the specific language content should be the suitable
contexts for language teaching. For example:

Read the ingredients stipulated on the supplied Willard Potato Chips

packets, and discuss in-groups whether such ingredients are nutritious.
Write a letter to the manager for further suggestions based on your findings.

The physical contexts should cease to be mainly the classroom, because there are
areas that could require visits to the actual places, like authors, cultural artefacts,
monuments, kraals, various information. In the above activity, the learners will
need to move to the home economics centre, or visit a dietician after school for
information. These activities should integrate all language skills, that is, listening,
speaking, writing and reading. In the above example, the learners will speak to
each other during discussions, they will listen to points of views, they will read for
information on nutrition and will finally write a letter, thus integrating all four
communication skills. The teacher in the above situation has also made use of an
aid, the potato chips packets.

For first language situations such contexts and activities should be related to the
learners' previous experience, like supplying learners with a packet of potato chips,
which you know they are familiar with in the above example. Thus, the contextual
needs of learners and the needs of the language users are to be considered in the
selection. Such activities should be interdisciplinary, a need for team teaching or
rather interest in what everyone around is engaged in. Various learning strategies
 28

should be used to suit the individual learning styles of learners.

For purposes of this study, the problem of availability of written material covering
most topics especially for interdisciplinary purposes in Northern Sotho will face
teachers and learners for some time to come. There is a need for translations,
and this will be a very important concept in the next few years, and implies that both
the Northern Sotho teachers and learners should begin to acquaint themselves with
the principles of translations to meet the demands of the new Curriculum 2005. In
the above learning activity, Northern Sotho learners shall read content in either
English or Afrikaans on proteins, carbohydrates, fat and dietary fibre.

Teachers should stimulate the learners, and engage them in the activities. When
learners are stimulated, they begin their task with enthusiasm, therefore teachers
should create stimulating situations prior to learning activities. Use a previous day
news item to initiate debate, discuss a controversial cartoon strip, supply a
stimulating learning media, for example, giving them the potato chips packets in the
above example should be stimulating to learners, depending on their level of
development. Make sure that such activities relate to the activities designed for the
lesson and are suitable to the needs and outcomes of the lesson.

Learners should be engaged in the learning activities as individuals, in pairs or in

groups. The teacher should be a facilitator of the process and not an authority. In
the pragmatic approach, the speakers should engage in the various language
contexts to experience that people use a variety of language forms depending on
the situation and experience the structure of language they use, and the
need/function of that language. The teacher cannot afford to instruct learners in
pragmatics if they are to experience such an interrelationship.

The teachers together with the learners should draw conclusions for all activities
that learners were engaged in, for instance in the above example, after the
discussions about the ingredients of the packet, the groups can report back; after
reading on nutrition and visiting the home economics teacher or the dietician, they
can report back; and finally when they have discussed their findings they can report
back before writing the letters.
 29

Teachers can draw such conclusions from individual learners, in pairs or in groups,
depending on the classroom setting. This is also an opportune moment for the
teacher to inculcate skills, such as critical thinking, effective learning styles, problem
solving, analysis, synthesis, by posing questions and probing whilst walking
between the groups during such activities.

Finally, the learning outcomes should be assessed. According to the pragmatic

approach, which integrates, functions, and the structure of a language in different
contexts, this implies the use of assessing activities dealing with some functions
whilst in process and that some will be based on teacher made test. This means
therefore that a variety of assessment strategies should be used in assess such
learning outcomes. In the above example, the first language teacher could wish to
assess the use of language by individual learners, whilst discussing in groups to
reach some of their conclusions or groups reporting back and may take their written
letters and assess them personally. On the whole, it is the teacher's task to assess
whenever deemed appropriate and should not necessarily wait until a particular
task is finalised. What should be borne in mind, is that the assessment criteria
should be set clearly and should ensure the attainment of the learning outcomes.

2.6 CONCLUSION

The development of linguistics from the comparative-descriptive approach through

to the pragmatist approach have contributed to inform the methodology, principles
to language teaching that has contributed to suitable guidelines for first language
teaching.

This historical study of African languages also surfaced vital information regarding
the status of Northern Sotho as a first language and how it adapted to new
approaches as they emerged over the years. In the 1980's some scholars in
Northern Sotho wrote broadly on the didactic approaches that should be used for
teaching in this language. Further, these scholars did not integrate these
approaches, a situation that left teachers to adopt either functionalism or
structuralism as separate extremes, out of context; and to segregate the different
parts of the language syllabus.
 30

The guidelines discussed above indicate that the key issues here are to identify and
describe learning outcomes and select only essential content in that language
which will help attaining such outcomes, that language should be taught in contexts,
considering that both the function and structure; and that activity is vital in
pragmatist, implying the active involvement of learners in all learning activities and
teachers acting as facilitators. These findings are vital for a proper framework
within which this study is to pursue.

In chapter 3 the guidelines for teaching according to an outcomes-based approach

shall be outlined by integrating findings from a study of key issues in teaching
according to an outcomes-based approach, a study of the adoption of outcomes-
based education in South Africa and the guidelines for first language teaching
developed in chapter 2.
 31

CHAPTER 3

OUTCOMES-BASED TEACHING GUIDELINES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim in this chapter is to develop guidelines for teaching according to the
outcomes-based approach. A literature review from both international and local
perspectives on outcomes-based education (OBE) shall be undertaken. Such a
study shall look into the origin of outcomes-based education, it's philosophical
premise, and it's characteristics and how this approach is implemented in schools.
The approaches of teaching according to an outcomes-based approach gathered
from such a study, together with an examination of the adoption of outcomes-based
education in the South African context shall be integrated with guidelines for first
language teaching done in chapter 2 to develop outcomes-based guidelines.

3.2 THE ORIGIN OF OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION

According to Van der Horst and McDonald (1997:10-12), outcomes-based educa-

tion has its origin from competency based education, mastery learning and
criterion-referenced assessment.

3.2.1 Competency-based education

Competency-based education was essentially a response to the changing job

market in the 1960's when people such as businessmen questioned whether
education was adequately preparing students for life-roles. The idea was that
competency-based education should be built around the integration of outcome
goals, in terms of specific skills, instructional experience and assessment devices
(King & Evans, 1991:74). This definition was not effected in practice. Competency-
based education frequently became a testing and remediation programme focused
on basic skills. Though this system contained all elements of outcomes-based
education, it failed due to lack of agreement on what were considered essential
competencies (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997:10).
 32

3.2.2 Mastery learning

The mastery learning concept can be traced back to more than 50 years ago when
Ralph Tyler stated that a well written objective should identify both the behaviour to
be developed in the student and the area of content or of life in which the behaviour
is to be applied (King & Evans, 1991:73). Benjamin Bloom, and his colleagues
believed that mastery learning means that if proper conditions can be provided,
most of the learners can actually master most objectives. The latter confirmed the
growing concept that all students could master desired outcomes, if educators were
willing to vary the time and instructional alternatives (Malan, 1997:14).

3.2.4 Criterion-referenced assessment

A further root of outcomes-based education is criterion-referenced assessment

(Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997:12). This way of assessing and reporting a
student's achievement and progress in comparison to predetermined criteria, is
preferred in outcomes-based education over norm-referenced which is assessment
and reporting of student's achievement and progress in comparison to other
students (South Africa, 1997:28). Criterion-referenced assessment places a
learner's test outcome on a scale ranging from no proficiency to excellent or perfect
performance and is thus appropriate for OBE (Van der Horst & McDonald,
1997:12).

In conclusion, these three outcomes-based education roots, namely, competency-

based education, mastery learning and criterion-referenced assessment shall
facilitate this study.

3.3 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

According to Spady and Marshall (1991:67), outcomes-based education is founded

on three basic premises. The first premise, that all learners can learn and succeed
(but not on the same day in the same way), ensures that education is committed to
high expectations for successful learning of all students (Boschee & Baron, 1993:3).
The second premise, is that success breeds success. Such a belief maintains that,
 33

if a learner experiences success, they are motivated to work harder to succeed

again. The third premise, is that schools control the conditions of success. It is
believed that it is the schools that create and control the conditions under which
learners succeed (Boschee & Baron, 1993:3).

An additional imperative premise is the formation of partnerships, where all vital

stakeholders, share in the responsibility of vital decision making as significant
resources for every learner's success (Boschee & Baron, 1993:3). For purposes of
this study, these basic outcomes-based education premises shall have to inform all
facilitators engaging in this approach.

3.4 KEY ISSUES IN OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION

Key issues in outcomes-based education identified from a study of international

outcomes-based practices, shall be given below, and shall be integrated with
guidelines for first language teaching done in chapter 2. This information together
with key issues identified in the South African adoption of outcomes-based
education, shall be used to develop guidelines for outcomes-based teaching
guidelines. These outcomes-based education key issues are identified in the
following section.

3.4.1 Identifying and defining outcomes versus content

Learning outcomes serve as the point of departure in outcomes-based education

versus selecting content as was the case in the old paradigm. According to Spady
(1994:49), outcomes are defined as "the learning results we desire from students
that lead to culminating demonstrations". Outcomes are not a collection or average
of previous learning experience but a manifestation of what learners can do once
they have had and completed all of those experiences. Certainly, specific content is
vital, but a distinction should be made between content that is just enriching and
content that is essential for students to develop into high level performers on a
framework of culmination outcomes (Spady, 1994:53).
 34

On the other hand, outcomes are not what students feel, believe, know or
understand because these are all internal mental processes rather than clear
demonstrations of learning. Outcomes are what students actually can do with what
they know and understand (Spady, 1994:49). It is therefore important to avoid non-
demonstrable verbs, like feel, know, understand (kgoma, tseba, kweia) in defining
outcomes because "it may be unclear what students actually are supposed to do to
show that these processes exist" (Spady, 1994:58). Instead use demonstrable
verbs, like write (ngwala), design (hlama), produce (tweletta), which translate
directly into observable action and that we can directly assess (Spady, 1994:58).

Similarly, in first language teaching, the pragmatic approach also stresses the
importance of identifying and describing the learning outcomes using operational
verbs as the starting point in first language teaching and the content shall depend
on the context in which language is used. Further, such outcomes should be based
on the function of language usage, because function presupposes the various life
situations in which language is used, for example, "Diragatta dipopego tha polelo".

3.4.2 Selection of an appropriate outcomes based approach

-

In outcomes-based education, identification and description of learning outcomes is

based on any of the three outcomes-based approaches identified by Spady and
Marshall (1991:68-70), as the traditional, transitional and transformational
outcomes-based approaches.

If learning outcomes are based on the traditional outcomes-based approach,

compared to the bottom of the mountain, the traditional zone (Spady, 1994:19),
existing curriculum content and structure are taken, and what is truly important for
students to learn to a high level of performance is determined. This level thus has
the least complex forms of demonstrations with a strong content grounding, which
makes these demonstrations "not generalisable across other areas of the
curriculum or other performance contexts; the school becomes the only place
where demonstrations are performed" (Spady, 1994:19). In the past, learning
outcomes in the teaching Northern Sotho were based on the traditional level, which
did not empower learners for life after school and this led amongst others, to
 35

did not empower learners for life after school and this led amongst others, to
demotivation of some learners and facilitators of the language.

When outcomes are based on the transitional outcomes-based approach, typified

as the transitional zone of the mountain (Spady, 1994:20), the focus is on "higher
order" outcomes, in response to the question 'What is the most essential for our
students to know, be able to do and be like in order to be successful once they've
graduated?". Higher-order competencies, for example, proposing solutions to
multifaceted problems; and complex unstructured task performances, for example,
students creating their own projects, are found (Spady, 1994:20). There is
emphasis on "broad attitudinal, affective, motivational and relational qualities or
orientations", working at higher level competencies, such as critical thinking,
effective communication, technological applications and complex problem solving
(Spady & Marshall, 1991:69). The latter similarly expresses communicative
functions as expounded in the pragmatic approach to language teaching but goes
beyond to other areas, for example, technological application.

When outcomes are identified from the transitional outcomes-based approach,

typified as the transitional zone of the mountain (Spady, 1994:20), such outcomes
focuses on "higher order" exit outcomes, in response to the question: 'What is most
essential for our students to know, be able to do, and be like in order to be
successful once they've graduated?" This level has relatively complex demon-
strations, grounded in the kinds of competence that transcend given subject areas,
that can use many kinds of content and different kinds of performance contexts
than outcomes in the traditional zone (Spady, 1994:19/20). Higher-order
competencies, for example, proposing solutions to multifaceted problems; and
complex unstructured task performances, for example, students creating their own
projects, are found at this level (Spady, 1994:20).

Finally, when outcomes are identified from the transformational outcomes-based

approach, typified as the highest level of the mountain, the transformational zone,
such outcomes require facilitators to depart from the formal curriculum and its
content categories as the starting point and purpose of learning (Spady, 1994:20).
This level is grounded in real-world contexts, where students demonstrate what
 36

real people do to be successful on a continuing basis in their career, family and

community (Spady, 1994:21). Therefore transformational outcomes-based educa-
tion, is future-oriented and visionary (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997:19). In the
teaching of Northern Sotho too transformational outcomes-based education shall be
most suitable.

This approach is grounded on the question: "Why do schools exist in this day and
age?" and the answer to this is "...to equip all students with the knowledge,
competence, and orientations needed for success after they leave school" (Spady &
Marshall, 1991:70). The execution of the complex role performances at this level,
"require the highest degree of ownership, integration, synthesis, and application of
prior learning, because they must respond to the complexity of real-life performance
contexts" (Spady, 1994:19).

In the teaching of Northern Sotho, in the South African context, transformational

outcomes-based approach selected by the National Department of Education, shall
be used as a basis from which outcomes will be identified and described.

3.4.3 Learner experience

Consideration of learner's experience in outcomes-based education is vital. It is

necessary to consider the knowledge, skills, attitudes and preconceptions that
students have prior to instruction when teaching is focused on achievement of
particular outcomes (Killen, 1996:7).

It is therefore important to give a detailed specification of the prerequisites that

students need to master before attempting to develop their new knowledge, skills
and attitudes, and assess the students' prerequisite knowledge, so that if found
inadequate then provide instruction of such prerequisite (Killen, 1996:11). In the
past, teaching of first language was to begin from the known to the unknown, but
failed to actually provide instruction if such prerequisites were lacking, as is
required in an outcomes-based practice.
 37

Consideration of learning experience shall be vital for this study but serious
problems in some South African schools shall be experienced where large classes
in the teaching of Northern Sotho with insufficient manpower are a norm.

3.4.4 Selection of learning activities in context versus teaching

Outcomes-based practice requires active learning and thus it is vital that after
identifying and describing learning outcomes, facilitators should select suitable
learning activities, in various contexts/situations, that will ensure the attainment of
such outcomes. Selection of learning activities has implications for selection of
suitable content that is essential for attainment of desired outcomes. Content is tied
to performance abilities critical for learners' future success (Spady, 1994:52). In the
old paradigm, teachers would select content and prepare thoroughly for teaching in
their first language classrooms without necessarily relating such content to
demonstrations that would benefit learners after school.

Learners are expected to be responsible for their own learning, to work to become
more independent in their thinking and be hard workers (Van der Horst &
McDonald, 1997:14) Therefore, outcomes-based education proposes active
learning, only possible through learner-centred activities versus passive learning
made possible by teacher centred activities. The pragmatic approach to first
language teaching also requires the first language teacher to design activities
around various functions of language in which learners will be expected to take an
active role, so that they should be able to distinguish the various ways in which
language is used according to specific contexts. Successful attainment of
outcomes for all learners would be facilitated by selecting the best instructional
strategies. This should include a variety of strategies that would suit different
learning styles, rates of learning, cultural values and lifestyles that affect the
learners' construction of knowledge and personal circumstances (South Africa,
1995:11/12). These strategies include, for example, role-play, music, stories, song,
dance, use of multimedia like magazines, newspapers and other resources.

Time should be used flexibly, so that each learner engages in learning activities at
their own tempo to ensure achievement of outcomes. Facilitators should provide
 38

assistance to ensure that all learners succeed. Such assistance can be enhanced
by selecting optimal learning environments, which should be properly managed to
facilitate learning of students who are concurrently working towards different short-
term outcomes. Different learning contexts should be used, so that learning must
relate to real life performance contexts (Spady, 1994:18).

3.4.5 Assessing outcomes versus grading

Assessment of outcomes is preferred in outcome-based education because it

typically implies the use of methods other than traditional paper and pencil testing.
Assessment goes beyond grades, scores and averages. It concerns itself with what
students will carry with them throughout and beyond their formal schooling that
cannot be developed inside of any single segment of curriculum (Spady, 1994:51).

3.4.5.1 Why do we assess?

Assessment is carried out mainly to measure learning outcomes. In addition, other

purposes are improvement of teaching, curriculum and conditions for learners'
learning (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997:173). Facilitators need to assess current
levels of knowledge, skills and attitudes in order to determine learning outcomes; to
plan activities, facilitators need to assess work habit, independence, interests,
previous experiences, social relationships and learning styles; and to plan sources,
materials and teaching media, teachers must assess previous experiences,
competence with materials, comprehension level and interests (Van der Horst &
McDonald, 1997:174).

Assessment data is used to promote learning because it is used to motivate

learners and can be used to carry vital decisions about learners, like, grouping and
placement, promotion, vocational counselling , referral of learners to remedial or
special classes. Finally, assessment is used to communicate with parents on the
progress of their children; including all other stakeholders who have an input into
the education of learners, like taxpayers, the business sector and the state.
 39

3.4.5.2 Who assesses?

Assessment is carried out by the learner (self-assessment), peers (peer

assessment) and/or the teacher (teacher assessment). In some instances, the
teacher can ask parents or any other specialists to help in the assessment of
learners' work.

Self-assessment is a learner-centred assessment practice that promotes learning

and empowers the learner to have a say in the instructional process. It is quicker for
teachers to monitor student self-assessment than to do all the assessment by
themselves. Nevertheless, teachers need to pay special attention when self-
assessment is used, because many learners may need help in learning how to
assess their academic skills and performance appropriately (Van der Horst &
McDonald, 1997:201)

Learner-centred assessment requires students to think about what they are doing,
why they are doing it and how they can improve. Results can be recorded in
journals, discussed in small groups, or recorded on teacher designed forms. They
help students to learn more about themselves through introspection and reflection,
whilst the teacher is able to assess where the students is in class (Boschee &
Baron, 1993:112).

Teachers remain the key role players in assessment activities. They develop
performance assessment by firstly clearly identifying the outcomes to be assessed;
secondly, determining the purpose of the assessment and use of the results; thirdly
designing a performance task that will elicit the expected outcome; fourthly,
specifying the assessment criteria; and finally selecting and constructing the scoring
and recording instruments (South Africa, 1997:34).

The teacher must spell out criteria which assessors intend using during the
assessment process, and make them known to all the candidates and assessors
before assessment takes place (Malan, 1997:18). Teachers should also determine
whether a learner's demonstration was sufficient in terms of the learning outcomes
(Spady, 1994:18). A teacher should also decide on who will best assess outcomes
 40

in all learning experiences.

Peer-assessment practice is an invaluable means of involving learners closely in

their own and other's learning. It is not a 'quick fix' solution to reduce development
stages. It has high pay-off in terms of improved learning (Brown et al., 1996:112). It
is the facilitator's duty to teach learners how to assess their peers and themselves.
Clearly stated criteria are needed and these are developed by the teacher or the
latter and the learners. Peer-assessment should be used in addition to teacher- and
self-assessment, but should not replace assessment by the teacher. Presentations
by the learners, written or oral reports, interviews, practical work, portfolios,
exhibitions and artefacts are some areas where peer-assessment produces
excellent benefits.

3.4.5.3 When do they assess?

Assessment in outcomes-based education is not something that should be thought

about at the end of a unit of work, lesson or programme. It must be an integral part
of all planning and preparation. It must occur throughout the learning process. It
should help to shape the learner through the learning process. Thus assessment
can take place during a learning experience and at or after a learning experience.

3.4.5.4 How do they assess?

Use is made of a variety of authentic assessment tools which provides effective

assessment. These tools should be selected to suite various learning styles, and
the type of learning activity learners are engaged in. A brief explanation of some of
these assessment tools shall be discussed in the following section.

Portfolios

A portfolio contains a student's collection of written work or other material which

could include their reading, writing, listening and speaking abilities, which can be
placed in the form of a cardboard box, a holder or a file (Geyser, 1997:8). Such
selected work can either be short term, that is covering a unit of work or topic; or
 41

long term, for instance, covering a stage of schooling with either students or
teachers assuming responsibility for its management (South Africa, 1997:33). It is
important that a portfolio should have a clear intent and purpose that is linked to the
learning programme outcomes (South Africa, 1997:33).

It is equally important that the learners should know what the aim of the portfolio is
(Arter & Spandel, 1992:37, as quoted by Geyser, 1997:11). The purpose of
portfolios can fall into two broad categories: student purposes, for example,
empowering and motivating students as writers and encouraging self-assessment,
and teacher purposes, for example, examining teaching strategies and assessing
performance (Murphy & Smith, 1991:18).

Selection of items for the portfolio should be the responsibility of both the learner
and the teacher. Two kinds of items, namely core items like exercises and activities
which repeatedly come up in class; and optional items like short narratives of
events in the learner's own life, self assessment by the learner, are usually selected
for portfolios. (Meisels, 1993:37-38, as quoted by Geyser, 1997:13). Inclusion of
items in a portfolio should always be based on explicit criteria and these should be
supplied to the learner. Such items should also reflect the reality of life outside the
classroom (Geyser, 1997:14/15).

Activity checklist

According to Boschee and Baron (1993:108), a checklist is composed of activities,

behaviours or steps that an observer records when monitoring performance. A
checklist can be used by a teacher when observing individuals or groups or by
students for self or peer evaluation. The specific skills, behaviours and
achievements being monitored, should be readily observable (South Africa,
1997:35).

Teacher made tests

Writing tests requires students to write on assigned topics. Students' essays or

stories are rated by teams of readers who assign grades according to standard
 42

criteria. It can be done to provide a pre- or post-comparison of thinking and writing

abilities or knowledge or content for subsequent planning of instruction (Boschee &
Baron, 1993:112/113). Yet class tests should not dominate assessment practice.
They are just one of a number of strategies used to assess student achievement
(South Africa, 1997:35).

Reflective journals

Reflective journals are used by students to write about and respond to what they
have learned, record questions and make notes of what they do not understand.
Entries should be made once or twice a week or at the end of an instructional cycle.
Teachers should read journals periodically to assess students' thought processes
and perceptions and to inform instruction (Boschee & Baron, 1993:112).

Oral interviews

Oral interviews may be structured or unstructured dialogue with an individual or

group of students. It helps to determine the students' depth of understanding by
questioning and open discussion. The teacher should try to remain neutral, allow
plenty of time, to encourage learners to record thoughts in their journals and results
of the conversation, prepare a chart or form to note and assess learner response,
request evidence or support of statements made (Boschee & Baron, 1993:111).

Observations

The teacher observes individual or group behaviour related to academic tasks, work
habits, thinking processes and other activities related to student performance.
Observations may be overt or subtle, may focus on a single event or an
accumulation of abilities over time (Boschee & Baron, 1993:112).

Other assessment tools may include, presentations by learners, oral reports,

practical work, exhibitions and artefacts, models, projects, role-play, pen and paper
tests, computers, and conference consultation with learners.
 43

Finally, the study of the origin of outcomes-based education, its philosophical

foundations and key issues arising from this study reveal the basic characteristics
of outcomes-based education, which cannot be ignored if this study is to be fully
informed. These contributions are discussed in the next section.

This study on outcomes-based education practices indicates that the planning,

design and implementation of this approach reveals both strengths and
weaknesses which must be known so that facilitators can continue to curb such
flaws and work on strengths in their practice.

3.5 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION

Strengths and weaknesses in outcomes-based practices, which surfaced in this

study, are discussed in the next section of the chapter. Attention will first focus on
the strengths and then turn to the weaknesses.

3.5.1 Strengths

There are a large number of strengths, which emerge when outcomes-based

practices are used in the classroom. These various benefits are overwhelmingly
experienced by learners who are exposed to outcomes-based education. They
include, for example, that careful planning is regarded as vital for successful
instruction, and facilitators in outcomes-based education are forced to plan and
prepare with a clear instructional purpose in mind, as the stated outcomes guide the
facilitator's process (Van der Horst & McDonald, 1997:14). Further, it is noted that
clear outcomes facilitate assessment of students' progress where students are
afforded various ways of demonstrating their learning. For example, portfolios,
student self-appraisal, teacher-made tests, and journals (Boschee & Baron,
1993:80-89). On the other hand, where site-based decisions are made, outcomes-
based education allows decision makers to tailor their programme to the special
interests and needs of their student-body and school structure (Jasa & Enger,
1994:30-31) and of primary importance, these outcomes convey to the community
what they expect from children as a result of participating in a planned programme.
Thus becoming a means of increasing accountability (Haack, 1994:34).
 44

According to Killen (1996:5), a number of advantages in outcomes-based

education, are mentioned, as for an example, that students are likely to use
effective learning strategies and to attribute their success to effort; further it
encourages students to attempt challenging tasks and reduces the concern about
their ability; all instructions become purposeful for students; and it empowers
students to realise that effort leads to success. Finally, as observed in some
outcomes-based practices, decision making associated with outcomes-based
education in schools empowers teachers who feel over-managed at in-put
compelled schools, and facilitates age mixing whilst time is used as a flexible
resource allowing teachers to accommodate differences in student learning rates
and aptitudes (Fritz, 1994:79/80).

3.5.2 Weaknesses

In this section, the weaknesses of outcomes-based education are addressed.

Facilitators need to be aware of these issues in order to alleviate them. For
example, the setting of affective (value laden) outcomes in outcomes-based
education is regarded as a form of .indoctrination by traditionalist Christians, where
some critics view social/affective areas as value laden and usurping the role of
parents (Zitterkopf, 1994:77). In some school districts and states, parents of high
achieving students fear that the set outcomes will lead to a lowering of academic
challenge in their children.

According to Capper and Jamison (1993:440-442), some weaknesses apparent in

outcomes-based practices are, for example, that in state-level implementation of
outcomes-based education, the students whom outcomes-based education seeks
to assist are not included in the construction of those outcomes. Instead the policy
makers at state level, educational consultants, local administrators or selected
teachers are involved in the process. Secondly, those decision-makers influence
the content of those outcomes. It is further indicated that slower learners are
excluded from gaining access to the enriched curriculum, because only learners
who accomplish the core curricula quickly are provided with "enrichments". This
extended curriculum could be labelled as "gifted, advanced or elite". Mention is
also made of the domination of teachers by researchers and administrators who
 45

arrive at "common sense decision, to make teachers teach in precisely the same
manner". Finally, that reinforcement of outcomes-based education, is said to be
facilitated by the introduction of criterion referenced assessment which will yield
expected results.

Some of the weaknesses observed, concern factors like cross-age problems which
are likely to surface as different age levels learn side by side; and demands on
parents "time and resources that will increase as time becomes flexible in learners"
attainment of learning outcomes (McGhan, 1994:70). There is also frustration of
time pressures (to complete the calendar and schedule), greater planning work and
adapting outcomes-based principles to an existing curriculum and timetable. In
conclusion, that outcomes-based programmes are designed differently (through
starting from the same premise), thus there is difficulty to adapt them easily in
various schools or communities with different needs

Finally, given such a broad background on outcomes-based education, namely, its

philosophical foundations; key issues; its characteristics; strengths and
weaknesses, this study will be failing if it does not look into the South African
adoption of outcomes-based education. Findings from such a study, together with
findings from the other practices will help develop guidelines for teaching according
to an outcomes-based approach.

3.6 OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

3.6.1 Motivation

South Africa has recently undergone a political change which led to new changes
for its entire society. In the wake of this change all South Africans want a
prosperous, democratic country, free of discrimination. There is an urgent need to
redress the inequalities of the past by focusing on economic growth and job
creation. All South Africans want to be "empowered so that they are able to
participate as active citizens" (South Africa, 1997:2). Education is regarded always
as a key to bringing about such changes.
 46

It is against this background that the Minister of Education initiated a process that
would alter the framework, character, and direction of the education and training
system. The ideals towards this change were informed by various documents and
interested bodies, namely, the White Paper on Education and Training, which
envisaged "a new, flexible and appropriate curricula which cut across divisions of
skills and knowledge"; the Inter-Ministerial Working Group which organised
business, labour and representatives of the Department of Education to work
towards integration of all interested stakeholders in educational decisions, now a
major international trend (South Africa, 1997:11). This view was shared by the
African National Congress Policy Framework on Education and Training and the
National Education Policy Investigation Report (South Africa, 1997:12-13).

The National Training Strategy Initiative of the National Training Board, proposed
that Education and Training should move away from the "traditional mould" of the
past and think of education as a lifelong process. The starting point of such a
process, they suggested should be a National Qualifications Framework, specifying
learning in terms of nationally and internationally accepted outcomes. They also
suggested that the Minister should accept executive responsibility in Cabinet for the
National Qualifications Framework. This top-down planning towards an outcomes-
based education, resulted in the appointment of a ministerial task team for the
development work and implementation of a National Qualifications Framework in
October 1995 (South Africa, 1997:11-12). The emphasis was placed on the shift
from the traditional aims and objectives approach to outcomes-based education.

The ministerial task team developed a document entitled: "Lifelong learning through
a National Qualifications Framework" (1996). This document led to the appoint-
ment of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) in March 1997. It is this
that is responsible for the adoption of outcomes-based education in South Africa.

3.6.2 Adoption of outcomes-based education

The National Qualifications Framework decided on a transformational outcomes-

based approach, rejecting the traditional approach as narrow in practice and the
transitional as an approach that lies between the traditional and the
 47

transformational and thus not suitable for a process of transformation taking place
in South Africa. This approach is clearly stated by South Africa (1996:14) that "...as
part of the commitment to transformation the focus will be on transformative OBE
with the learner being at the centre of programme development". International
experience has indicated that transitional outcomes-based education could best be
the starting point for most reforms as noted by Marzano (1994:44). South Africa is
thinking of the ideal but in practice, a giant leap from the traditional content based to
fundamental life-role performances and given the vast problems that education is
faced with in the country, implementation of transformational outcomes-based
education will be impracticable if not a dream. The adoption of this new paradigm
shift indicates a context peculiar to the South African situation.

The South African Qualifications Framework developed critical cross-field

outcomes, which like Spady's exit outcomes refer to adult life-roles (Malan,
1997:18). According to this body, these critical outcomes would best meet the
needs of our country at this stage and thus should direct teaching and learning in all
grades and in all subjects or courses (Malan, 1997:18). The development of broad
curricular outcomes is also an international practice where these outcomes will
determine all other activity of curriculating (Pliska & McQuaide, 1994:67). These
broad outcomes underpin the Constitution and will ensure that learners gain skills,
knowledge and values (South Africa, 1997:10). The issue of values in international
outcomes-based reforms, have met with opposition. The issues here are: whose
values? Traditionalist Christians and parents have referred to such reforms as
indoctrination because they felt that the issue of values is the role of the. home
(Burron, 1994:74). This opposition to values should be a warning to South Africa
given her multicultural society - whose cultural values shall be adopted?, remains a
question to be answered.

According to South Africa (1997:19), the critical cross-fields outcomes adopted for
schooling in South Africa refers to the ability to first, identify and solve problems and
make decisions using critical and creative thinking; second to work effectively with
others as a member of a team, group, organisation and community; third, to collect,
analyse, organise and critically evaluate information; fourth, to communicate
effectively using visual, symbolic, and/or language skills in various modes; fifth, to
 48

use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards
the environments and the health of others; sixth, to demonstrate an understanding
of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem solving
contexts do not exist in isolation; and seven, to understand that the world is a set of
related systems. This means that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation.

In addition to these seven critical outcomes in South Africa (1997:20) there are
another five outcomes which further maintains that in order to contribute to the full
personal development of each learner's social and economic development at large,
any programme of learning should make an individual aware of the importance of
these five outcomes, that covers, reflecting on and exploring a variety of strategies
to learn more effectively; participating as responsible citizen in the life of local,
national and global communities; being culturally and aesthetically sensitive across
a range of social contexts; exploring education and career opportunities; and
developing entrepreneurial opportunities.

These statements reflect a social, economic and political bias in that they lay
emphasis on harmonious living across cultures, being responsible citizens
(politicians can have harmony) and development of entrepreneurial opportunities,
removes the burden from the administrators who must avail job opportunities, and
leads to social development where skills can be transferable especially from one
adult entrepreneur to another. In these instances one is forced again to wonder if
the learner's individuality is not extremely neglected at the expense of the wider
community.

The next step, was the identification of learning areas within which the necessary
knowledge, skills and attitudes have to be developed and acquired. These learning
areas have to be understood as knowledge areas, which have to be seen in relation
to larger political, social and economic determinants, which facilitate the
development and sustaining of a central democracy and a vibrant economy (South
Africa, 1997:51). This selection continues to be a top-down process and in a
country that preaches "democracy", one cannot but agree with Capper and Jamison
(1993:440), that "state-level implementation of OBE is the power elite". Even the
choice of knowledge areas seems to be cloaked by mainly socio-political and
 49

economic factors rather than educational reasons.

According to Malan (1997:19), there are eight learning areas adopted for the
General Education and Training phase for schooling in South Africa. These
learning areas include, Language, Literacy, and Communication; Mathematical
Literacy, Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences; Human and Social Sciences;
Natural Sciences; Technology; Arts and Culture; Economic and Management
Sciences; and Life Orientation.

These learning areas are related to the critical outcomes and transcend specific
subject areas to allow those relatively complex demonstrations whose competence
require application in a variety of demanding performance contexts. The present
situation in South Africa will demand new written material to integrate content
because in practice isolated subjects are still maintained under the auspices of
knowledge areas. All learners in this band will learn through these learning areas to
acquire the required knowledge, skills and attitudes of prescribed outcomes.

The learning areas relate to twelve fields in the National Qualifications Framework
(South Africa, 1997:5). Every learner's future career is identifiable under one of
these fields in the South African context. These twelve fields include, Agriculture
and nature conservation; Culture and arts; Business, commerce and management
studies; Communication studies and language; Education, training and
development; Manufacturing, engineering and technology; Human and social
studies; Law, military science and security; Health sciences and social studies;
Physical, mathematical and computer sciences; Services and life sciences; and
Physical planning and construction.

For purposes of this study, it is important to know that Northern Sotho first language
is identifiable as belonging to the field of communication studies and language. This
knowledge is important because the learner and the teacher begin from a common
point of understanding what career possibilities does the studying of Northern Sotho
have for the learner after school. Such knowledge is an incentive, especially when
we consider that in the past some students and teachers of this language were
beginning to lose interest in this subject, explaining that it has no place in the life
 50

after school as compared to English and Afrikaans.

After the identification of learning areas, followed the identification and formulation
of specific outcomes for each learning area, which describe the contextually
demonstrated knowledge, skills and attitudes which will have to be assessed
whenever a learner's competence in a particular area of learning is to be
determined (Malan, 1997:20).

For purposes of this study, the seven specific outcomes identified and formulated
for the learning area of Languages, Literacy and Communication, shall be outlined
according to South Africa (1997:42) as follows:

Learners make and negotiate meaning and understanding.

Learners show critical awareness of language usage.
Learners respond to the aesthetic, affective, cultural and social values in texts.
Learners access, process and use information from a variety of sources and
situations.
Learners understand, know and apply language structures and conventions in
context.
Learners use language for learning.
Learners use appropriate communication strategies for specific purposes and
situations.

By implication then, it means Northern Sotho should be studied across other

disciplines but given the peculiar situation where this language has its peculiar
terminology and orthography, to work across other knowledge areas demand major
translations and new interdisciplinary material written in this language.

The final step was the "formulation of assessment criteria, range statements and
performance indicators", in relation to the identified specific outcomes (Malan,
1997:21). This step was followed by the development of learning programmes by
curriculum developers, and the final steps should take place at institutions and
classrooms, where teachers should formulate their own lesson outcomes and
design their own instructional programmes or lesson plans and continuously assess
 51

learners. This information is valuable because findings from this study shall lead to
instructional programming for Northern Sotho in the South African context.

3.6.3 Instructional programming

Identification and selection of specific outcomes, already centrally established for

each area of learning, should be the starting point for all programming in South
African schools. This is simply to start with a clear specification of what the learners
are to know, what they should be able to do and what dispositions, attitudes or
values are desirable at the end of the programme. These outcomes should be used
as a basis of what should be taught. Internationally, in some practices, broad
generic outcomes, comparable to the critical cross-curricula outcomes are used as
a point of departure for programming as in Pennsylvania's state (Pliska &
McQuaide, 1994:67). The problems that shall be associated with working from
these specific outcomes instead of critical outcomes is still yet to be seen, because
the former are in essence still mainly broad outcomes.

It shall be important thus to ascertain as to how specific the identified specific

outcomes are so that assessment criteria specified should be facilitated. According
to Van der Horst and McDonald (1997:53), the specific outcomes are regarded as
broad outcomes. For instance, the first specific outcome (learners make and
negotiate meaning and understanding) can be implemented, for example, by
requiring learners to create a wide variety of texts (such as writing paragraphs,
essays and letters). If facilitators do not work from refining most of these specific
outcomes, their desired goals in most instances shall be difficult to reach.

Broad areas of learning, known as phase organisers, that encourage integration

across all eight learning areas in each of the identified learning programmes shall
be used to build in the desired specific outcomes (South Africa, 1997:17). The
latter implies identification and selection of one or more of the stipulated specific
outcomes relevant for programming in the desired learning area(s) and working via
a programme organiser which is simply a topic selected from the stipulated phase
organisers. For example, in the Gauteng Department of Education, programme
organisers like "My family", "Shopping", "Ubuntu" have been identified to assist
 52

teachers in the foundation phase implementation in 1998 (South Africa, 1997:17).

These topics should help learners to achieve the identified learning outcomes,
which cover knowledge, skills and attitudes and have a direct bearing on the critical
outcomes.

As much as integration of outcomes across all learning areas is encouraged, it shall

be best if facilitators begin from using one or two specific outcomes for instructional
purposes, because a complicated way of preparation will lead to confusion and
neglect of key factors in an outcome.

These learning outcomes should be accompanied by a selection of relevant

assessment criteria, range statements and performance indicators. These
assessment criteria are derived directly from the specific outcome and are
statements that indicate whether a specific outcome or part thereof has been
achieved (South Africa, 1997:17). On the other hand, performance indicators,
provide evidence of the details of the content and processes that learners should
master as well as details of the learning contexts in which the leaner will be
engaged. It also provides a breakdown of the essential stages to be reached in the
process of achieving the outcome. Range statements provide direction in the choice
of content, process and learning contexts, describing in detail the salient nouns and
verbs of the assessment criteria to assist in the planning of learning programmes
and assessment strategies (South Africa, 1997:24).

Selection and sequencing of learning activities in relevant contexts should be the

next consideration in instructional programming. These activities are built from the
specific outcome(s) and relevant range statements selected.

3.7 GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING ACCORDING TO AN OUTCOMES-BASED

APPROACH

Identification and description of learning outcomes, should be the starting point in

teaching according to an outcomes-based approach. Thus the knowledge, skills
and attitudes that the learners must achieve at the end of the learning experience
should be clearly identified and stated. Facilitators should use demonstrable verbs,
 53

which translate directly into observable action and which in turn, will be easily
assessable. For example, learners make and negotiate meaning and understanding
(South Africa, 1997:51).

For further clarification of how this process is accomplished in the South African
context, refer back to instructional programming in South Africa and lesson sample
in Chapter 4. According to Marzano (1994:46) some trends indicated that broad
outcomes are broken into learning outcomes. For example, "a self-directed learner",
can be refined into the following learning outcome, sets and carries out personal
goals, perseveres in difficult situations, pushes the limits of his or her knowledge,
and restraints impulsivity. Such refined outcomes are then used to design learning
activities that would facilitate learners to reach the desired goal in each knowledge
area.

Stating the purpose of the learning outcome to the learners before engaging them
in the activities designed to reach these outcomes, is a basic necessity for
outcomes-based practice. If the value of the outcomes that learners are to engage
in, are clearly stated, learners become motivated to work at their utmost because it
provides them with a definite purpose, something learners "would remember and be
able to do long after a particular curriculum episode ended, and were truly important
to learners in their educational and life-career futures" (Spady, 1994:51).

Specifying prerequisites for learning experiences, is another important factor for

instructional programming in outcomes-based education. The teacher/facilitator
should clearly explain the prerequisites that learners need so that they can be able
to engage in the specified learning outcomes, that is, the knowledge, skills or
attitudes/values needed. If such prerequisites are inadequate, the facilitator should
provide instruction on these prerequisites before he/she can continue with the
specified learning outcomes. Examples of prerequisites for problem-solving could
be, perseverance, analytic disposition, ability to view problem/issues from different
perspectives (Malan, 1997:46).

Selecting and sequencing appropriate learning activities in suitable contexts, is an

area that needs special attention from facilitators, because if this is done carefully,
 54

then specified outcomes will be accomplished. The type of activity selected will
determine the physical setting or situation in which a learning demonstration takes
place and facilitators should always indicate which learning outcome is facilitated by
a particular learning activity. If implementation of outcomes-based education is
more interested in the various future challenges and conditions of situations
learners are likely to encounter after school, then the setting will be complex,
because it will require career, home or community contexts. If, on the other hand,
activities are restricted to subject content then the setting will be simplistic. For
example, "in groups identify and describe various types of textiles", versus, "you
have been approached to design thirty six ladies work suits in a size twenty for Pick
and Pay Supermarket floor cleaners at South Gate shopping centre. Select suitable
textiles from the given range and write a suitable report to Pick and Pay
management, on the amount of material and the cost so that they can be able to
make a purchase".

The first learning activity is content-based and facilitators can use an excellent aid
to depict and describe various types of textiles for learners to learn from within the
four walls of the classroom, implying a simplistic setting. On the other hand, the
second activity requires more than one contexts compared to the former, for
example, because learners will have to visit the store to ascertain the types of suits,
sit down and make the selection using perhaps the classroom, visit textile
manufacturers to ascertain availability of material selected, and the cost, and visit
designers to ascertain the amount of material needed to complete such a
consignment and finally go back to their classroom to write out a report after the
facilitator has guided them on steps necessary for report writing.

Assessment of the learning outcomes, is the other guideline in outcomes-based

practice. Facilitators should work from the learning activities and design suitable
assessment tasks/activities that will create opportunities for learners to demonstrate
their competence of the specified outcomes. Make sure that the tasks consider the
various learning styles of all your learners. Refer to paragraph 3.2.4, p.32, in this
regard. These assessment tasks are activities based on the assessment criteria
and instructions for carrying out these tasks should be written in the form of
performance criteria. Identify and select an assessment tool, and work out a rubric,
 55

that is, a framework of criteria used to define and assess the essential attributes of
a performance. A four-point scale could be selected where four represents the
highest achievement and one the lowest achievement. Finally, the best assessment
tool and scoring method is that selected by a facilitator because he/she knows best
what is most suitable for his/her learners.

3.8 CONCLUSION

The literature review studied in this chapter indicate that outcomes-based education
is the vision for the future, especially for a country like South Africa, which
experienced "inequality" in the provision of education for the majority of her citizens
"for the past forty years" (South Africa, 1996:2). The implementation of outcomes-
based education will not be seen as free of weaknesses, but these should be seen
as challenges that will help to improve an approach that was the best answer for
overall social development in South Africa. The adoption of this new paradigm shift
for this country, also indicate both commonalities and differences in the way of
design and implementation to international trends of outcomes-based education.

The state-level implementation of outcomes-based education in South Africa is a

major weakness and the expediency in the implementation of a paradigm so foreign
in January 1998, fuels the situation. Conclusions drawn from the study of all these
practices surfaced basic outcomes-based education principles that helped in the
development of authentic guidelines for teaching according to an outcomes-based
approach.

In chapter 4, guidelines for teaching Northern Sotho first language according to an

outcomes-based approach shall be developed, based on the incorporation of
findings from the study of first language teaching guidelines done in chapter 2, and
findings from the study of outcomes-based teaching guidelines done in chapter 3.
Strengths and shortcomings pertaining to this research undertaking shall be
outlined.
 56

CHAPTER 4

OUTCOMES-BASED GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING

NORTHERN SOTHO

4.1 AIM OF THIS CHAPTER

The aim of this chapter is to develop guidelines for teaching Northern Sotho first
language according to an outcomes-based approach. In addition, a sample lesson
shall be supplied for Grade 9 in this language, according to the developed

guidelines followed by further recommendations. These guidelines shall be

developed by combining findings from the study of first language teaching
guidelines done in chapter 2 and the study of outcomes-based teaching guidelines
done in chapter 3. In conclusion, strengths and shortcomings pertaining to this
research undertaking shall be supplied to facilitate further research.

4.2 INTEGRATION OF FIRST LANGUAGE AND OUTCOMES-BASED

TEACHING GUIDELINES

In order to develop outcomes-based guidelines for Northern Sotho first language

teaching, it is vital to integrate first language guidelines developed in chapter 2 and

the outcomes-based approach guidelines developed in chapter 3. This integration

shall lead to guidelines discussed in this section. These guidelines are shown in

table 4.2.1 from p. 57 to p. 67.

 -0 a) cb
ri c _c c 0 4, 12
a) = =
Outcomes-based guidelines for
a) C ) pi; co a)

teaching Northern Sotho first

=- -0 a) E .c)
,_ -a
a) 0
C
_c 2
as -C .42_ ,c
m- ac c .,.._ Q) ,..
C
0 = o al ra Ca a'. .0 W 0
4-.
CS a) co 0 C 2 (I) 45 E .c To a) 0 4-
We
0. ..c u, 32- > El o Ct$
, '''. ai Ca .=
0 .92 v CD - <
_c E -c ,.c m.6 co
lang uage
7: a) E E E c
g -0 _a) o ai ca-' a) a) o .5 0 0 - . c _c
0 V . 40 0) =
... _0 _0 -c u) o u) 03,.. E ,, ,.9
ID U) C Li ,
a) za
71 CI) ca 6
...

c
0 z
_c
0 3 a) -
.0u, .cu, a) co a)
_c Es 12.
4.., a, te a) 6.
co co Cc)) a)
u) 0 co
" co a) _c c5- .-
a)
03 0 o
ca
0.
ca
0 c a) E 4- - .C
C r) a- _c -le E a)
E o CI) Cr) -..- a) z v 5 cn
O e 0 1-- a) ccs . 0 sa) -,c)
IP =
0 ca
.c CD co 0 = CO _c a) E- ca
E2 Co caC E .-E
.-

ca a; .4,,,. .c a) .0 - if, c
00 2, 0) w
ro .0 2
=
0 CL 0 47 I "C3 4- cD
_co c_,a, .,...
MT. as :2 1) E 0 ::-
2 al 5... CO
= .0 "
15 0 4e. F7) 1(.1..3 z al
,,, CD a) CD 9.) C.5 5 a;

_ o. C _ C = (I) 0 U)
-0
CD
.c
CD -6
-
C a) = -.--
o_cz-o as o
-
=
u) co o o as
o.
0 0
u_ -.;_-
0
o c7L)
co co
_c as
..0

v sr'. C,L) "0

0) CD L., :1= " 45
C co WS 15 0
G) 03 ' c c .c.. 'V
*E
- a) 17)
=. _c
:= .0 ,.
ca o ca 0 i cts v
as irs _c as a)
as C
Outc . mes-based teaching

a) _g) E CD c CD Z1.5 E .6 1.- a)

c 2 2
co .c -- a) E 0 r, E co . _c
c c) m .4_ 6 . -o 0. 2 c .:.7:
c
0 E o
,41 co
C CD .5
0. g as = o c _c _a) CD .. 4-'
,,, CV --4.
c.) O To E..5 i.) v 41
IP _,c w a) a) -0 ra" "T. ,
guidelines

a_
c U) a) 0 a) ...._
-
0 Eu) co c0 ....a) co2 71) co C c - m
a ) IIw
N.
L) . .G -
.
4j
( ..- f
0 a) .,_. o .51 -0 E C
0 C) *(7)
Ir--. -c 0- cnca=0=E
0 -9 2 E al r,
-0 co 0) 73 U) a) 0 .: 2 c 16, 0-
s -0 co cd ca CD
.0 co n a) - Ca x
-0 a) c V
a) -C = ." a)
c _c -a o co -0a) ,.., 03 4-.
...- ... &- -C c., 73
a) 4-'
(5 E
0 .0 Er) 6
as ? = 2 co cs) ,9-
C g. =-. -4.... M A c mo _C 0 c I-1-
0 Ctl 4... -- _C *a 1.- E '
4= CI) 1 E , ,- ct- 0 ' - .,*
0
CZ 0 o., co
a, L.? as
a) c u)
a)
0 as
a) --
,-,
... 7
(as) cv
c'o
a)
E
a) rxs
trs a) co- 1-.) E
E co > .11) E 5:, c E a) =
dentify anddescribe earning outcomes

-.... o u, CD 43 0 .0 -0 a) o L- "c)
CD o
o co o o co -a- E
0 co 03 as 2
- = -a'
C - a 0. 2 = 03 o. as o E
w = re o a) x = u) _0 al -0 = o a) o
-C3 0 CD CU o o CEoc.)o.c.)
-o o a)
6 _c co ..-.1 0 03
First language teaching guidelines

.C a) 0)
c = co
o
..-- . C ,_
a) as cxs a) 2 -4---.
c) 4:3
E as a co C "0 -0 > t - E a_ co .- .-
03 a5. o 0 =
t. a) a) E o b... 0.. o
..c 03
A o) ai -2
m 1E a)
Q) 41-:. C
t) .- ,?, c c
O = , a) as 0
cES as .._
u) .... a) 8 "8
(I)
a_ 732
c
CD 6 = _C
2
t) o u)
a _c.
0) _c
4- C as
_0 ..... a)
c=r3
(Prag matics)

2 ca_ ,_
E. _ c 2 C
.5 ._ cn -_ 1.._ a/
,_ E ... co
- o Zi iL' .c v . "2 a) = '
.- c cia)o )
ci) a)
o)
- cts W C co
u) E _c a) it a9 E E E a)
CO p. - -a 73'
a) ,..., 4-. C .1- (/) ai Ca
,.. CI) Ed 0. V as o o
-0 f E) al U) CO CD w co _c 03 "c5 2 ? - -4 -0
-0 -0 o , 0 c). 13 = a)
c as 0. 4=
c 0 .. SI o o =
al co ,_. E 41 ..- 0 0_ I-, - u)
C c c0-0 0 4.-
,...., al 0 0 --= &- a) 4-'
.0;_-, .-
0 -,..,
- 0
- ..-. a) __
C %L/
A% ./I

WO _ I -4-_,
C.)
ca a) co
= as _c ca
._
.:-. .,..
..c c cn
,_
as a) - 3 m N '14 a) c 0
cm E .o ...c. a) c
E c V -C
=
0 as c _,
..
7
--- ,w co -0 .,- "c7) u) 0
m
"4= 0 .. Es -5 o co 03 -.F.;
c o - 43) c, >, 5
.... .E. V0 o. 0 C =
ni a) = ca -c _c " 92 as as co s. , _c 0 -c 0 'c'
o re F.-. co 49 0_ .c a) Tv 0 .- to IP I-
m
73 -0 "

the futu re needs of the learner. Thus
learning a first lang uage shou ldbe
mean ingful in the life of the learner.
co
the learning experience the learners will
write a chapter of a novel in which they
clearly identify the type of conflict
experiencedin educationalinstitutions,
Teachers should always have in mind the
critical cross-curricu lar outcomes
which must be achieved through the
achievement of the specific outco mes in

co
ca
a)
fa
C)
Unlike in outcomes-based education, and state its effect on the smooth Teachers shou ld also
where the learning outcomes are based running of such organisations. bear in mind the relevant range
on either of the three approaches, that is, statements and performance indicators
the traditional outcomes-based approach When learning outcomes are written, related to the concerned specific

a)

O
EO
U)

or the transitional outcomes-based
approach or the transformational out-
comes-based approach, first language
approaches are interested in reaching a
balance between the structu re of Ian-
operational verbs shou ldbe written. This
is similar to first lang uage teaching.
Such verbs as write, identify, state,
su mmarise as usedin the examples
above. These verbs facilitates
O
Lang uage shall be based on a prag matic
app roachthat seeks to interpret ling uistic
meaning in context. Thu s with a variety

a)

C
6

O
O
C

C
_c
O

a)
O
ca

C
C

ca
O
assessment because unlike verbs li ke of contexts, lang uage shall be taug ht

C)
C)
a)

C
O
C
_c
a)
"6

a)
a)

03
T3
O
0

0
O

0
O

O_

lang uage on the other. Thus the think, appreciate, know, these verbs can
learning outcomes should not only relate be translated into observable action many kinds of content. Northern Sotho
to gram matical competence or discourse which is assessa ble. shall thus be taug ht to strike a balance

O
ca

a)

_c)
a)

.c
V

_o
C
O
co

a)
a)
a)
0

EO
between structu ralism on the one hand

CL
competence andbe fu nctional. This will Suchlearn ing outcomes and their values andfu nctionalism on the other.
thus imply that a teacher cannot state should be clearly verbalised to the
O

_c
E
U)

a)
C.)
a)
a)

_o

O
O
a)
6

learn ing outcomes that restrict learners learners du ring the introductory phase of
to knowledge of structu re on ly, nor to the the lesson. This together with prere- ted sparingly, that is, at the most only two
fu nction of lang uage. q uisites, that is, the knowledge, skills or outcomes can be selected at a time,

When these learning outco mes are
written operational verbs shou ldbe used. engage successfully in the learn ing
Verbs as bet, pronou nce, identify, write,
nominate, compare, whichlike in
outcomes -based education will be
translatedinto observable action, which
can be demonstrable during
assessme nt.
Prag matics is also about the use of a
lang uage. It is for this that performative
verbs are usedin pragmatics.
warn as in "Iwarn you that there is a
fierce dog arou nd the corner" or promise
as in "Iprom ise to do my best". On the
other hand, outcomes-based education
goes beyond a particular lang uage which
is a particular content and asks q ues-
tions like: What is the value oflearn ing?
What type oflanguage can I use to help
learners achieve knowledge, skills and
attitudes stated?
0)
LO
outcomes stated, should be explained in
this phase, so that if such prereq uisites
are inadequate, the facilitator can
provide instruction. For example: When
learners should write a memoran dum.
They will need, for example, the neces-
sary vocabulary, the formal structure of
the language, ability of using the relevant of a specific outcome.
selves with this approach. These out-
comes shallbe used to draw learning
outcomes to be achievedin a series of
learn ing experiences. Specific out-
comes cannot be achieved within one
period of a lesson. A series oflearn ing
experiences which may take a number of
lessons can move towards achievement
When these learn ing outcomes, derived
from the specific outcomes are written,
operational verbs shou ld be used if
teachers are to be said to be outcomes-
based in approach. Verbs such as draw,
write, define, synthesise, analyse,
which will translate into demonstra ble
action and which willlend easy for
assess ment shouldbe used. Avoid verbs
such as appreciate, know, think, under-
stand, because these verbs cannot be
demonstrable during assessment as they
 co
O
are internal processes. For example: "At
Prag matics also stresses the importance the end of the learning experience,

15O
O
The latter presupposes the learners will be able to write two stanzas

_ca)
value offirst lang uage learn ing.
fu nction of language on the other hand
can be shown better when appearing in
a suitable context.
of a praise poem in Northern Sotho",
instead of"At the end of the learning
experience the learners willbe able to
appreciate praise poems". The verb
appreciate is not easily translated into
observable action, whereas the verb
write can be translatedinto observable
action and thus make it possible during
assessment.

These learning outcomes and their

values shouldbe clearly explained to the
learners in the introductory phase of a
lesson. It is also important that teachers
shou ld find out iflearners have the
necessary knowledge skills or attitudes
that will enable them to engage

available or are inadequate, teachers

 , a) -0

teaching Northern Sotho first language

a; .c) Cui
that learners acq uire these prereq uisites.
>-.
=.
_
need to design activities and make su re
E ep -0 = U)'
r< 0 -F.) as

Outcomes-based guidelines for

L
.c a) O. > = T3 0 a) -C a)
cp 7.; 0 c .4E E .-E 75
4- -C ..'
-C 0 -C Ca -0 -13 ti; 0 -c
--o-C cd) .4-
._ c d. 13 T., co 2 "0 in 0 2 ::-.
o) c 0 4) 6 a) -(7) = as C ., ) - -
0
c
-E) -6
- T.
a) fa u) Zil -4.-.1
al., -5.-
E a) c) -F,
,- cis a) c ..ic
0 -0 Th am
0 X a- , r, _ _c .,as
ca -2 E
:-:c .= 0 T3
as 4o
._
71. CU
ca asascs CO- t 8 0 c
a) -0 0 - - 2 del 0
V C a) 0 4+ CD
0 CA
)
c 0 > 1- 0 4-.
= -0 ...- cat 0
6. a
0
C as ...
0 a Ts
0 -c E
as 0 ai II
,-Em co
,,, ..cas =
_. o
0)E a)
.t
0. 73 a) co
a)
_c -- u) o _c
,- 13
5
a)
u)
c o ui o -= u) a) 4''' *-0 Ca
-
-__
0 = tt. = 4+ a) .1.. 0 4-C c .0 G. 0 1 40
.a-
-,- 76 0 o x _c cn .-
1p
c0= "> r) _c
co al
... c 0 I?, . 5:, .a.
''='
S2 -0 Q)
...,
(1)
o) -Fp- = 11 E
O . C-) )
C ....
CI#
= r3 $2 .2 8 E
=.c _c a N
- c) -o -- a) c
CD as as _ cni
cow. 0
2 c
-

. b- -ci o
a.. -E,
,...
-- .,..
... a)
CO >
0
-
E
"
co co _c c.,
= Crl C 4' 1 C ca co co (1)
..... E s .2- as El. 45
< a) 0 .0 .92 0 .0 0 2 Q. Q U) il) 4... *0 0

C a) ., , _ Fr--
a) . 0) _C 0
a)
_o
t,
as
CE a)
sa
-
1 u)
a) _c a)
u) -4:3
CD t... (1) 0
Outcomes-based teaching

co -r, "0 V
a)
>
Ca
a) co _, a) co a)
a)
X)
o
"e
,= fil
'... a/
75
,TI a)
_c 0 ..E- a) E; u)
m cn 0 to
..0 .g.,
I 0 a) .0 .c .E" E ca t";cs .$-D - 2 a,
CI) = -C > C (1) 0_ 2 -9 _c -0 Z,E a)
N u) ui 0 CO,
ca u) u) ci., c
.... _c 0)
guidelines

E C co c c 92 cn 0 = C
0 0 6 0 ,- = . c CD 4-=.E To
0 c V 0 0 > "C E
-

= 0 07) a) .0 ft$ lee, C0) El 12 cj m '

..- as 0 -o .-
= .>
...
2 00 w
x o
a)
o CO Cti a; , CD 0 -
CM a) .0 _c z a) a) .- ca al
. a) a) A(13, -C al T6 = .c c
C CD t. _oa) co
-o _c
.--
.E 4- CO
a)
C
o
0
=
u)
-0
ca
..se
E
o
.42
a)
as a) 0= CO 1.- .G -F. ....=. U) C ,- o ,
a) -c c.) - as 1E 0 --
-o co 2 73 as p
_ _C
4.2.2 Selection of su itable activities and contexts

a) - 15. 0 x _0 z.-.
= -0
.... _
c
a) 0 .0 E 'cm cp
>. ()
= cai3c0 0) "c
a)0 (0' 0=0 -00 a) "-
Cl) .... 7).
0 45 as a)
c.) a) a) .- c-) 0 "_E 2 u) _c c O. E P...) E @
c 715 'El = " 0 4 -. ES 0- 0 ca 0 _c
0 U) *5 as O -.F. as S 9. = 4- ca c.) 0 -0 4-
U)
0 C
ci) 0 ..-, = -0 .0
a- ,... 5 c . a)
First lang uage teaching g u idelines

a) F. 0 -' c.) 2
(..) E a)
_c 0 '..=. .c
s
. 0
ca
_.>
b
-4=
c.c.) a)
..c
.... u)
a) ai co .
0. a) la
Z . :E
a) a) - ro-.F.
cu al =
a o 4)3 t)
o iii
-c
0 0 a) Z.. 0 E> as. 2 .E.) a) a) , ..-
cp a) a) 0 .0 co
w a) a) 73 as > 0 ,.. .c = 0
c _c 0) .c ._ 0 -c 0- C co as I= a' 0 .0 .._
TE- .-- g .,_, ? h_ 0 - .1) a) ss -E, -c 5 al
(Prag matics)

0 ti co cu > u) co a) 2 la 2 , c in

a) c -c a u)
0 E 0
0 T w (1) -- 0
- o 0 --
, a) ,
-- --- 0 a) co "
co C ..T.;
a) a) --, w -
.44 -- .., a) --.- al o c) as u) a)
..... a)
- -
a) u) .. E co :LI
>
-- lb- x .0 = a) 4- E -
__. as - w co E.
C.)
U C :as

-....
X _0 .-
l'' c..)
0 ._
0 0) c
ni 0
C
(1)
4--
V "r6 Ca
..0 4A-4
It
ca ,.,
C cD = 0 c al .,... L.: 0 .1-
d 4). > im a 0. r
c
0 CD w t. as E -0 a) C.
CD
C.)
-0 C.) 0) 2 -0 ...c. 8 w 2. .0 0 S 8
0 0 c. ) w ES E (02 _c)
0 c _c
=
I_ 4
a) - a) -

E' p s Cl- 9;
C0
E _c co
cr) ., -0
CISQ)-5
0- E 0
Ca

o
5

.c
al
=

2.
c
. Y
. z,
C c
as "
as
(15
"
as
u)
5 c ..., u) , u)
0 0) ._
15

Q)-CCO.5 CO
"E - La w
0 E
a>).,
= r
.2 2
as -E- 0- -0
o
a) '
cz
as cr)
= c
ED a
l
C
0
-.:=
C_)
T.
0D
cu 45 E o 0 c co ca CD
.4
C 0 CO . 0 2 2 0 u)
by practitioners in outcomes -based conditions of situations that learners are identified cross-curricular outcomes.

ca
2
CL
likely to encou nter after school as Teachers should be sensitive about the C
a)

caree r, home or community contexts. quality of content they will involve

So, for example, suitable parag raphs, These activities should be child-cen tred. selection of learn ing activities.

-C
a)
a)
c:-)

13

O
0
N
a)
4E.
C

0
tit
Co
Co
E
-C 7
Ira
C

cartoons, comprehension passages,

C)

4
R'
6"

E
ci)

a)
a)
a)
ca

Ea)

co
73
O

2
O
0
0

Q
0.
literature, available newspaper cuttings,
illustrations, videos, creation of
scenarios, visits to libraries, all from the
specific language contexts are used to
draw activities. For first language
learn ing, visits to actual places, to meet
authors, see cultural artefacts, kraals and
monuments, would make lang uage
learn ing more meaningful. Such visits
The selection of activities has implica-
tions for content selection. In outcomes-
based education, students shou ld be
given stimulating, challenging, in-depth
encounters with high-level areas of
knowledge and skills. Teachers shou ld
disting uish between content that is
important in enriching learner's lives and
those that are tru ly essentialfor learners
to develop into hig h level performe rs to
and challenging and that allow learne rs to
engage in high-level areas of knowledge
and skills so that such knowledge and
skills will enable the successfu l attainment
of learner's exit outcomes. Teachers
should remem ber that such activities are
drawn fro m a transformational outcomes-
based approach, thus should relate to life-
roles of career, work and community.
These activities shou ldbe child-centred.

C
C

70"
as
')
-0
O

O
C
O
co

N
U

a)

Co
_C
O

0
entertainment.
The context in prag matics determ ine the
lang uag e to be used, what MichaelHalli-
day referred to as reg ister. For example,
If a learner were to give an oral report of
reac h the exit outcomes.
In the teac hing ofNorthern Sotho, like in
Outcomes -based practice considers prag matics, a variety of ling uistic contexts
physical context versus content context. and situational contexts shou ldbe deter-
In a transformational outcomes -based
practice a much more complex context outcomes. Discourse can thus be
is req uired. For example, learne rs may designed around su itable parag raphs,
E
13

C
O
O
ca
C

co

a)
a)
a)

C
0
EO

C)

an accident to a traffic office r, he/she cartoons, available magazine and news-


would use a formal lang uage wherein
he/she wou ld clearly select suitable
descriptive words and nou ns for fear of
future complications, in case such a
report were to be regarded as a futu re
state ment in a cou rt oflaw. Giving a
similar report to a friend, the same
learner would use an informal lang uage
where, in some cases, even such a
serious event cou ldbe toldin a
hu morous manner to evade its
seriousness. Told to a parish priest, the
context would chang e to a mo re formal
but less restrictive than the forme r,
because there wou ld notbe the fear of
Co
CIO
move to a home, to a garag e, to a
commun ity centre, depending on the
demands of the desired learning
outcome. In this way learners move
from one physical context to another.
They may also req u ire a variety of
content or one particu lar content to be
able to achieve the desired learn ing
outcome (s) in such physical contexts.
Like in prag matics, the context in
outcomes-based education practice
determ ine the complexity of content to
be used. But outcomes-based'educa-
tion goes fu rther to say a context can be
paper cuttings, il lustrations, artefacts,
extracts from presc ribed literature,
creation of scenarios, comprehension
passag es fro m prescribed books and
leisure reading materialin the language.
The latter serve as a set of resou rces
which form the context of the activities
designed by the teac her.
Secondly, teac hers should cons ider the
phys ical contexts in which the activities
will be conducted. The classroom shou ld
not be regarded as the on ly context in
which suc h activities are carried out, if
teaching andlearn ing is to be cons idered

.
I-
.c

U)
a)
a)
C)
co

=
a)
ui
m

ET)
"5
El.?

U)
a)
=

O
O
U
o-
the physical situation where outcomes

C1
context in prag matics dete rm ine
lang uage used, ling u istic context and
knowledge of the world, referred to as
situational context. The ling u istic context
willdeterm ine how the learner above
shallbe able to com bine se nten ces
together to express complex thoug hts
shou ldbe achieved, and advocates that
the classroom should not be regarded
as the only place where learners can
engag e in activities to achieve
outcomes, but a variety of contexts or
situations shou ldbe used to eng age
learners in various learn ing activities.
outcomes-based. This willbe clearly
ind icatedin the lesson sample, parag raph
The content contexts in teac hing and
learn ing ofNorthern Sotho shou ld be
cross-curricular ifit willbenefit the learner
in the future, acco rding to an outcomes-

and ideas referred to as discourse.
Situational context shalldeterm ine the
knowledge of the world of traffic officers,
friends, priests, and how to select
language content to suit these various
contexts. Situational contexts will include wherein various content is used in
all extra-ling uistic factors that surrou nds
a particu lar situation at any g iven
moment. For example, the beliefs of the
traffic officers, friends, priests; the subject plained to the learners at the beginning
of conversation, in this instance the acci-
dent, the beliefs of the learner about what broken down into small steps so that
the traffic office rs, friends, priests,
>
a)
a)
.a)
0
To ensure that learners engage
enthusiastically and relevantly in the
learning activities, the teacher should
clearly, at the beginn ing of a teaching
phase. Prag matics is also about
knowledge of the world, and the latter
has implications on the level of deve-
er
CD
In pragmatics the various contexts are
the various situations that lang uage is
used and the various ling uistic contexts
in which discou rse takes place. These
contexts are the learn ing contexts
outcomes-based approach.
These activities should be clearly ex-
of the teaching phase. They shouldbe
learners can be able to follow.
Outcomes-based approach stresses that Northern Sotho learning experience is the
learners should engage in activities with
the req uired knowledge, skil ls and
attitudes that they need to be able to
succeed. Th is is impliedin prag matics
that to engage in ling uistic context,
discou rse, implies a situational context,
which is knowledge of the world. Thus,
learners will be expected to have a
variety of levels ofknowledge of the
based approach. Teachers cannot, for
instance, have a lesson on adverbs and
adjectives as parts of speech isolated
from the fu nction of such adverbs and
adjectives in the life-roles of learners, at
home, at work andin the commun ity, after
they have graduated from learn ing insti-
tutions. Using another content to facilitate
the use of adverbs and adjectives, a
teacher can take a paragraphfrom
biology that describes a human organ and
how blood circulates in it. The only
implications such content would have on a
time that teachers would spend on
trans lation of material whichis currently
not available in this lang uage.
These activities shou ldbe introduced in
small steps that can be followed easily to
facilitate achievement and movement
towards achievement of a learning
5 4
E
o
0
O
ai

lopment of learners. Suitable activities
shou ldbe designed that considers the
..
M
a)
c
circumstances of the learners.
outcomes-based education, pragmatics
shall therefore have extension workfor
the fast learner during the teaching
U,
Co
world according to their various
circumstances. When teachers prepare
activities, such factors should be taken
into cons ideration.
Various su itable teaching strategies
should be used by teachers to facilitate
achievement of outcomes. These
strategies are used to develop the
desiredknowledge, skills and attitudes
desiredfor the learners. In outcomes-
based education practice, teachers are
also expected to prepare extension work
for the fast learner, to be ready during
the teaching phase.
Thirdly. a variety of su itable teaching
and learning strateg ies should be used
to enable learners to achieve these
learn ing outcomes. The Northern Sotho
teacher with their history of teaching this
lang uage as a second or third lang uage,
shou ld beg in to upg rade their knowledge
of suitable first lang uage teaching and
learn ing strategies. These strateg ies
should be used to develop the desired
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
The Northern Sotho teacher shou ldhave
extension work readily preparedfor any
situation where a fast learner could have
completed all the core activities desig ned
for the class, during the teaching phase.
The seq uence of all these key g uidelines
shall be clearly demonstrate in the lesson
sample, parag raph4.3, p.68.
 teaching No rthern Sotho first language
0 'ri 1 fli 1
0 CO CD 4E-
.L.0 -
ca (D) _c 4E "5 a)

Outcomes-based gu idelines for

2 .c co ,_ i_ - c a) Q)
Ca !
u., E
co a
'6
0) 0) ct. co a) = 6 -c _ci E a)
c co = 0 u)
co u)
a) ui
a) -c
c.) co
Q)
0 co u)
ai .c 9) co 0
0 (1) a)
a) I-
Ca 0) C.) CD co CO
52 =
CO = ' :.== z-D, v 8 (,) ce 0) ..7.. E CO U) w o
'V -0 2 CO 0 0 "' CO 'a= C
N CO co 0 a) ,.L a) 06 CO CD
2 u (CD) r) 5 1 > 0
CD
0 c 13 M 173 -C CD E a)
O. - o as a) _c a)
_)e as ci) c
co c
0 u)
..... c
..... -=
co 4-
c O.
a)
" CO T).
a) 0- S - ..- _c
CO C I.- Pa% Cli I ,,...
M 2 Z .C7) CT) E E ,...,7 ..-7 4_, .(7) ..., -o it
c c co -0 , E. = ..c
2 .4-
cn
0
6 -0
a) An
a) E
Cr)
il
o
12:MB
le) cc,
". a) CD a) = a) .c V) 4-
CO V
co
a) 0 0 CI) w E E 0 0 a) CI- CO
a) Cn 0)
:..- .-- 4-- a) a) -
CO co u) co
coCco cf) a) '- 15
,- ,r- a) cn co ..1c co CD a) Q) t- = 15- CD =
0 0
4-.
C ''''' > u) a) co 4a Ca a
0 4-:
= C2 -C
u'
m
o -0 g. 0 E- < 45 _0 E u)
0)
U)
u) m- Q) C . as CO
.3'
C
05 0 . 0 0 co CO cci 0 -C CD ,- 0.
co -C '4= CO
a) 0 cn
co a) a) E c CO (i)
0 -0
.c = .C
a .
c 4_, ...
.4:3
= 0 0 -c
a)
c., a)
co ON 6
_ `n
2 a)
.0 CD
0_ .0 u)
03 .7w s.. C ."Z 0 CO C.) a)
0 U) 1:1 CL 0) CO E co u)
a) = CO. TS ' = w a) c E o u) co co a) Cl)
I- a '6
CO.? E co -.E, o SP_ F- CO 0 C ccl _c u) i- CO

-a .CI . E c -0
w . 0)
U) ui C ,_ a)
a) :E = cy, a) co 0 >. 0) E g co
0 I.-- -0 c H.F. re C 2) 2 -0 =
Outcomes-based teaching

E -- a) , co
ccs -a 6 E
..- r, CD 0
(c1),)
ai
o
-5 M
ui _a 8
Ca. CD 0 6 CO ...
E 1-
w-. a) _ CO CO '-' CD
a. .4= C -C)
a
CO CO
.c E .0
'oc0) (s) >, ,,
0. _c co ,_ o -5 0 =
c.) co C .E si,4--g co - -c m.' 0 oc--
...- as r, co
gu idelines

cu u) .0 22
, a) CO ,._ ..,_ F- _c -c) 0 crs o ,_
CD u) 0) oci al 0 CO co o a)
CD 0-
CL
u)
Ca
0 c a) ,r,
Ye
-a
C
E ai0)
15
.4
u..0) a) C
, a)
4, 461

C CO
CZ co C .-,,
c "6 >
'4= a) 5.: ca -a a) -c E a) _c .
-a = a) `"
ert
(1)
u)
al c
i 't
Cl
g c
u)
a)
.
.= "5 E 4-. al
tcl aI S) I03
'co In-
4- 0 = al =... 13 a) ca
al

8
c
a
U)
o
E
cn
co
Ci)
U)
c)-c
a)

.91-
01

co 0 i,-; -0 -a a _ -
CO co _c
O 0 CO _ x _c CL) ac C co co Cl) 0 CO u) 0_
Eco a)(1)t)-0)a) c.) a) -4:::
co c
u)
= =
0 CO
L_
O co,-- ,-,
Q)
- .c
.-. 0)
c = = g' 0 ':E: a) o a) 0 u) a)
0 .4_ ca a) ._ C C -C > 2
E 13 9... .c .- la co
= 2 a) 0) '5 0 `) t--) .c = s' c' a co CO
0 ca. E 4.2 -a < 0 a) its' co cr. a. co > co 0.
C
E 6 o
First lang uage teac hing g u idelines

O ..=
0 a)
N c Eco
(2
c C
g
.- 6
i,- C
c E a) a)
-0 0. :E) ...= .0 c.)
O 0. co ,-- 0. -a c
E ,c 8 co vs cn E >, -0 C .=
-- - to. a) c7) o co -o
C a) Cco _c ,,_ a- _. 0 CO
w 0 .1:17), z 2
C a) a) 0 _a) 0 a' CO 4E; _c W 0
U) a) crs o
(Prag matics)

O as
=
E :E %a' E ...,.
-
cr) c.) = a) C :,=. c (t) - 2 V.;
C 7-7 C ..- _0 8 a) Z
o u)
,,, 0. '5
O co c/J -- a- -0 a) ..,. E .=
:,=. 0. 0)
05
= u) .c c Cl)
0 CD W .1-, = Cr) a) u) 4-) "C- ..,
> ,_,
C 0 c -.p 2 =0 E
u)
m
a)

_c
0 E
c '5
c7) .- - O > - u) 0)
,4, co CO a3
() = 46 4
5.
O ti CD a) - co u) E ..-
co ui c ca a) - co a) 4-. co
No co) a)
ca a)
-
._ c
o
4) c.) 0 a) 73 0 > CO . u) a.- cT, c.)
"fi -.- = s2 > CO .4CO
.7. >, CI) u) 0- >
E yi, co ...... ...0 :.-. a) c _o cz CO CO co 2
ct co 0 .,.- > "0 u) o -0
a) r_' CO C m IrZ
n4
"
E a) = 4-. 0 0
2 EL CD as Y ,..
.. - = a.- 0 T) C
= -
-E .4=
as
0- a) C 0) W CZ U) C7) *r_- a) o 4- =
CO
- 0 a- C :s-
*E 8 (7) :2 *E. 16 "6 -f:s > = co a) co
CO
N
assess ment as discussedin chapter 3
under parag raph 3.4.5.4. Northern Sotho
teachers shall again have to engage in
translation of these assess me nt tools if
they are to practice successfully in an
outcomes-based education practice.
 68

4.3 A LESSON SAMPLE: NORTHERN SOTHO FIRST LANGUAGE

Introduction: This lesson will be based on the outcomes-based guidelines for

teaching Northern Sotho developed in this chapter. The setting, which serves a life-
role context, is about an aviation group who approaches learners to select the most
suitable textile to cover the interior walls of an aeroplane. Such a selection will be
made from silk, wool, cotton, asbestos and nylon. In accordance with the South
African implementation of outcomes-based education, specific outcomes shall be
selected from two learning areas, that is, Language, Literacy and Communications
and Technology. Suitable range statements and performance indicators are
considered during lesson preparation. Teachers' information is shown by Italics.

POPEGO YA THUTO LESSON FORMAT

Hlogo ya thuto:Go ngwala pego Lesson topic: Report writing

(e kgethetwe go ba senamelwa sa
fihlelela dipoelo tie itego)
Sehlopha: Mphato wa senyane
LethatAikgwedi:
Nako:
Dipoelo te itego:
Polelo, Litherasi le kgokagano, poelo
e Meg ya bohlano: Baithuti ba a
kwetia, ba a tseba gomme ba dira-
gaga dipopego ta polelo le mekgwa ya
tumelano go ya ka tirio; le
Theknolotti, poelo e itego, ya
bobedi:tomia mehuta ye e fapanego number two: Apply a range of
ya tsebo le bomakgoni bja theknoloti,
ka moo go amogelegago sethong le ka
go laelta maikarabelo sehlopheng.
(Chosen as a vehicle to reach the
Specific Outcomes) .
Group: Grade 9
Date:
Time:
Specific outcomes:
Language, Literacy and Communi-
cations, Specific Outcome number five:
Learners understand, know and apply
language structures and conventions in
context; and
Technology, Specific Outcome
technological knowledge responsibly in
a group.

Dipoelo-hlokwa: Nomoro 1, 2, 4 le 6
temana 3.6.2 (lebelela letl. 46)
(Se ga se re gore dipoelo the di ka
fihlelelwa ka lesene e tee fela)
Hlokomela distatamente tga botebo bja
diteng tea thuto le ditaetgi tga
phethagatgo ya dipoelothwii tgeo di
kgethilwego.
Ditlamorago/Dipoelomaleba
Mafelelong a thuto ye, baithuti ba be ba
kgona go:
Kgetha thekniki yeo e swanethego go
leka dilogwa the di fapanego.
Laetha bokgoni bja maleba bja
thomiano gare ga batho modirong wa
sehlopha.
Ngwala pego ya nyakiito, omia
mmolelo le setaele se se maleba.
Dinyakwa tsa teko
Mmolelo le setaele sa mongwalo wa
semmuo.
Sebopego sa go ngwala pego
Diteng: Tlhagido ya marara
Tlhaloo ya thekniki yeo e
omiithwego.
Theo di hwedithwego
Dithiinyo
Mehola ya dipoelomaleba tha thuto
1.Go kgona go t omitana ka kwano le
batho ba bangwe sehlopheng.
69
Critical outcomes number 1, 2, 4, and 6,
paragraph 3.6.2, (see p.46).
(This does not mean that these
outcomes can be achieved by one
lesson)
Consider the range statements and
performance indicators for the chosen
specific outcomes
Learning outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners
should be able to:
Choose a suitable technique to test
different textiles.
Show appropriate interpersonal skills
in groupwork.
3.Write a research report using the
appropriate register and style.
Assessment criteria
Register and style of formal writing
Format of report writing
Contents: Statement of the problem
Description of technique
used.
Findings
Recommendations
Value of learning outcomes
1. The ability to work harmoniously with
other people in a group.

2.Bokgoni bja go fihlelela sephetho ka
sehlopha.
3. Bokgoni bja go ba motho wa go ba le
maikarabelo ge a Loma ka tta tikologo
selthabeng.
4.Go kgona go kgetha polelo yeo e
nepagethego ya go ngwala polelo ya
semmuo, bjalo ka, kgetho ya mantu le
segalo.
Dithuathuto
Siliki, wulu, lesela, marela, naelone;
matlakala a mohlala wa pego, puku ya
kgakollo, mapokisi a mankgwari,
matlakala a teko.
Mekgwa ya go ruta
Kanegelo, go Boma ka sehlopha, go
itirela ka noti, boitekelo, go ruta
mphatomoka.
Tsebo yeo ba nago nayo, bokgoni le
maitshwaro
Baithuti ba swanette go ba le tsebo ye e
swanettego ya mmolelo le setaele sa
mongwalo wa semmuto.
1. Kgato ya matseno
Baithuti ba tsebiwa gore ba kgopettwe
ke sehlopha sa bafofii go kgetha
selogwa seo se swanettego go
khupetha maboto a bokagare bja
sefofane. Mafelelong, baithuti ba
swanethe go ngwala pego ka dinyakiio
70
The ability to reach a conclusion as a
group.
The ability to be a responsible adult in
the community in dealing with the
environment.
The ability to select the relevant
formal language, for example, word
choice and tone.
Teaching media
Silk, wool, cotton, asbestos, nylon,
report handouts, textbook, match boxes,
assessment sheets.
Teaching methods/strategies
Narrative, groupwork, self-activity,
experimentation, class teaching.
Prior knowledge, skills and attitudes
Learners should have prior knowledge of
the appropriate register and style for
formal writing.
1. Introductory phase
The teacher tells the learners that they
are required by an aviation group to
select the most suitable textile to cover
the interior walls of an aeroplane. At the
end, learners will be expected to write a
report on their investigations. Learners

tha bona. Baithuti ba kgopelwa go dula
ka dihlopha gomme sehlopha se
sengwe le se sengwe se fiwa dilogwa
the di latelago: siliki, wulu, leela, marela
le naelone.
Mo lebakeng le, barutii/gadi ba ka
tsebia baithuti ka dipoelo te'a thuto le
mehola ya tona blab ka ge go nyakega
go ya ka thuto-thewa dipoelong.
Barutii/gadi ba tla omia le tsebo ya
bona ya go ruta go inaganela gore ba ka
diragata bjang ntlha ye.
Morutii/gadi o diragatga ditiro ta thuto
theo a di kgethilego ge a itokietta thuto.
0 laela barutwana go diragata tiro ya
mathomo ya thuto ka moo go latelago:
2. Kgato ya go ruta
Barutii/gadi ba swanete go ba ba dirile
boitekelo ka dilogwa ge ba itokieta
thuto, gomme ba ngwadile dipoelo ka
bothakga gore ba tie ba kgone go thuta
baithuti mo kgatong ye.
Tiro I
Sehlopheng se sengwe le se sengwe,
boledganang ka thekniki ye kaonekaone
yeo le ka e omiago go leka dilogwa
the di fapanego, gore le tle le kgethe
selogwa se se lebanego go ka omiwa
ka gare ga sefofane.
Teko: Teko ka morutii/gadi: Letlakala
la kelotlhoko leo le hlamilwego ke
71
are asked to sit in groups and each
group is supplied with the following
textiles: silk, wool, cotton, asbestos and
nylon.
At this stage, teachers can tell learners
about the learning outcomes and their
value as is recommended in outcomes
based practice. Teachers will also use
their professional experience to decide
on how to implement this aspect.
The teacher implements the learning
activities which were selected during
lesson preparation. She/he instructs
learners to engage in the first activity as
follows:
2. Teaching Phase
Teachers should have done the
experiment on textiles during
preparations and had findings neatly
recorded to be able to help learners
during this phase.
Activity I
in each group discuss the best
technique that you can use to test the
different textiles so that you can select
the appropriate textile for use in the
aeroplane interior.
Assessment: Teacher assessment: An
observation sheet compiled by the

Morutii/gadi le a omiwa go leka poelo
ya boraro ya thuto, ge baithuti ba swere
ba fihlelela sephetho ka dihlopha.
Dipoelo tia Tiro I:
Baithuti ba tlia dipoelo ka dihlopha, ba
dumelelana gore ba tla tsenela tiro ya
boitekelo, moo ba tlago thuma dilogwa
gore ba hwete mekgwa ya tona, go
bona gore di swa bjang. Ka morago,
sehlopha se sengwe le se sengwe se
fiwa lepokisi la mankgwari.
Ge sehlopha se fana ka dipoelo ta
sona, dihlopha tse dingwe di lekola
mehola le dipoelomorago go fihlela
thekniki ye kaonekaone e kgethwa.
Dihlopha di dumelelana go tsenela tiro
ya boitekelo.
Teko: Mokgwa wa go leka- ke- bagwera
o a t omiwa. Ka go bolela, baithuti ba
bangwe ba ahlola dithekniki tsa dihlopha
ge di fana ka tona go kgetha thekniki
ye kaonekaone. Morutii/gadi o ba
mohlahli.
Tiro 2
Baithuti ba ya kua ntle lepatlelong go
tsenela tiro ya boitekelo, gomme ba
ngwala dipoelo go ya ka dihlopha tsa
bona. Ge ba fedite ka tiro ye, ba boela
ka phapoing go fana ka dipoelo ta
bona.
72
teacher is used to assess learning
outcome number three, whilst learners
reach conclusions in groups.
Report back on Activity I:
Learner's report back in groups and at
this stage they agree to conduct
experiments where they will test each
textile by burning them to discover their
flammability. Thereafter, each group is
supplied with a matchbox.
As each group gives their report, the
other groups weigh their strength and
weaknesses until the best technique is
agreed upon. The groups settle to carry
out experiments.
Assessment: Peer assessment is used.
Orally, other learners judge techniques
during group presentations to select the
best technique. The teacher acts as a
guide.
Activity 2
Learners go outside to the school
grounds to conduct their experiments
and they record their findings in their
various groups. When they are through
with this activity, they return to class to
report back on their findings

Dipoelo Oa Tiro 2
Baithuti ba tliga dipoelo tga bona ka
dihlopha, ka thugo ya dipoelo tga
mekgwa yeo dilogwa di swago ka gona,
yeo morutigadi a e fihleletgego ge a
itokigetga thuto ye. Dipoelo tga baithuti
di bapetgwa le tga morutigi/gadi,
gomme ba fihlelela sephetho gammogo
gore ke selogwa sefe seo se
swanethego bokagare bja sefofane.
Teko: Mokgwa wa go Ieka-ke-bagwera
o a gomigwa ge baithuti ba fana ka
dipoelo tga bona ka dihlopha. Morutigi/
gadi o ba mohlahli.
Tiro 3
Ngwalang pego ya nyakigigo ya lena.
Go kgonthia tsebo ka dintlha te
bohlokwa Oa go ngwala pego,
Morutii/gadi o fa dihlopha mehlala ya
pego gore ba ahlaahle diteng gomme ba
ngwale dintlha Ite bohlokwa ta go
ngwala pego. Ka morago ba fane ka
dipoelo tea bona ka phapoing.
Dipoelo tsa mehiala ya dipego
Dihlopha di fana ka dipoelo tha tgona,
gomme di ahlaahlwa ke baithuti ka moka
ka thugo ya morutigi/gadi. Dipoelo tga go
ngwala pego di akaretga: setaele sa
semmugo, mmolelo wa semmugo,
sebopego se itgego seo se akaretgago:
tlhalogo ya marara, tlhalogo ya thekniki
yeo e gomigitgwego, tgeo di
hweditgwego le ditghiginyo mafelelong.
73
Report back on Activity 2
Learner's report back in groups, with the
help of the teacher's findings on the
flammability of textiles discovered during
the preparation of this lesson. The
learners' findings are compared with
those of the teacher, and together they
reach conclusions as to which textile is
appropriate for the interior walls of the
aeroplane.
Assessment: Peer-assessment is used
as learners report back in groups on
their findings. The teacher acts as a
guide.
Activity 3
Write a report on your investigation.
To ensure learners' knowledge of
important aspects of report writing, the
teacher supplies groups with report
handouts and asks them to discuss the
contents and stipulate their important
characteristics. Finally they should
report back on their findings to the class.
Report back on report handouts
Group's report back on their findings and
these are discussed in class with the
teacher's help. The results of report
writing include a formal style, a formal
register, and a particular format, which
includes the following: statement of the
problem, description of technique used,
findings and finally recommendations.

Baithuti ba thoma go ngwala ka bono6i
kgato ya pele ya pego bjalo ka moomo
wa gae, gomme ba tla le moomo woo
thutong ye e latelago.
Morutii o thugana le barutwana go
photolla dipego ta bona. Mohlala:
Kgetho ya manttu, maswaodikga,
sebopego sa pego, mmolelo le setaele
sa semmuo seo se t omItitwego.
Baithuti ba laelwa go ngwala pego la
bobedi ka morago ga thuo ya
morutii/gadi, gomme ba swaelana
diphoto ka bobona, go fokota
diphoto tta ka boomo, mohiala,
karoganyo ya mantu le polelo ya
semmotwana.
Teko
Teko ka morutii/gadi: Morutii/gadi o
laela baithuti go ngwala pego la
mafelelo, gomme e tliwa go
morutiti/gadi go swaiwa, go ya ka
dinyakwa tta teko tgeo di hlagi'dittwego
mathomong a thuto ye. Ttona ke:
Mmolelo le setaele sa mongwalo wa
semmuo; sebopego sa go ngwala
pego; diteng: Tlhagio ya marara,
tlhalao ya thekniki yeo e somisitswego,
tteo di hweditwego le ditthiinyo.
Barutii/gadi ba gopotwa go lekola ka
moo teko e tweletwago ka go se
kgaote thutong ka moka.
74
Learners begin individually to write the
first draft of their report as homework,
and they hand it in the following lesson.
The teacher helps the learners to correct
their first draft, for example, choice of
words, punctuation, the report format,
register and style used.
Learners are asked to write a second
draft of the report after the teacher's
corrections and they mark each other's
work to further reduce careless errors,
for example, word division and slang.
Assessment
Teacher's assessment: The teacher
asks the learners to write the final draft
of the report, which is handed in to the
teacher for marking according to the
assessment criteria spelt out earlier in
the lesson. These are: Register and
style for formal writing; format for report
writing; contents: Statement of the
problem, description of technique used,
findings and recommendations.
Teachers are reminded to see how
assessment has been applied
continuously in the learning process.
 75

4.4 FURTHER RECOMMENDATIONS

The Northern Sotho facilitators should acquaint themselves with government

documentation on outcomes-base education. A number of relevant publications
written by South African authors on the implementation of this approach in teaching
and learning are available and will form part of good reading material.

The tendency to confuse terminology used in outcomes-based education with that

used in old practice should be cleared before Northern Sotho teachers can begin to
embark on this new paradigm shift. The notion held by some practitioners, that
engaging in outcomes-based approach presupposes the use of group-work in all
learning activities should be eradicate because it does not hold true of this
approach. Teachers should employ all good teaching strategies where applicable.
Similarly the notion that in outcomes-based practice, the teacher ceases to teach
and give way to learners' activities whilst he/she remain in the background does not
hold true of this new approach. Teachers remain senior learners and not authorities
on learning material in this approach and allow the learners to discover the new
content, and where necessary offer formal instruction.

The translation of material must be an integral part of all planning and preparation
in Northern Sotho because language teaching in outcomes-based practice
necessitates a variety of life-role contexts, which are provided by interdisciplinary
quality content. The lack of Northern Sotho material in most disciplines will thus
point to translation of such material as the only solution at present. For example:
the use of cartoons, newspaper cuttings, passages from magazines will need to be
translated into Northern Sotho.

Facilitators should prepare themselves for a laborious preparation of well thought

out lessons commanding all creativity, coupled with professionalism, if their practice
is to be outcomes-based. Enough time should thus be put aside for lesson
preparation. It is also advisable that initially, teachers should not hurry to integrate
more than two outcomes in one lesson, instead should consider this a gradual
 76

process that will come to fruition only if given the time, dedication and involvement it
deserves. Teachers should upgrade their knowledge of teaching and learning
strategies and consider team teaching as ideal in outcomes-based education.

Finally, Northern Sotho facilitators should consider outcomes-based education

synonymous with good quality teaching coupled with a vision of learners taking their
future life-roles of home, work and community.

4.5 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

This research undertaking indicates both strengths and limitations, which shall be
discussed in this next section of this chapter. Attention will first focus on the
strengths and then turn to the limitations.

4.5.1 Strengths

There are a number of strengths that emerged during the undertaking of this
research. These strengths will benefit the Northern Sotho practitioners in
outcomes-based practice. The study of outcomes-based education, which is a new
paradigm shift in South Africa, will afford many practitioners with a basis to work
from in their daily activities. The Northern Sotho facilitators, who have been in the
background of change in language development, will benefit greatly, because this
research affords them a step by step analysis of how outcomes-based approach
lessons .should be designed in this language. First language practitioners in other
languages will also benefit from the findings of this research, especially in the
development of guidelines for first language teaching done in chapter 2. Though no
two languages are exactly the same, there are many areas of consensus and as
such this study shall be beneficial. International implementation of outcomes-based
education will benefit most researches who will find the distinction between such
practices and the South African adoption of this practice informative.
 77

For instance, the notion of working from specific outcomes instead of critical
outcomes, specific outcomes classified according to the area of knowledge they
represent, may cause old practitioners to believe that this new paradigm is similar
to the old and only an implementation of new terminology, the meaning of various
concepts used in the new approach is very unclear as various newly written
materials and implementers do not reach consensus.

The various weaknesses cited from former outcomes-based practices, would help
new implementers, who mostly hold the belief that this new paradigm is without
flaws. Such a realisation will help them to begin from a position of strength. The
absence of fieldwork from this study in the South African context is beneficial,
because of absence of expertise in this field. Again, many practitioners of
outcomes-based education are still struggling with the concept, and such a study
would be more confusing than insightful. Translation of some terminology used in
outcomes-based practice shall benefit many Northern Sotho practitioners.

4.5.2 Limitations

In this section, limitations of this research study are addressed. Facilitators and
researchers in Northern Sotho and other related first languages should consider
them seriously because they will help to enrich their knowledge in this field. The
major limitation in this research is the absence of fieldwork that will probably lead to
both local and international criticism. Given its infancy in the South African context,
it would be difficult to reach conclusion from old implementers of this practice on a
language and situation very different from theirs. The lesson is based on specific
outcomes designed for a field of knowledge and not a critical cross curricular
outcome, and such a starting point may face serious criticism internationally,
because it tends to work from the traditional outcomes-based approach. The lack
of standardised Northern Sotho terminology for use in the new outcomes-based
education, may face criticism from first language speakers, who may prefer specific
terminology contrary to that used in this research in their struggle to reach
excellence.
 78

4.6 CONCLUSION

The development of guidelines for first language teaching will benefit first language
practitioners. The integration of these guidelines with outcomes-based teaching
guidelines to develop guidelines for teaching Northern Sotho will greatly benefit the
learner and the practitioner in this language. Major conclusions reached showed
how closely related outcomes-based teaching key features are, to that of teaching a
first language according to pragmatics. The lesson sample indicated clearly how
teachers could implement outcomes-based guidelines in Northern Sotho first
language. Outcomes-based teaching is not about stating and describing objectives
which are content bound and teacher-centred, but about stating and describing
learning outcomes that clearly specify the knowledge, skills and attitudes that
learners should achieve after a learning experience. This was clearly evident in the
Northern Sotho lesson sample given earlier. These outcomes are learner-centred
and based on higher order competencies or life role situations.

Activity is central to outcomes-based practices and thus designing of learning

activities around the learning outcomes is vital, where learners shall be responsible
and take initiative for their own learning. Such activities will occur in suitable real
life contexts where language structure and function are not separated into different
entities. Consider how learners moved from the classroom to the school grounds in
one lesson in the lesson sample supplied in this chapter.

Outcomes-based practices should be based on assessing learners according to

stipulated criteria and not grading learners according to other learner's perfor-
mance, based on scores, percentage or symbol. Assessment in the new approach
is continuous and not only applied at exit point. In the supplied lesson, assessment
continued throughout the learning process and peer and teacher assessment was
used interchangeably. The weaknesses and strengths of this research shall be
informative to both Northern Sotho and other interested practitioners and
researchers.
 79

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AITCHISON, J 1992: Linguistics. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

ANON. 1997: New schools syllabi still has a problem. Sowetan, 24 March 1997:3.

BERNS, M 1990: Contexts of competence: Social and cultural considerations in

communicative language teaching. New York: Plenum Press.

BLOOMFIELD, L 1967: Language. London: George Allen and Unwin.

BOSCHEE, F & BARON, MA 1993: Outcome-based education: Developing

programs through strategic planning. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing.

BROWN, HD 1983: Principles of language learning and teaching. Second Edition.

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

BROWN, S; RACE, P & SMITH B 1996: 500 tips on assessment. London: Kogan
Page.

BRUMFIT, CJ & JOHNSON, K 1979: The communicative approach to language

teaching. Second Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

BURRON, A 1994: Traditionalist Christian and OBE: What's the problem?

Educational Leadership, 51(6), 74.

CAPPER, CA & JAMISON, MT 1993: Outcomes-based education re-examined:

from structural functionalism to poststructuralism. Educational Policy, 7(4),
428, 430-432, 440-441.

CARL, AE 1995: Teacher empowerment through curriculum development.

Kenwyn: Juta & Company Limited.

ESTERHUYSE, CJ 1974: Die ontwikkeling van die Noord-Sothoskryftaal. Pretoria:

Universiteit van Pretoria.

FRITZ, M 1994: Why OBE and the traditionalists are both wrong. Educational
Leadership, 51(6), 79-80.

FROMKIN, V & RODMAN, R 1998: An introduction to language. Sixth edition.

New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

GEYSER, HC 1992: Evaluering van eerstetaalsillabusse en -vraestelle: 'n

Pragmatiese perspektief. Johannesburg: Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit
(doktorale proefskrif).

GEYSER, HC 1997: Evaluation, assessment and portfolios. A paper delivered at

seminar on Outcomes-based Education. September 1997:7-8, 11, 13.

HAACK, MK 1994: Defining outcomes for guidance and counselling. Educational

Leadership, 51(6), 34.
 80

JASA, S & ENGER, L 1994: Applying OBE to arts education. Educational

Leadership, 51(6), 30-31.

KILLEN, R 1996: Outcomes-based education: Rethinking teaching. New Castle:

University of New Castle.

KING, JA & EVANS, KM 1991: Can we achieve outcomes-based education?

Educational Leadership, 49(2), 73-74.

KOCK, JHM 1992: Relatiefomskrywing in die Suid Afrikaanse Bantoetale met

besondere verwysing na Noord-Sotho. Johannesburg: Randse Afrikaanse
Universiteit (doktorale proefskrif).

KOSCH, IM 1993: A historical perspective on Northern Sotho linguistics. Pretoria:

Via Afrika.

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D 1986: Techniques and principles in language teaching.

London: Oxford University Press.

LEECH, G 1980: Explorations in semantics and pragmatics: Pragmatics and

beyond. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.

LOVELL, K & LAWSON, KS n. d.: Understanding research in education. London:

London University Press.

LOUWRENS, LJ 1991: Aspects of Northern Sotho grammar. Pretoria: Via Afrika.

MALAN, B 1997: Excellence through outcomes. Pretoria: Kagiso Publishers.

MARSHALL, C & ROSSMAN, GB 1995: Designing qualitative research. California:

Sage Publications.

MASENYA, MJ 1991: An alternative approach to the teaching and learning of

Northern Sotho first language (L1). Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans
University (M Ed dissertation).

MASOLA, IS 1989: The teaching of Northern Sotho at Colleges of Education

(D.E.T.). Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University (M Ed dissertation).

MARZANO, RJ 1994: Lessons from the field about outcomes-based performance

assessments. Educational Leadership, 51(6), 44.

McGHAN, B 1994: The possible outcomes of outcomes-based education.

Educational Leadership, 51(6), 70.

MURPHY, S & SMITH, MA 1991: Writing portfolios: A bridge from teaching to

assessment. Ontario: Pippin Publishing Limited.

NEWMEYER, FJ 1986: Linguistic theory in America. London: Academic Press.

 81

PLISKA, AM & McQUAIDE, J 1994: Pennsylvania's battle for student learning

outcomes. Educational Leadership, 51(6), 67-68.

RADFORD, A 1984: Transformational syntax: A student's guide to Chomsky's

extended standard theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

RANTAO, J & NAIDU, E 1997: Radical changes at schools launched. The Star, 25
March 1997:1.

RICHARDS, JC & RODGERS, TS 1986: Approaches and methods in language

teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

ROBINS, RH 1990: A short history of linguistics. New York: Longman

Incorporated.

ROHAN, R 1997: Bhengu unveils new school curriculum. Sowetan, 24 March

1997:1.

SAVIGNON, SJ 1983: Communicative competence: Theory and classroom

practice: Texts and contexts in Second Language Learning. California:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

SPADY, WG 1994: Choosing outcomes of significance. Educational Leadership,

51(6), 18-21.

SPADY, WG 1994: Outcomes-based education: Critical issues and answers.

Virginia: The American Association of School Administrators.

SPADY, WG & MARSHALL, KJ 1991: Beyond traditional outcomes-based

education. Educational Leadership, 49(2), 67-70.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1994: The draft White Paper on Education and Training.
Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1995: Draft curriculum framework for general and further
education and training. Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1996(a): A lifelong learning development framework for general

and training in South Africa. Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1996(b): Structures for the development of National Policy

regarding curriculum and related issues. Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1996(c): Lifelong learning through a National Qualifications

Framework: Report of Ministerial Committee for development work on the
NQF. Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1997(a): National qualifications framework. Gauteng:

Government Printers.
 82

SOUTH AFRICA, 1997(b): Outcomes-based education in South Africa:

Background information for. educators. Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1997(c): The development and phasing in of pre-higher

education and training curriculum for 1998. Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1997(d): Curriculum: A lifelong learning for the 21 st century.

Pretoria: Government Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1997(e): Senior phase policy document. Pretoria: Government

Printers.

SOUTH AFRICA, 1997(f): Curriculum '2005' day. Pretoria: Government Printers.

THOMAS, J 1995: Meaning and interaction: An introduction to pragmatics. New

York: Addison Wesley Longman.

VAN DER HORST, H & McDONALD, R 1997: Outcomes-based education: A

teacher's manual. Pretoria: Kagiso Publishers.

ZITTERKOPF, R 1994: A fundamentalist's defense of OBE. Educational

Leadership, 51(6), 77.