3.5.3.
Vertical Alignment smooth transitions created from tangent to curve and then back
The vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the
safe, economical operation of the motor vehicle constitute
one of the most important features of a highway design. The
vertical alignment, which consist a series of straight profile
lines connected by vertical parabolic curves, is known as the
profile grade line. When the profile grade line is increasing
from a level or flat alignment, this condition is referred to as
a plus grade, and when the grade is decreasing from a level
alignment, the grade is termed a minus grade. In analyzing
grade and grade controls, the designer usually studies the
effect of change on the centerline profile of the roadway.
In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in
which the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal
of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted. All
earthwork hauls should be moved in a downhill direction if
possible and within a relatively short distance from the
origin, due to the expense of moving large quantities of soil.
Ideal grades have long distances between points of
intersection, with long curves between grade tangents to
provide smooth riding qualities and good visibility. The
grade should follow the general terrain and rise or fall in the
direction of the existing drainage. In rock cuts and in flat,
low-lying or swampy areas, it is necessary to maintain higher
grades with respect to the existing ground line. Future
possible construction and the presence of grade separations
or bridge structures can also act as control criteria for the
design of a vertical alignment.
The vertical alignment consists of straight roadway sections
(grades or tangents) connected by vertical curves. The grade
line is laid out in the preliminary location study to reduce the
amount of earthwork and to satisfy other constraints such as
minimum and maximum grades. The basic design features of
vertical alignment include grades, critical length of grade,
climbing lanes, emergency escape ramps, and vertical curve
length.
3.5.3.2. Critical grade lengths
Maximum grade in itself is not a complete design control. It is
also appropriate to consider the length of a particular grade in
relation to desirable vehicle operation.
3.5.3.3. Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact
of a steep gradient. A climbing lane is an auxiliary lane added
outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of reducing
congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving
vehicles from the traffic stream. It also enhances road safety
by reducing the speed differential in the through lane. The
requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road
standard, speed and traffic volume.
Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present
traffic volumes are greater than 400 ADT. Thus the application
of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk and link roads.
Table 3-10 is prepared according to the criteria that a 20 km/h
speed reduction is expected for a truck. It is used in the design
to indicate locations where climbing lanes are recommended.
3.5.3.4. Vertical Curves
The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting
profile grade tangents. The primary reason for the use of this
type of curve in vertical highway alignments is the convenient
manner in which the vertical offsets can be computed and the
to tangent. When a vertical curve connects a positive grade with
a negative grade, it is referred to as a crest curve. Likewise,
when a vertical curve connects a negative grade with a positive
grade, it is termed a sag curve.
3.5.3.5. Length of Vertical Curves
Crest Curves:
For crest curves, the most important consideration in
determining the length of the curve is the sight distance
requirement.
Case1: S < L
It is well known that one cubic meter of excavation on amount
required. This can be done by using the shrinkage or swell
Case1: S < L
to the point where the material is to be tipped or unloaded.
Sag Curves:
For sag curves, the criteria for determining the length are
vehicle headlight distance, rider comfort, drainage control
and general appearance.
CHAPTER 4: EARTHWORK AND QUANTIFICATION
4.1. Introduction
During the construction of roads there may be considerable
quantity of earth materials removed and placed to achieve
the desired earth grade cross section. Earthwork is simply
the quantity of material to be moved or put in place to
convert the natural condition and configuration within the
ROW of the road to the section and grades described in the
plans. This movement of earth throughout the site can be
very expensive and since the majority of the cost of road
construction is usually accounted for the earth moving it is
essential that considerable care is taken when quantifying
and planning the way in which earth material is handled
during construction.
Generally earthwork operation includes excavating, loading,
hauling (transporting), placing, compacting, grading and
finishing.
Classification of Excavated Material
The term earthwork includes all clearing and grubbing;
excavation for roadway and drainage, excavation for
structures, embankments, borrow; machine grading,
subgrade scarifying, rock fill, and all the operations of
preparing the subgrade foundation for highway or runway
pavement.
Excavated material is usually classified as (1) common
excavation, (2) loose rock, or (3) solid rock. Common excavation
is largely earth, or earth with detached boulders. Loose rock
usually refers to rock which can be removed with pick and bar,
although the use of power shovels or blasting may be
advantageous. Solid rock comprises hard rock in place and
boulders that can be removed only by the use of drilling and
blasting equipment.
Shrinkage and Swell Factors
will not occupies exactly 1 m3 of space in the fill, so adjusting is
factor.
Simpsons Rule: - this method assumes that the irregular
boundary is composed of a series
of arcs. It is essential that the figure under consideration is
divided into an even number ofequal strips.
5.4. Distribution Analysis of Earthwork
Terminology
Haul: - This is the term used when calculating the costs
involved in earth moving and is taken as the sum of the
product of each volume of material and the distance through
which it is moved. On mass-haul diagram it is equal to the
area contained between the curve and the balancing line
(m3.m).
Haul Distance: - is the distance from point of excavation
Average Haul Distance:- is the distance from the center
of gravity of the excavation to the center of gravity of tip or
fill.
Figure 4.12: Prismoidal Method
Free Haul Distance: - is the maximum distance (usually
specified in the contract) through which excavated material
may be transported without the added cost above the unit
bid price [a charge is paid only for the volume of earth
excavated and not for its movement]. Free-haul is part of the
haul which is contained within the free haul distance.
Over Haul Distance: - is the distance in excess of the
free-haul distance that excavated material is transported
beyond the free haul distance, over which it is necessary to
transport material. An extra charge will be paid for transport.
Over-haul is part of the haul which remains after the free haul
has been removed.
Borrow: - refers to the fill material that must be brought
to the proposed highway site from outside the highway
corridor due to deficiency of suitable material. Borrow does
not include the material that is excavated on site for use as
fill.
Waste: - is a material excavated from roadway cuts but
not required for making the embankment. It is the volume
surplus or unsuitable material which must be exported from
a section of the site. Economic Limit of Haul: - is the
distance through which it is more economical to haul
excavated material than to waste and borrow.
5.4.3. Mass Haul Diagram
A mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of
earthwork and embankment involved in a project and the
manner in which the earth is to be moved. Its horizontal or x-
axis represents distance and is usually expressed in meters or
stations. It is drawn to the same horizontal scale as the profile.
The vertical or y-axis represents the cumulative quantity of
earthwork in cubic meters. The quantity of excavation on the
mass diagram is considered positive, and embankment as
negative. Preliminary to drawing the mass curve it is convenient
to tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fills at each
station