Knife Steel Basics

Selection of Knife Steels

Theutilityofaknifedependsonoptimizingallthefactorsaffectingitsperformance.Usually,conditionsofuse(appliedloads,
abrasiveenvironments,impacts,andotherfactors)determinehowwelltheknifeholdsup.Mostknifefailuresarerelatedto
suchmechanicalcauses.However,withavarietyofsteelsavailableformanufacturingknives,itisoftenpossibletochoosea
knifesteelwithafavorablecombinationofpropertiesforparticularuses.Bycomparingthelevelsofmetallurgicalproperties
offeredbydifferentsteels,knifemakerscandeterminewhichsteelsarebestsuitedforfixingorresistingperformance
problems,orforenhancingknifeperformance.Knifesteelscanbecategorizedandcomparedbythosepropertieswhichhavea
directinfluenceonperformance:hardness,toughness(impactresistance),wearresistance,andcorrosionresistance.

Knife Steels

GeneralPurpose ImprovedWearResistance
O1,A2,D2 M4,10V,S30V,S90V
ImprovedToughness CorrosionResistance
3V 440C,154CM,CPM154,S30V,S35VN,S90V

Historically,customknifesteelshaveincludedO1,A2andD2,withoccasionaluseofcorrosionandwearresistantgradessuch
as440Cand154CM.O1,A2andD2arefamiliartomostcustomknifemakersandusers.Theycombinegoodallaround
performancepropertieswithlowcost,wideavailability,andrelativelyeasyfabrication.However,theysometimesdonot
providethelevelofperformanceneededforchallengingapplications.Specifically,whereabusiveuseandinfrequent
resharpeningaredesired,otherhigheralloysteelsmightbeused.Traditionally,otherproperties,suchasimpactresistance,
maybesacrificedinordertogainthehigherwearproperties.Conversely,steelschosenfortheirresistancetoimpactor
breakagemaynotbecapableofhighwearresistance.Anunderstandingoftheseknifesteelpropertiesandrelatedissues
permitsselectionoftheoptimumsteelformostapplications.

Knifeuserscanexamineheavilyusedbladestodeterminewhichpropertymayhavebeenlacking,orwhichpropertiesshould
beimproved,andwhatotherpropertiesmustbeconsideredinalternatematerialswiththerequiredimprovedproperties.

Properties of Knife Steel

Hardness isameasureofasteelsresistancetodeformation.Hardnessinknifesteelsismostcommonlymeasuredusingthe
RockwellCtest.Hardenedknifesteelsaregenerallyabout58/62HRC(hardnessRockwellC),dependingonthegrade.Mostare
typicallyabout58/60HRC,althoughsomeareoccasionallyuseduptoabout62HRC.

Knifeedgeswhichplasticallydeforminservicepossessinsufficienthardness.Permanentbendingofthebladeorpermanent
deflectionofthecuttingedgeindicatesinsufficienthardness.Becauseasteelsresistancetopermanentdeflectionisdirectly
relatedtothehardness,notthegrade,correctiveactionsfordeformationmayincludeincreasinghardness,ordecreasing
operatingloadsbyincreasingbladethickness.Changinggradeswillnothelpadeformationproblem,unlessthenewgradeis
capableofhigherhardness.

Toughness,asconsideredforhighhardnessknifesteels,istherelativeresistanceofamaterialtobreakage,chipping,or
crackingunderimpactorstress.Toughnessmaybethoughtofastheoppositeofbrittleness.Toughnesstestingisnotas
standardizedashardnesstesting.Itmaybedifficulttocorrelatetheresultsofdifferenttestmethods.Commontoughnesstests
includevariousimpacttestsandbendfracturetests.

Inservice,wearfailuresareusuallypreferabletotoughnessfailures(breakage).Breakagefailurescanbeunpredictable,
catastrophic,andevenasafetyconcern.Conversely,wearfailuresareusuallygradual,andcanbeanticipatedandplannedfor.
Toughnessfailuresmaybetheresultofinadequatematerialtoughness,oranumberofotherfactors,includingheat
treatment,fabrication(grindingabuse),oramultitudeofusageissues.Toughnessdataisusefultopredictwhichsteelsmaybe
moreorlesspronetochippingorbreakagethanothersteels,buttoughnessdatacannotalonepredicttheperformancelifeof
aknife.

Wear resistance istheabilityofmaterialtoresistbeingabradedorerodedbycontactwithworkmaterial,oroutside

influences(dirt,grit,bone,etc.)Wearresistanceisprovidedbyboththehardnesslevelandthechemistryoftheknifeblade.
Weartestsarequitespecifictothecircumstancescreatingthewearandtheapplicationoftheknife.Mostweartestsinvolve
creatingamovingcontactbetweenthesurfaceofasampleandsomedestructivemedium.Thereare2basictypesofwear
damageinknives,abrasiveandadhesive.Wearinvolvingerosionorroundingofedgesiscalledabrasivewear.Abrasivewear
doesnotrequirehighpressures.Abrasiveweartestingmayinvolvesand,sandpaper,orvariousslurriesorpowders.Wearfrom
intimatecontactbetweentworelativelysmoothsurfaces,suchassteelonsteel,carbideonsteel,etc.,iscalledadhesivewear.
Adhesivewearmayinvolveactualtearingofthematerialatpointsofhighpressurecontactduetofriction.

Corrosion Resistance isameasureofaknifesteelsresistancetoattackinhighhumidity,damp,orsaltenvironments.This

resistanceisestablishedbytheadditionofchromiumtothecomposition.Developingcorrosionresistanceinaheattreatable,
wearresistantsteelisachallengethathasbeenmetwithnumerousspecialtyCPMalloys.Relativeresistanceisoften
measuredinsaltsprayandwatersprayenvironments.

Heat Treatment of Tool Steels

Knifesteelsareusuallysuppliedintheannealedconditiontofacilitatemanufacture.Thesesteelsmustbeheattreatedto
developtheircharacteristicproperties.Theheattreatingprocessaltersthealloydistributionandtransformsthesoftmatrix
intoahardmatrixcapableofwithstandingthepressure,abrasionandimpactsinherentinknifeuse.Eachstepoftheheat
treatingcycleisdesignedtoperformaspecificfunction,and,likelinksinachain,thefinalproductisonlyasgoodasits
weakestcomponent.

Preheating,orslowheating,ofknifesteelsduringheattreatmentisnecessarytoavoidthermalshockanddistortion.
Preheatingisdonetojustbelowacriticaltransformationtemperature.Thepartisthenheldlongenoughtoallowthefull
crosssectiontoreachauniformtemperature.Oncetheentirepartisequalized,furtherheatingtotheaustenitizing
temperaturewillallowthematerialtotransformmoreuniformly.

Austenitizing atanelevatedtemperatureisnecessarytohardenknifesteels.Theactualtemperatureuseddependsonthe
chemicalcompositionofthesteel.Thetemperaturemaybevariedsomewhattotailortheresultingpropertiestospecific
applications.Highertemperaturespermitslightlyhigherhardnessorcompressivestrength.Lowertemperaturespermithigher
materialtoughnessataslightlylowertemperature.

Quenching thesteelfromtheaustenitizingtemperaturecausesthesteeltofullyhardentomartensite,whichwillprovidethe
materialsstrength.Howfastasteelmustbecooledtofullyhardendependsonthechemicalcomposition.Forhighlyalloyed
toolsteelswhichhardenfromover2000F,thequenchratefromabout1800Ftobelow1200Fiscriticalforoptimumheat
treatresponseandmaterialtoughness.Nomatterhowknifesteelsarequenched,theresultingstructure,martensite,is
extremelybrittle,andundergreatstress.Ifputintoserviceinthiscondition,mostknifesteelswouldshatter.Somesteelswill
spontaneouslycrackinthisconditionevenifleftuntouchedatroomtemperature.Forthisreason,assoonasknifesteelshave
beenquenchedbyanymethodtohandwarm(about125/150F),theyshouldbeimmediatelytempered.

Tempering isperformedtostressrelievethebrittlemartensitewhichwasformedduringthequench.Moststeelshavea
fairlywiderangeofacceptabletemperingtemperatures.Ingeneral,usethehighesttemperingtemperaturewhichwillprovide
thenecessaryhardnessfortheknife.Therateofheatingto,andcoolingfromthetemperingtemperatureisnotcritical.
Suddendrastictemperatureswingsshouldbeavoided.Thematerialshouldbeallowedtocoolcompletelytoroom
temperature(50/75F)orbelowbetweenandaftertempers.Moststeelsmustbeheldattemperatureforaminimumoftwo
tofourhoursforeachtemper.Aruleofthumbistoallowonehourperinchofthickestsectionfortempering,butinnocase
lessthantwohoursregardlessofsize.

Size Change isunavoidableinheattreatedtoolsteelsbecauseoftheresultantchangesintheirmicrostructure.Mosttool

steelsgrowbetweenabout0.0005and0.002inchperinchoforiginallengthduringheattreatment.