Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Application of straight vegetable oil from triglyceride based biomass to IC MARK

engines A review
Soo-Young No
Department of Biosystems Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: This review will be concentrated on the application of straight vegetable oils (SVO) produced from the
Straight vegetable oil (SVO) triglycerides based biomass to internal combustion (IC) engines such as compression ignition (CI) engine and
Compression ignition (CI) engine gas turbines.
Gas turbine The researches on the application of SVO to CI engines were categorized to neat SVO, fuel modication,
Fuel modication
engine modication, and simultaneous modication of fuel and engine. The discussion for fuel modication was
Engine modication
Performance and exhaust emissions
limited only to physical fuel modication such as blending, SVO emulsion and SVO with additives. Most studies
for binary blends were concentrated on blending SVO with petrodiesel. However, blending SVO with ethanol,
methanol or other alcohols was also examined. The ternary blends including SVO blended fuel with butanol or
kerosene in diesel were also studied. The optimum concentrations of SVO when blended with petrodiesel
suggested by the dierent investigators for the dierent SVOs are summarized. Most inedible vegetable oil when
blended with diesel up to a concentration of 20% is a promising alternative to petrodiesel and would not require
any engine modication. Most studies reported lower BTE and higher BSFC for blended SVO with diesel than
for petrodiesel. Increase of CO and HC and decrease of NOx were noticed for blended SVO compared with
petrodiesel. However, the eect of the blended SVO on the PM emission or smoke opacity was dierent from
one study to another.
Engine modication includes preheating the fuel line or fuel itself, dual fuelling, and newly designed engine
as well as injection system modication kit. Most studies for engine modication were concentrated on the
preheated SVO. The optimum preheating temperatures for several SVO suggested by dierent investigators are
summarized. The optimum preheating temperature is virtually related to the viscosity of SVO itself and has to
be established for the dierent type of SVO. The preheating method of SVO includes engine coolant, heat
exchanger, electric heater, phase change material storage system. Most studies showed the increase of CO, HC
and PM and decrease of NOx compared with petrodiesel. However, opposite results for NOx and PM can be
found in some studies.
The most practical and eective method for lowering the viscosity of SVO can be the simultaneous
modication of fuel and engine, i.e. by preheating and/or blending SVO with a diesel fuel or other fuel in
suitable proportions.

1. Introduction
A variety of liquid biofuels can be obtained from triglyceride based
biomass such as edible or inedible vegetable oils, animal fats, waste
materials, and microalgae as show in Fig. 1. The conversion of
vegetable oils and animal fats to biodiesel requires an additional input
of energy and materials in the form of fossil-derived methanol.
Compare to biodiesel, straight vegetable oil (SVO) has several advan-
tages; 1) in their relatively low embodied fossil energy, 2) in low well-
to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions, 3) in their relatively easy, econom-
ic and abundant production [1]. However, SVO suers from undesir-
able properties such as; 1) high kinematic viscosity, 2) lower heating
value, 3) low cetane number etc. Among these properties, the high
kinematic viscosity of SVO which is around 812 times higher than
that of diesel leads to problems associated with cold ow, cold start and
deposit formation in the injector, nozzle, combustion chamber and

Abbreviations: BSEC, brake specic energy consumption; BSFC, brake specic fuel consumption; BTDC, before top dead center; BTE, brake thermal eciency; CFD, computational
uid dynamics; CFPP, cold lter plugging point; CN, cetane number; DI, direct injection; EGR, exhaust gas recirculation; GHG, green house gas; HDDI, heavy duty direct injection; IDI,
indirect injection; LCA, life cycle analysis; LHR, low heat rejection; LHV, lower heating value; LPG, liqueed petroleum gas; PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PM, particulate
matter; SMD, Sauter mean diameter; SVO, straight vegetable oil
E-mail address: sooyoung@chungbuk.ac.kr.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.007
Received 21 December 2015; Received in revised form 3 October 2016; Accepted 1 November 2016
Available online 17 November 2016
1364-0321/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.-Y. No
Fig. 1. Overview of feedstocks and production process for liquid biofuels from triglycerides-based biomass.
damaging rubber seals. Because of these inherent characteristics, SVO
was treated as an undesirable fuel for automotive applications as it
aected the engine durability when it was used continuously for a
longer time period in the engine [2]. It is, therefore, useful to re-
examine the use of SVO for the displacement of fossil fuels in CI
engines. However, the application of SVO in CI engines was found to
compromise the durability of CI engines, particularly by increased
injector nozzle coking, piston ring sticking and dilution of the engine
lubrication oil [3].
An exhaustive review of the experiments in the area of direct use of
vegetable oil and animal fats carried out by many researchers in last
three decades on 2008 was presented by Mondal et al. [4]. They
summarized the problems of using SVO as fuel in CI engine and
classied them into short-term and long-term. The short-term pro-
blems include cold weather starting, plugging and gumming of lters,
lines and injectors, and engine knocking. The coking of injectors on
piston and head of engine, carbon deposit on piston and head of
engine, excessive engine wear, and failure of engine lubricating oil due
to polymerization were included in the long term problems. In
addition, Table 6 in the review paper by Mondal et al. [4] in their
study is very instructive for the potential solutions of using SVO as fuel
in CI engines.
A review of literature of SVO combustion with a focus on SVO
composition and chemical structure was reported by Nettles-Anderson
and Olsen [5]. They recommended that SVO be higher in saturated and
monounsaturated fats, and use a conversion kit for heating system with
a new injector for DI CI engines.
A comprehensive and up-to-date technical review of using both
edible and inedible SVO in CI engines had been reported by Hossain
and Davies [6]. They grouped the application method of SVO to CI
engines as vegetable oil property modication and engine modication
and adjustments. The methods of modifying vegetable oil properties
include pre-heating, blending with diesel or other fuels, emulsication
and transesterication of SVO and those have been tried as means of
obtaining better performance, emission and durability of CI engines.
Reported modications and adjustments to engines include change in
injection timing and pressure, addition of a separate combustion
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
chamber and exhaust gas recirculation. According to a review of 30
sources regarding the performance and emissions of engines running
on SVO, the result has revealed that, compared to petrodiesel, 1) brake
power output is between 18% lower and 10% higher, 2) brake specic
fuel consumption (BSFC) is increased by 215%, but brake specic
energy consumption (BSEC) is almost unchanged, 3) BTE is between
10% lower and 3% higher, 4) emissions of CO2 are unchanged or
increased with SVO and 5) emissions of NOx are decreased. In addition
they concluded that SVO gives considerable life-cycle energy and
emission benets over biodiesel and petrodiesel. The studies that they
used to support this conclusion focus on fossil fuel inputs in the plant
oil life cycle. However, Reijnders [7] argued that the greenhouse gas
emissions linked to fossil fuel inputs are not the only greenhouse gas
emissions associated with the plant oil life cycle. When life cycle
assessment of greenhouse gas emissions associated with biofuels not
only considers fossil fuel inputs, but also N2O emissions and changes
in carbon stocks of (agro) ecosystems linked to the cultivation of biofuel
crops, current plant oils such as European rapeseed oil, and soybean
and palm oil from recently deforested soils have higher life cycle
greenhouse gas emissions than conventional diesel.
Researches carried out specically under Indian conditions and
international research works on the usage of SVO in CI engines were
reviewed by Misra and Murthy [8]. They found that SVOs in small
percentage blends with petrodiesel when used lower capacity diesel
engines have shown great promise with regards to performance as well
as exhaust emissions. In addition, they concluded that SVO have the
potential to reduce NOx emissions. Sidibe et al. [9] pointed out in their
review that further areas for research is the development of additives
not to aect spray characteristics and lead to poor combustion.
Moreover, the optimum pre-heating temperature or optimum blending
ratio with other fuels has to be established for each type of SVO.
Russo et al. [10] summarized, in their review of state-of-the-art of
biofuels from SVO, the benets originating from the use of SVOs as fuel
for diesel engine such as environmentally friendly, lower sulphur
content, safer for use, reduction of green house gases (GHGs) emis-
sions, etc. According to their classication, engine modication in-
cludes preheating SVO, injection system modication, dual fuelling and
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EGR, and fuel modication includes blending SVO, transesterication,
pyrolysis and emulsication of SVO. They also stated that reduction in
power, more or less the same BTE and higher SFC, lower HC and CO2
emissions, higher CO and NOx emissions were found compare to
petrodiesel. The advantages of the use of SVO as a biofuel versus
biodiesel were assessed by Esteban et al. [11] through life cycle
assessment (LCA). The results showed that SVO is more environmen-
tally friendly than biodiesel. However, they pointed out that SVO is a
useful option as a self supplied small-scale produced biofuel.
The comprehensive review on the preheated SVO as a fuel for CI
engines based on the literature and their own works was reported by
Vojtisek-Lom [1]. In this study, the combustion of SVO in a diesel
engine was classied into two categories: a favorable region of
moderate and high engine speeds and loads, and a problematic region
of low speed and low load operation. It was also described that the
desired fuel preheating temperature is over 60 C. In addition, for more
widespread use of SVO, the hybrid-electric and vegetable oil fuelling
system was suggested.
The list of various edible and inedible oil producing crops that have
been tested as SVO fuel in CI engines before 2010 and tabulated by
Hartmann et al. [12] is very informative. To assess the potential of
SVOs for direct use as well for biodiesel production, review work was
conducted by Dwivedi and Sharma [13] based on oxidation stability
index and cold ow properties such as cloud point and cold lter
plugging point (CFPP). Five edible oils such as castor, canola, cotton-
seed, rapeseed, soybean, and four inedible oils such as mahua, neem,
jatropha and pongamia were selected in this study. As a conclusion, out
of SVOs considered in this study, castor oil had highest oxidation
stability index (OSI) and good cold ow properties and was recom-
mended as the best SVO for biodiesel production.
In the review on the use of animal fats/SVO and their emulsions as
fuel for diesel engine [14], it was reported that the addition of water in
the form of emulsion with SVO in diesel engines enhanced the
combustion eciency with improved performance in comparison with
SVO. It was also found that the optimum fraction of water in the
emulsion was 30% by volume. Signicant reduction of NOx could be
obtained with emulsions of SVO, but CO and HC emissions increased.
SVOs have several advantages over petrodiesel such as local
availability, renewability, relatively high heating value, low sulphur
content, low aromatic content and high biodegradability [13,15]. It is
also known that small-scale production and consumption of SVO from
rapeseed can revitalize rural economics and help them from being less
dependent on petrodiesel [16]. Additionally SVO fuel production and
self-consumption reduces GHG emissions with no main prot decrease
in farmers' incomes [17].
SVO can be simply produced by physically cold pressing and
ltering the oil-contained feed stock from mostly oil-bearing biomass.
Five main operations in the SVO production process described by Blin
et al. [15] are seed storage, seed cleaning, screw-pressing, ltration,
and oil storage. Therefore, SVO only leaves behind very little carbon
foodprint during its production process compared to commercial
biodiesel in reneries [18]. In comparison of biodiesel and SVO
productions [19], SVO was substantially less costly to produce than
biodiesel because of the additional inputs for biodiesel production such
as methanol, electricity and labor. They concluded that in the case of
reliable SVO use in diesel engines, on-farm utilization of oilseed crops
for SVO production represents the most economical method of biofuel
production.
The term straight vegetable oil [1,3,5,8,9,15,2024], pure plant
oil [2,5,10,25,26], pure vegetable oil [8,2730], neat vegetable oil
[31], unprocessed vegetable oil [32], raw plant oil [6], raw vegetable oil
[12], crude (ltered) vegetable oil [9,33], straight plant oil [17,34,35]
and virgin vegetable oil [28] have been used as synonym. In addition,
studies specifying the name of vegetable oil such as crude palm oil [36],
pure rapeseed oil [37] or non-esteried rapeseed oil [23], raw rapeseed
oil [38] had been found. The adjective raw was used in the review by
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
Hossain and Davies [6] to distinguish from biodiesel, while pure was
used to distinguish from blends of vegetable oils with petrodiesel.
Sidibe et al. [9] explained that two types of vegetable oils, i.e. straight
vegetable oil and vegetable oil, have the same chemical composition.
There exist the minority of compounds (phospholipids, waxes, etc) in
simply ltered oils, i.e. straight vegetable oils. However, vegetable oils
i.e. industrially rened oils contain very little or no such compounds.
As the term straight vegetable oil (SVO) had been used by many
researchers, SVO is selected for discussion in this paper and dened as
the vegetable oil without any modication to their chemical structure
as a fuel to be combusted within a diesel engine.
The primary objective of this review is to provide an update on the
application of SVO to IC engines. In addition, the eld of research on
the application of SVO to IC engine which is required in the future will
be suggested. In this study, therefore, the literature on the application
of SVO published mainly after 2010 will be critically reviewed. In
addition, even though transestercation is generally included in the
potential way of solving the problems in the application of SVO in CI
engines, it is excluded because it is chemically altering the SVO to an
ester.
2. Properties of SVO
The physico-chemical properties of SVO were comprehensively
reviewed by Mondal et al. [4], Hossain and Davies [6], Misra and
Murthy [8], and Sidibe et al. [9]. Therefore, the studies related to the
properties of SVO reported after 2010 are briey discussed in this
section.
2.1. Viscosity
Espadafor et al. [27] had analyzed the physical and chemical
properties of various inedible SVO including some edible vegetable
oils as an alternative to heavy fuel oil for large ship propulsion. The fuel
properties considered were density, viscosity, ash point, pour point,
cloud point, cetane number, caloric value, iodine value, carbon
residue, sulphur and ash content. They concluded that SVO have
potential as alternative fuels to heavy fuel oils used in the lower speed
diesel engines of large ships. In addition, they expected that the use of
SVOs will reduce the emission of particulate matter (PM) and increase
slightly the NOx emission.
An empirical correlation for the prediction of viscosity for diesel/
SVO blend was proposed by Abolle et al. [39]. Their correlation was
based on the mass proportion of SVO in the blends and blend
temperature between cloud point and 353 K of six vegetable oils
varying the fatty acid composition such as palm, cabbage palm,
cottonseed, groundnut, copra and sunower oils. Based on the para-
meters considered in the correlations, the existing correlations for
predicting the viscosity of vegetable oil and its derivatives can be
classied into six groups, i.e. temperature, proportion, composition,
temperature and proportion, temperature and composition, and fuel
properties [40]. According to a careful examination of the literature
data for ve dierent inedible vegetable oils, i.e. jatropha oil, karanja
oil, putranjiba oil, rubberseed oil and cottonseed oil, the second-order
polynomial for the prediction of kinematic viscosity for SVO was newly
suggested by No [41]. He found that the variation of viscosity of
inedible vegetable oil with temperature can be more precisely predicted
with the simple second-order polynomial than with the existing
logarithmic second-order polynomial. A simple mixture viscosity model
to predict the viscosity of SVO-diesel blends as functions of tempera-
ture and composition based on properties of the pure components was
developed by Franco and Nguyen [42]. The SVOs used in this study
were corn, canola, olive, peanut, soybean and sunower oils and
temperatures tested were between 20 C and 80 C.
It is generally expected that the more viscous a fuel, the higher the
NOx production. There is also a correlation of higher density and
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iodine values leading to higher NOx production. It is clear that the oils
with higher levels of polyunsaturated fats tend to have higher NOx
emission. There is a signicant decrease in NOx production in the oils
with minor amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as coconut
and palm. The trend for the viscosity/NOx relationship is strongly
evident with an R2 value of 0.88 [28]. The relation between the
properties of SVO and NOx emission can be summarized as 1) there is
a correlation of higher density and iodine values leading to high NOx
production. 2) It is generally clear that the more viscous a fuel, the
higher the NOx production. 3) Caloric value and cetane number
exhibit the same trend with viscosity/NOx relationship [5].
2.2. Density
The correlation for the prediction of densities of six vegetable oils
mixed in dierent proportions to diesel fuel was reported by Abolle
et al. [43]. In addition, Anand et al. [44] proposed the unied approach
for predicting the densities of SVOs and biodiesel from their fatty acid
composition. The validation results of this methodology for 11 dierent
vegetable oils and 13 biodiesels showed that the predictions were in
good agreement within 1% with the measured values in the tempera-
ture range of 1590 C.
As one of empirical correlations based on the temperature and
composition, Anand et al. [45] proposed the modied Sastri-Rao
correlation in their continued work of estimating the density of SVO
and biodiesel [44]. They obtained an agreement within a predicted
error of 10% between the estimated viscosities by the proposed
correlation and the measure ones for 13 vegetable oils and 14 biodiesel
samples.
Results of the study by Esteban et al. [46] showed that several
commonly used SVOs require preheating to 120 C minimally to match
the density and viscosity of automotive diesel and biodiesel fuels. The
analyzed SVO in their work include rapeseed, sunower, soybean,
palm, corn and grapeseed oils. They also conrmed that there exists a
linear relationship between density and the inverse of the square root
of the kinematic viscosity of SVOs. In their subsequent work, the
temperature dependency of surface tension and density of the same six
SVOs with the previous study had been measured [47]. They found that
to match the surface tension value equal to diesel fuel at 40 C, the six
SVOs should be preheated at temperature not less than 120 C.
2.3. Cold ow properties
Cold ow properties of SVOs include cloud point (CP), pour point
(PP) and cold lter plugging point (CFPP). CP is the temperature at
which the turbidity begins appearing, and it indicates the tendency of
the oil to plug the lters or small orices at cold operating conditions.
PP is the lowest temperature at which the fuel becomes semi-solid and
loses its ow characteristics. In addition, CFPP is the temperature at
which a fuel causes a lter to clog up due to its crystallization.
Cold ow properties and oxidation stability of ve edible and four
inedible selected SVOs were analyzed by Dwivedi and Sharma [13] on
the basis of composition of fatty acids. In this review, selected SVOs
were graded in terms of oxidation stability and cold ow properties to
select the potential oil resources for biodiesel production. They
concluded that due to highest oxidation stability index and good cold
ow properties, castor oil was recommended to be used as SVO for
biodiesel production for use as a CI engine fuel.
Blin et al. [15] proposed a quality standard with seven specication,
which SVOs much comply with in order to be used as fuel in stationary
diesel engines without causing breakdown or serious lifetime reduc-
tions. The seven specications include specic gravity at 15 C,
kinematic viscosity at 40 C, iodine value, maximum phosphorus
content, maximum free fatty acid content, maximum total contamina-
tion, water content. The main fuel properties of rapeseed oil-higher
alcohols blends such as 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, 2-butanol
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
and isobutanol at proportions of 10% and 20% alcohol on the basis of
volume were measured by Laza and Bereczky [48]. The experimental
results showed that density, viscosity, CFPP, CN, ash point, and
caloric value of the blends decrease as the proportions of the alcohol
in the blend increase. They found that the CFPP of rapeseed SVO can
be considerably reduced by blending it with higher alcohols, typically 2-
propanol. However, 2-propanol is not a potential alternative biofuel,
while 1-butanol is a good candidate for alternative biofuel in CI engine.
It is noticeable that according to Dwivedi and Sharma [13], the CFPP of
rapeseed SVO is 17.4 C, while the CFPP of rapeseed SVO in this study
is 14 C.
Pysico-chemical properties of honne oil and its blends with diesel
such as kinematic viscosity, density, cold ow properties, heating value,
cetane number, and ash point etc were measured by Venkanna and
Venkatramana [49]. They concluded that H10H50 (hone oil blended
with diesel at 1050% on a volume basis) at 60 C can be used directly
in diesel engine for short term applications.
2.4. Other properties
The eect of preheating temperature on the physico-chemical
properties of blends of palm oil as SVO with diesel (5%, 10%, and
15%) as well as blends of palm oil biodiesel with diesel (5%, 10% and
15%) was studied by Khalid et al. [50]. The preheating temperatures of
27.5 C, 40 C, 50 C and 60 C were selected. They found that
preheating and blending could reduce the value of density, viscosity,
acid value and water contents, but could increase the value of ash
point. However, blending ratio and preheating temperature selected in
this study were too low for the application of SVO in CI engines.
It was found by Attaphong et al. [51] that carboxylate-based
extended surfactants were able to form reverse micelle microemulsions
without salt addition, thereby eliminating the phase separation and
precipitation which had been observed with sulfate-based extended
surfactants. The optimum system from this study was the system of the
carboxylate-based extended surfactant at surfactant/cosurfactant ratio
of 116 with canola oil/diesel ratio of 5050 and about 24% volume of
ethanol. This fuel system was stable for a temperature range of 040 C
and has a kinematic viscosity that meets the ASTM standard for NO.2
diesel fuel (4.1 cSt) at 40 C.
3. Performance, combustion and emission characteristics of
SVO in CI engine
The main problems associated with the use of SVO in CI engine are
their high viscosity and poor volatility. However, SVO can be success-
fully used in CI engine through fuel modication and engine modica-
tion as discussed in the previous section. Generally, SVO can be used
successfully in an indirect injection (IDI) diesel engine, but not in a
direct injection (DI) diesel engine due to the high degree of atomization
required for this type [6].
The performance characteristics of SVO in CI engine include brake
thermal eciency (BTE), brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC), and
brake specic energy consumption (BSEC). The ignition delay (time),
combustion duration, heat release rate, and in-cylinder pressure
(maximum pressure) or pressure rise rate will belong to the combus-
tion characteristics of SVO in CI engine. In addition, CO, HC, NOx and
soot, particulate matter (PM) emissions or smoke opacity will be
included in the emission characteristics of SVO in CI engine.
Hartmann et al. [12] listed the name of vegetable oils that have been
tested before mainly 2010 as SVO and their blends with diesel in CI
engine. It was clear from their list that the edible oils were mainly
investigated as SVO and their mixtures when compared to inedible oils.
In this review, the researches on the application of SVO in CI engine
will be grouped as neat SVO, fuel modication, engine modication,
and simultaneous modication of fuel and engine. Discussion will,
therefore, be followed in the order named.
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3.1. Neat SVO
Experiments have been performed by Devan and Mahalakshmi [52]
to evaluate the performance, combustion and emission characteristics
of a single cylinder CI engine operating with neat poon oil and its
blends of 20%, 40%, and 60%, with diesel and diesel, separately. The
peak values of in-cylinder pressure were highest for diesel, with SVO 20
blend and neat poon SVO following. It is noticeable that neat poon SVO
didnt show the remarkable rst heat release peak due to the eect of
fuel viscosity on spray formation and reduction of air entrainment and
fuel/air mixing rates. The engine power output and BSEC of lower poon
oil-diesel blends were comparable with diesel, whereas BTEs for neat
poon oil and its diesel blends were higher than diesel. They found that
there was a reduction in NOx emission for neat poon oil and its blends
with diesel along with a slight increase in HC and CO emissions. The
smoke emission for P20 was lower than that of diesel, whereas increase
in smoke emissions was observed for neat SVO and other blends.
There was a study on the performance, combustion and emission
characteristics of a single cylinder DI CI engine operated with neat
orange oil [53]. They observed that orange SVO reveals a higher
cylinder peak pressure than that of diesel fuel. In addition, ignition
delay and combustion duration were longer for orange SVO compared
to that of diesel fuel. It was noticed that heat release rate during the
premixed combustion period is higher for orange SVO than diesel fuel
du to longer ignition delay. These results are the contradictory one with
those of poon SVO [52]. They found that the higher BTE for orange
SVO than that of diesel was observed throughout the load spectra. The
lower CO, HC and smoke emissions and the higher NOx emissions
compared to diesel operation were exhibited.
A comparative study of performance and emission characteristics
for ltered neem oil and neem oil methyl esters in single-cylinder CI
engine was carried out by Ragit et al. [54]. BTE of neem oil was higher
at part load and lower at full load than that of diesel fuel. The higher
CO and CO2 emissions than those of diesel and neem biodiesel and the
lower NOx and HC than those of diesel, but higher than neem biodiesel
were observed. They, therefore, concluded that neem biodiesel instead
of ltered neem oil could be a good option as alternative fuel in terms
of performance and emission characteristics for existing diesel engine
without any modication.
Another study on the eect of neem oil and its biodiesel on
combustion, performance and emission characteristics in a DI four
stroke, single cylinder CI engine had been performed by Sivalakshmi
and Balusamy [55]. They found that at full load, peak cylinder pressure
was higher for neem oil biodiesel and ignition delay was lower for neat
neem SVO and its methyl ester when compared with diesel. The
combustion duration was higher for neat neem SVO and its biodiesel
compared to diesel at all loads. The BTE was marginally lower for neem
oil at all engine loads, but slightly higher for neem oil methyl ester at
full load. It was also observed that there was a reduction in NOx
emission for neem SVO and its biodiesel along with an increase in CO,
HC and smoke emissions.
An experimental study was conducted to compare the eects of
using neat cottonseed oil as SVO or its biodiesel on the combustion and
emission characteristics of high speed DI CI engine [56]. The main
results showed that the ignition delay was hardly aected by the use of
SVO and biodiesel and maximum cylinder pressures remained the
same with SVO and slightly increased with the biodiesel. For the
medium and the high load, smoke density was highest for SVO, with
petrodiesel and biodiesel following. NOx emission was highest for
petrodiesel, with biodiesel and SVO following.
There is a study to apply the neat jatropha oil to diesel engine for
power generation [57]. It was feasible to use jatrapha oil as SVO to run
a diesel engine for power generation because the eciencies of three
dierent type of power generation run by jatropha oil were comparable
to those operated by diesel. Neat sunower oil as alternative fuel was
tested by Shehata and Abdel Razek [58] to evaluate the performance
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
and emission characteristics in DI CI engine. At engine speed of
1500 rpm and 50% load, the cylinder peak pressure for SVO was
higher than that of diesel due to the higher cetane number which
decreases ignition delay period. They also found that SVO gives lower
BTE and NOx emissions, higher BSFC, CO and CO2 emissions.
Neat honne oil (Calophyllum inophyllum linn oil) was examined in
DI CI engine by Venkanna and Venkataraman [59]. In this study, at
maximum load BTE and NO emission were decreased, whereas CO, HC
emissions and smoke opacity was increased. They also reported that
peak cylinder pressure and maximum rate of pressure rise decreased
compared to diesel fuel. In addition, the ignition delay and combustion
duration were longer for neat honne oil compared to diesel.
The comparison between alternate operation of diesel with soybean
SVO (diesel/SVO/diesel operation) and continuous operation of SVO
on emission characteristics of DI CI engine was conducted by Kawasaki
et al. [60]. For 32 h operation, diesel/SVO/diesel operation exhibited
higher CO, HC and smoke emissions and lower NOx emissions. CO and
HC emissions abruptly increased at 17 h when the increase in injection
quantity started, while NOx emissions gradually decreased.
As opposed to the short-term experiments of most SVO application
in CI engine, test results for long-term experiments of rapeseed oil SVO
application in common rail diesel tractor engine was reported by
Golimowski et al. [25]. In their study, a power drop of 1214% was
observed in the engine fuelled with neat rapeseed oil compared to that
of diesel. The engine running on SVO showed better eciency over
diesel in terms of engine energy eciency for both Test 1 of 230 h and
Test 2 of 1000 h.
3.2. Fuel modication
Straight vegetable oils can be successfully use in CI engine through
fuel modication such as transesterication, pyrolysis/cracking as
shown in Fig. 1. In this study, transesterication to make biodiesel,
and pyrodiesel produced from pyrolysis/cracking are not included in
the discussion. The discussion will be only focused on the physical
modications such as blending with diesel or other fuels, emulsied
SVO and SVO with additives, rather than chemical modications.
3.2.1. . Blended SVO
The dilution of SVO with diesel fuel or other fuels is one of various
strategies for reducing the viscosity of SVO, in turn for improving the
spray and atomization characteristics of SVO for the application to CI
engines. The CI engine operated with SVO can give an acceptable
engine performance and emission levels for short-term operation only,
because they cause carbon deposit buildups on injector, valve and
piston. Blending of SVO with diesel is one of the practical and popular
solutions to overcome the problems for CI engine fuelled with SVO.
A comparative study of performance and emission characteristics
for neat poon oil (P100), blend of 20% poon oil with diesel (P20), neat
poon biodiesel (PB 100) and blend of 40% poon biodiesel with diesel
(PB40) in a single-cylinder CI engine was performed by Devan and
Mahalakshimi [61]. It was found that ignition delay was shorter for
poon SVO and other fuels compared to that of diesel. Neat poon SVO
and its diesel blend displayed lower heat release rate compared to poon
biodiesel. The higher BTE for PB40, marginally lower BTE for PB100
and P20, and lower BTE for P100 were obtained compared to diesel at
full load in this study. There was a reduction in NOx emissions for P100
and P20, whereas an increase in NOx emission for PB40 and PB100 at
full load. An increase in HC emission for P100 and P20 and a reduction
in HC emissions for PB40 and PB100 were observed. The same
tendency was obtained in smoke emissions. They concluded that the
performance of poon biodiesel and its blends with diesel fuelled diesel
engine was slightly better than that of conventional diesel engine in
terms of BTE, exhaust emissions except NOx emission.
A comparative study of performance and emission characteristics
for preheated kusum oil and blend of kusum oil with diesel in single
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cylinder DI CI engine typically used in stationary operation was carried
out by Acharya et al. [62]. In this study, three preheated SVOs (100 C,
110 C and 120 C and blends from 10% to 90% in steps of 10% kusum
oil with diesel were selected for the experiment. CO, CO2, HC and NOx
emissions of preheated kusum oil were higher than diesel and blends.
The performance for blends of kusum oil with diesel was slightly
superior in eciency and was comparable to petrodiesel for lower
blend concentrations.
The experimental study on the combustion, performance and
emission characteristics of a diesel engine using blends of polanga oil
and diesel fuel (10%, 30% and 50% on a volume basis) was conducted
by Mohanty et al. [63]. The ignition delays of SVO10, SVO30, and
SVO50 were shorter at full load than that of diesel and SVO50
displayed a longer ignition delay at full load due to its high viscosity.
The cylinder peak pressure and the maximum heat release rate for
SVO30 were the highest among all the fuels tested at full load. In case
of polanga oil-diesel fuel blends, BTE was slightly better and BSEC was
higher than that of diesel fuel. They found that NO emissions were
lower for all the blends compared to that of diesel fuel. However, CO
and HC emissions were higher for all the blends compared to that of
diesel fuel. In this study, the data for soot or PM emission were not
available.
As another work related to polanga oil (Calophyllum oil) as SVO
application, the performance and emission characteristics of single-
cylinder CI engine operated with SVO/diesel blends (10% and 20% of
polanga oil by volume) was studied by Mishra et al. [64]. As the BTE
was marginally reduced and BSEC was slightly increased, engine
performance operated with SVO/diesel blends was marginally lower
than that of neat diesel operation. CO and NOx emissions were reduced
substantially with polanga SVO/diesel blend and this reduction was
increased with increase in SVO concentration. However, HC emission
was increased with increase in SVO content. It should be noted that two
blends were not enough to discuss the eect of SVO content on
emissions. They concluded that in case of polanga SVO, blend of 20%
SVO with diesel is a promising blending ratio and would not require
any modication in engine design. This study also doesn't report the
data for soot or PM.
Experimental study was performed by Shehata and Abdel Razek
[58] to investigate the performance and emission characteristics of
diesel fuel blended with 20% jojoba oil in DI CI engine (SVO20). For
low engine speed, maximum cylinder pressure for diesel fuel was
higher than SVO20 and neat SVO because of low turbulence intensity.
At engine speed of around 1500 rpm, however, the maximum cylinder
pressure of SVO20 was higher than neat SVO and diesel. Their results
indicated that lower BTE, NOx emissions and higher BSFC, CO and
CO2 than diesel fuel were obtained.
The comparison between alternate operation of diesel with soybean
SVO (diesel/SVO/diesel operation) and continuous operation of SVO
on emission characteristics of DI CI engine was conducted by Kawasaki
et al. [60]. It should be noted that SVO was 25% of soybean oil blended
with diesel fuel. For 32 h operation, diesel/SVO/diesel operation
exhibited higher CO, HC and smoke emissions and lower NOx
emissions. The CO and HC emissions abruptly increased at 17 h when
the increase in injection quantity started, while NOx emissions
gradually decreased.
Blends of 10% three SVOs (rapeseed, sunower and cottonseed) in
diesel fuel were tested in common rail passenger diesel car over
legislated and real world driving cycles by Fontaras et al. [65]. They
found that reduction on PM emissions was observed, particularly for
the sunower oil blends, but there were no signicant dierences
between SVOs and neat diesel in NOx emissions. The remarkable
increase in CO and HC were recorded over NEDC (New European
Driving Cycle). It should be noted that the NOx/PM tradeo appeared
for diesel and biodiesel did not observed for the blends of SVOs.
The use of sunower, cottonseed, corn and olive SVO in blends with
diesel fuel in proportions of 10% and 20%(v/v) in six-cylinder
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
turbocharged and after-cooled bus engine was evaluated by
Rakopoulos et al. [66]. They found that CO, HC and NOx emissions
were slightly increased with the use of all SVO blends compared to
petrodiesel and were also increased with the increase in percentage of
SVO in the blend. The smoke emission was decreased with the use of all
SVO blends compared to petrodiesel and was also decreased with
increase in the content of SVO in the blends. However, more than two
blending percentages are required to discuss the eect of blending
percentage on CO, HC and NOx emissions. In addition, BTE of engine
with all of SVO blends was virtually the same with that of petrodiesel.
This is the dierent results with the previous study by Fontaras et al.
[65].
In their subsequent work [67], the comparative study of blends of
two SVOs (sunower and cottonseed) and their biodiesels in diesel fuel
with the same experimental conditions with the previous study was
carried out. They noticed that both SVO20s displayed slightly lower
cylinder peak pressure. For the emission characteristics, SVO blends
and biodiesel blends revealed the same tendency except CO emissions.
Increase of CO emissions with SVO blends and decrease with biodiesel
blends with respect to petrodiesel were observed.
An experimental work was performed by Singh et al. [68] to
investigate the performance of a single-cylinder CI engine fuelled with
neem SVO/diesel blend (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by volume). Their
results showed that BTE decreased with increase in the neem SVO
content in the diesel except SVO5 showing the better peak load BTE
than diesel. The smoke opacity with SVO5 was comparable with that of
D100, while the smoke opacity was higher than that of diesel for all the
blends. Therefore, they concluded that blending 5% neem SVO in
petrodiesel may provide a marginal improvement in engine perfor-
mance and emission characteristics.
The eects of dierent injection pressure, injection timings and
EGR on the combustion and emission characteristics of rapeseed SVO
and its blends with diesel fuel (10%, 20%, 30% and 50%) were
investigated by Labecki and Ganippa [69] in four cylinder turbo-
charged DI CI engine. They noticed that as the injection pressure of fuel
increases from 80 MPa to 120 MPa, the combustion starts earlier and
in-cylinder peak pressure increases. Under the same injection pressure
of fuel, in-cylinder peak pressure was lower for neat rapeseed SVO
compared to that of diesel. The peak value of the heat release rate for
rapeseed SVO was lower compared to that of diesel. As the concentra-
tion of SVO in the blend increases the in-cylinder peak pressure slightly
decreases. In addition, the ignition delay creases with increase in the
injection pressure. However, the variation in the ignition delay for
rapeseed SVO and for dierent rapeseed SVO blends at a given
injection pressure was negligible. They found that increasing the
injection pressure resulted in a reduction of CO, HC and soot
emissions, but the increase of NOx emissions. By retarding the fuel
injection timing, NOx emissions were reduced, while the other emis-
sions such as CO, HC and soot increased. As the percentage of rapeseed
SVO in the blend increases, NOx emissions decreased by more than
65% for the case of 20% EGR, but CO, HC and soot emissions
increased.
In the test of karanja oil blends by Acharya et al. [70] in single
cylinder DI CI engine typically used in stationary operation, perfor-
mances such as BTE and BSFC were very close to petrodiesel for lower
blend concentrations (10% and 20%). In addition, the viscosity of
karanja oil was reduced by preheating to 100130 C through heat
exchanger. They suggested that the optimum injection pressure for
preheated fuel was 20 MPa. They concluded that either blending up to
20% or preheating the karanja oil can be used in CI engines in rural
areas for stationary applications. In their continued study, they also
tested rice bran oil blends in the same engine [71]. By blending the oil
up to 20% with diesel, the viscosity of rice bran oil could be reduced up
to that of diesel and in turn blends of 20% rice bran oil with diesel can
be used in diesel engines in rural areas for stationary application such
as irrigation, processing of agricultural products, and power genera-
S.-Y. No
tion.
Hotti and Hebbal [72] had investigated the performance and
combustion characteristics of single cylinder DI CI engine fuelled with
neat karanja oil and blends with diesel (10, 15%, and 20%) In this
study, engine had been run successfully even on neat karanja SVO
without any engine modications. Thermal eciency of all the blends
were lower than that of diesel and the BSFC of blends was more than
that of diesel due to the lower caloric value of SVO. They concluded
that based on the data for heat release rate, exhaust gas temperature,
BTE and brake power, 15% karanja oil blended with diesel fuel was
optimum blend.
The performance, combustion and emission characteristics of
karanja oil, as one of inedible SVO, blends with petrodiesel were
investigated by Agarwal and Dhar [73] in DI CI engine at dierent
engine loads and constant engine speed of 1500 rpm. The relatively
inferior fuel consumption and thermal eciency were obtained for all
karanja oil blends (10%, 20%, 50%, and 100%) compared to petrodie-
sel. Karanja oil blends resulted in a reduction of HC emissions for the
whole range of engine test. However, CO and NO emissions were
slightly higher for higher SVO blends. Only lower SVO blends reduced
the smoke opacity compared to petrodiesel. They recommended that
the proper blending ratio with diesel fuel for the application of karanja
oil to CI engine will be up to 20% v/v.
Experimental study was carried out by Kalam et al. [74] to evaluate
the performance and emission characteristics of a multi-cylinder CI
engine running on waste cooking oil such as 5% palm oil with diesel
and 5% coconut oil with diesel. They found that there is slight
reduction in brake power for blended fuel compared with diesel. In
addition, reduction of HC, CO, NOx and smoke emissions was obtained
by the blended fuels.
As one of inedible vegetable oil, soapnut oil blended with petrodie-
sel in various proportions (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 100%) were tested
in a single cylinder DI CI engine by Misra and Murthy [75] to
investigate the performance and emission characteristics. All blends
had shown higher HC emissions after 75% load and lower CO
emissions were obtained for SNO10 and SNO20 at full load. In
addition, NOx emissions for all blends were lower than petrodiesel. It
was observed that blends up to SNO30 have less smoke opacity than
petrodiesel up to 75% load. They concluded that SNO10 can be a
substitute for petrodiesel due to overall better performance in terms of
both engine performance and emission characteristics.
The eect of 50% opium poppy oil 50% diesel fuel blends on
engine performance and emissions was investigated by Aksoy [76] in a
single-cylinder IDI CI engine. In this study, when compared to diesel
fuel as average, CO and NOx emissions of blends decreased to 15.5%
and 5.9% respectively. By the introduction of opium poppy oil-diesel
blend, an average increase of 12% was observed in BSFC, whereas an
average decrease of 4% and 5.73% were obtained in engine torque and
power, respectively.
Performance and emission characteristics of biofuel-powered DI CI
engine with EGR was investigated by Anandavelu et al. [77]. In this
study, single-cylinder engine was operated with diesel fuel and
eucalyptus oil fuel (EOF) and diesel fuel blends from E10 to E50. In
the performance tests, there was an increase of 34% in BTE for all
EOF blends compared to diesel fuel with and without 15% EGR. In
addition, BSEC of EOF blends was lower, whereas cylinder pressure
and heat release rate were higher compared with diesel fuel with 15%
EGR. In the emission studies, the smoke emission decreased with
increase in the percentage of eucalyptus oil in diesel. About 5060%
reduction in NOx emission were obtained with all EOF blends at all
loads when compared with diesel operation without and with 15%
EGR. HC emissions were lower for EOF blends compared to diesel with
15% EGR.
In their continued study [78], performance, combustion and
emission characteristics of a low heat rejection CI engine fuelled with
eucalyptus oil fuel (EOF)and diesel fuel (DF) blends was investigated.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
They observed that BSFC decreased for EOF blends in a coated engine
(CE) as compared to an uncoated engine (UCE), whereas BTE
increased for EOF blends in a CE. There was a considerable reduction
of smoke emission for EOF compared to DF in both engines. For all of
the cases the smoke emissions were higher for the CE compared to
UCE. NOx emissions of CE were lower than that of UCE. In addition,
HC emissions in CE were higher than that in UCE.
Venkanna and Venkataraman [79] examined the performance,
combustion and emission characteristics of a CI engine running on
blends of honne oil and diesel fuel(10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% hone
oil in volume). BSEC in case of H10 and H20 was comparable with that
of diesel at lower loads. The reduced smoke opacity compared to diesel
was obtained in case of H10 and H20 at all loads. At the point of full
engine load, CO emissions of H10H50 were all higher than those of
diesel, whereas it was nearly equal to diesel over the other load range.
HC emissions were increased with increase in the hone oil content in
fuel blends compared to diesel in the whole range of engine load.
However, within the range of experiments, NOx emissions of H10H50
were lower than diesel fuel. They concluded that up to 20% honne oil in
the diesel blend could be used in diesel engine for short-term
application without any modication and adverse eect.
Instead of using diesel for blending of SVO, blending of SVO with
alcohols such as ethanol, methanol etc was considered as another way
for reducing the viscosity of SVO because they have low viscosity and
are oxygenates and renewable. Test results of four cylinder, direct
injection, unmodied diesel engine operating on rapeseed SVO and its
2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% blends with ethanol and petrol were
published by Lebeckas and Slavinskas [37]. The addition 2.5, 5 and
7.5% of ethanol (ERO2.5, ERO5.0 and ERO7.5) and the same propor-
tion of petrol (PRO2.5, PRO5.0 and PRO7.5) into rapeseed oil at
ambient temperature of 20 reduces the viscosity of oil by 9.2%
21.3%, 28.3% and 14.1%, 24.8% 31.7%, respectively. On the other
hand, oil heating from an ambient temperature of 2060 diminishes
the viscosity of rapeseed SVO, ethanol 2.57.5%, petrol 2.510% by
4.2, 3.93.8 and 3.93.6 times. The test results indicated that blends of
ERO 2.5, PRO 2.5 and EPRO 57.5 (same proportion of ethanol and
petrol) improve performance of a fully loaded engine and could be used
for unmodied diesel engines.
The performance and emission characteristics of a single cylinder
CI engine operating on neem oil and its blends of 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% with ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol and 1-pentanol were inves-
tigated by Sivalakshmi and Balusamy [80]. In this study, BTE was
improved with the use of neem oil-alcohol blends compared to that of
neat neem oil. CO and HC emissions for neem oil-alcohol blends
reduced compared to that of neat neem oil at higher loads. NOx
emissions were very marginally decreased with the use of neem oil-
alcohol blends except for the neem oil-ethanol blend compared with
that of neat neem oil. In addition, the smoke intensity was considerably
decreased with the use of neem oil-alcohol blends with respect to that
of neat neem oil.
The eects of using alcohols (ethanol and methanol) and SVO
(rapeseed oil) as blended (15% by volume) with diesel fuel on the
engine performance and emissions were investigated by Karabektas
et al. [30]. Phase separation has not been experienced in the blends
containing biodiesel and SVO, while it has occurred in the blends
containing alcohols. Although the best performance and emission
characteristics have been obtained with the biodiesel blend, SVO blend
exhibited a comparable performance with diesel fuel due to the partial
elimination of its high viscosity problem by using it at a low blending
ratio.
The eect of methanol addition by blending (15% by mass) in
mahua SVO was recently investigated experimentally in a single
cylinder DI CI engine by Masimalai and Subramanian [81]. The
experimental results were compared and analyzed at 100% and 40%
loads with the performance, combustion and emission characteristics
of neat diesel, neat mahual oil, mahua oil dual fuel engine at 15% mass
S.-Y. No
share. They concluded that methanol addition can be recommended
when no engine modication is required to operate the engine with
moderate improvement in performance and reduction in all emissions
at all power outputs.
Isopropyl alcohol as a diluting agent in SVO was introduced in
Calophyllum(polanga) vegetable oil by Mishra et al. [82] to reduce it
density and viscosity. The combustion, performance and emission
characteristics of a single cylinder agricultural diesel engine was
investigated by fuelling with Calophyllum vegetable oil diluted with
10%, 20% and 30% by volume of isopropyl alcohol and named as CI10,
CI20 and CI 30 respectively. The experimental results indicated that
BTE at full load of petrodiesel was 26.4% followed by 23.3%, 21.5%,
and 18.4% for CI10, CI20, and CI30, respectively. BSFC for all blended
fuel was higher than that of petrodiesel, and it is increased with
increase in isopropyl alcohol percentage. Emissions of CO, HC and
smoke were reduced by a margin of 1763% for CI10, CI20, and CI30
compared to petrodiesel, while emissions of NOx were marginally
higher for three SVOs.
Instead of using binary blends, there are two studies for the
introduction of ternary blends to improve the properties of mixtures,
performance and emission characteristics of CI engines. Experimental
investigation of properties of blends, performance, combustion and
emissions of four-cylinder, turbocharged, DI CI engines fuelled with
blends containing croton oil, butanol and diesel was performed by
Lujaji et al. [83]. The blends tested were 15% CRO-5%BU-80%D2, 10%
CRO-10%Bu-80%D2 and diesel fuel. They found that fuel properties of
blends were improved by the adding the butanol into the mixture of
SVO and diesel and BSEC of blends was higher than that of diesel fuel,
while BTE of blends was lower than that of diesel fuel. The higher
cylinder pressure and improved heat release rate than those of diesel
fuel were obtained by the addition of butanol in croton oil-diesel
blends. Addition of butanol resulted in the increase of HC and CO,
while NOx emissions were comparable to those of diesel. The smoke
emissions were highest for 5% BU blends, with diesel, 10% BU blends
following up to 75% load, while were higher for diesel with 10% BU, 5%
BU following.
Performance, combustion and emission characteristics of DI CI
engine operating with ternary blends were investigated by Venkanna
and Venkataraman Reddy [84]. In this study, three dierent ternary
blends, 10% honne oil-45% kerosine-45% diesel (HK10), 20% honne
oil-40% kerosene-40%diesel (HK20), 30% honne oil- 35% kerosene-
35% diesel (HK30) were tested. It was reported that NOx emission was
higher for HK10HK30, while CO, HC and smoke emission reduced
compared to diesel and 10% honne oil blend with diesel. BTE of HK10
to HK30 was nearly same and it was higher than that of diesel and 10%
honne oil blend.
According to the cropping concept without competition to food
production, and with minimized area competition and low environ-
mental costs, the use of SVO mixtures of rapeseed oil and camelina oil
as a fuel for agricultural diesel engine was suggested by Paulsen et al.
[22]. In this study, the exhaust emissions of NOx, CO, HC and PM of
rapeseed SVO, camelina SVO and a blend of 30% camelina with 70%
rapeseed were not considerably dierent. They also found that the
typically higher NOx and lower HC emissions of SVO compared to
diesel fuel were shown.
3.2.2. Emulsied SVO
As was previously mentioned, the direct use of SVO as a diesel
engine fuel can cause several problems in spray, combustion, perfor-
mance and emission characteristics in CI engines. Those problems
include the poor atomization process and variation in ignition delay.
Emulsication technique is known as the one of the possibilities for
changing the properties of SVO in order to obtain a more diesel-like
fuel. Microemulsion is known as an alternative method of reducing the
viscosity of vegetable oil. In addition, it can eliminate the transester-
ication reaction and avoid the unpuried glycerol and its environ-
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mental problems. Microemulsion was introduced mainly because the
maximum amount of alcohol added in the blends with SVO is limited
by the presence of water in alcohols. Higher percentage of alcohol in
the blend of SVO results in the phase separation problem and aects
the stability of the blends. In general, even though combustion of SVO
based fuels in CI engines produces higher NOx emissions, NOx
emission can be reduced by emulsication of fuels with water and
alcohols.
A stable and homogeneous microemulsion of coconut oil and
aqueous ethanol of 95% purity can be obtained by adding octanol as
a surfactant [85]. In this study, microemulsion fuel was called as hybrid
fuel. In addition, they distinguished two types of coconut oil, crude
coconut oil (CCO) extracted from copra using the traditional method
and virgin coconut oil (VCO) extracted using the direct micro expelling
method. The experimental results showed that engine eciency of
microemulsion was comparable to diesel, while BSFC of microemulsion
was higher compared to diesel. NO, SO2 and CO2 emissions of the
microemulsion were lower compared to diesel, while an increase in CO
emission was observed. Hence, they concluded that microemulsion can
be used successfully as an alternative fuel in CI engines without any
modications. However, the data for HC emission was not available.
Instead of using octanol as a surfactant, butanol as a surfactant was
introduced in their subsequent study [86]. The conclusions drawn in
this study was very much similar with the previous work [85].
The performance, combustion and emission of a single cylinder CI
engine fuelled with waste cooking oil (WCO) obtained from palm oil
and its emulsion as fuel was investigated by Senthil Kumar and
Jaikumar [87]. In their study, the optimal emulsion was selected as
the blend of 70% WCO, 15% water, 10% ethanol and 5% surfactant
(Span 80). They found that WCO emulsion resulted in lower BTE as
compared to neat diesel, but higher BTE as compared to neat WCO at
only high power outputs. They found that WCO emulsion showed
increased in-cylinder peak pressure and ignition delay. Compared to
neat WCO, WCO emulsion revealed the higher premixed combustion
and lower combustion duration. They concluded that improvement in
performance and remarkable reduction in smoke, NO, HC and CO
emissions were obtained mainly at high power outputs with WCO
emulsion.
Trial to formulate reverse micellar microemulsions of SVO and
diesel fuel blended with ethanol using dierent combinations of
surfactants and co-surfactants was conducted by Do et al. [88]. Three
dierent types of triglyceride oils: canola oil, palm kernel oil, and algae
oil and oleyl alchol and oleyl amine as the main surfactant were
selected in this study. To make the reverse micellar microemulsions,
fatty surfactants with fuel-improving co-surfactants and /or antifreez-
ing additives were combined. At 50% blend of SVO in diesel fuel, 24 vol
% of ethanol was required to decrease the canola/diesel and palm/
diesel based microemulsion fuel viscosity the 4.1 cSt, while only 15 vol
% of ethanol is needed in algae/diesel based microemulsion fuel.
Instead of using CI engine, the results from the laminar ame
combustion test rig showed that CO emissions of microemulsion fuel
ames were lower than those of both diesel fuel and neat canola
biodiesel ames. They found that NOx emissions depend mainly on the
used surfactant/co-surfactant.
A comparative study of performance and emission characteristics of
single cylinder CI engine for power generation with dierent methods
of using SVO was conducted by Rao et al. [89]. In this study, engine
was operated with petrodiesel, honge oil as neat SVO and preheated
SVO (at 90 C) and honge oil-ethanol emulsion at room temperature.
Honge oil is also known as karanja oil or pongamia oil [90]. They found
that preheating and emulsion of vegetable oil show improvement in
engine performance. NOx emissions for micro-emulsion were lowered
as compared to preheated oil. Higher HC and CO emissions for
unheated SVO were remarkably reduced with preheating and emulsi-
ed vegetable oil. They concluded that engine performance and
emission characteristics can signicantly be improved by introducing
S.-Y. No
the micoemulsion of SVO.
The performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a
diesel engine fuelled with the micoemulsions consisting of rapeseed
oil/diesel blend, ethanol and a surfactant were studied by Qi et al. [91].
Their results showed that viscosity and density of the microemulsions
were reduced and close to that of diesel with the ethanol addition up to
30% by volume. This is coincident with the results of Kumar et al. [14].
They found the higher peak cylinder pressure, pressure rise rate and
heat release rate for mico-emulsions. The micro-emulsions showed
marginally higher BSFC and comparable BSEC under all engine
operating conditions in comparison with diesel. Remarkable reduction
in smoke was observed with the micro-emulsions at high engine loads,
while NOx emissions were slightly lower at low engine loads for the
micro-emulsions. It should be noted that the similar paper under the
name of hybrid fuel for mico-emulsion was reported in the other
journal by the same author [92].
A stationary DI CI engine running with diesel-used palm oil-
butanol blends was tested by Sharon et al. [93]. At 0% load, the fuel
blend D50-UPO35-B15 reported a maximum peak in-cylinder pressure
which was higher than diesel, D50-UPO50, D50-UPO45-B5, and D50-
UPO40-B10. However, diesel fuel revealed a maximum in-cylinder
pressure at 50% load and 100% load. As the butanol content in the
blend increased, in-cylinder peak pressure and heat release rate
increased due to the reduced cetane number and increased oxygen
content of the blends. The blends containing the increased content of
UPO resulted in reduced ignition delay. As the butanol content in the
blend increased, ignition delay increased because of reduction in cetane
number and increased latent heat of vaporization caused by the
addition of butanol. They noticed the reduced CO, NOx emission and
smoke opacity of the blends with increase in butanol content and lower
than diesel fuel, while HC emissions of the blends were higher than
diesel fuel. They recommended 50% diesel-35% used palm oil-15%
butanol as the optimum mixture ratio for the emulsion in terms of
performance, combustion and emission characteristics.
Experimental study of the eect of diesel-cotton seed oil-n-butanol
blends on phase stability, engine performance and exhaust emissions
in a diesel engine was conducted by Atmanli et al. [94]. Ternary blend
of 70% diesel fuel, 20% cotton seed oil and 10% n-butanol by volume
was selected for the tests. The experimental results of engine perfor-
mance exhibited that average values of brake torque, brake power, BTE
BMEP and exhaust gas temperature were lower, while BSFC was higher
than those of diesel fuel. As for the emission tests, they found that CO
and CO2 emission decreased remarkably at low engine speeds, but NOx
and HC emissions increased in comparison with those of diesel fuel.
The eect of using n-butanol in SVO-diesel fuel blends on perfor-
mance and emission characteristics of turbocharged direct injection
diesel engine were investigated by Atmanli et al. [95] at full load and
various engine speeds. In this study, it should be noted that neat
canola-hazelnut-cottonseed oil (CHC) and neat sunower-corn-soy-
bean oil(SCS) blends were used for SVO. Microemulsion was obtained
by adding diesel fuel (70 vol%) and n-butanol (10 vol%) into CHC and
SCS blends. They found that average value of brake torque, brake
power, BTE, exhaust gas temperature, CO2 and HC emissions were
lower, but BSFC, NOx and CO emission were higher than those of
diesel fuel. In their subsequent study [96], the blend ratios of 70% vol.
diesel, 20% vol. SVO and 10% vol. n-butanol were xed and six
dierent ternary blends were prepared by introducing the canola,
soybean, sunower, corn, olive, and hazelnut oil as the SVO compo-
nents. Engine tests of the ternary blends were performed on a four-
cylinder, turbocharged DI CI engine at full load with various engine
speeds. They found that brake torque, brake power, BTE, BMEP and
exhaust gas temperatures decreased while BSFE increased as compared
to those of diesel fuel. NO and CO emissions for ternary blends
increased, whereas HC and CO2 emissions decreased as compared to
diesel.
Instead of the xed butanol content in n-butanol-SVO-diesel blends
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
in the previous three studies (Atmanli et al. [9496]). Atmanli [97] had
investigated the eects of higher ratios (20, 30, 40, 60%) of n-butanol
addition to diesel- cotton seed oil blends on performance and emis-
sions of CI engine. It was reported that average brake torque, brake
power, BTE, and exhaust gas temperature decreased, whereas BSFC
increased with increase in the n-butanol content of the blends. The
increase of n-butanol to diesel-cotton seed oil blends resulted in the
increase of NO and NO2 formations, and the considerable decrease of
CO and HC emissions.
According to Balcan et al. [98], diesel and diesel-colza oil can mix
with water to produce aqueous microemulsion fuel in present of Brij30
and/or AOT as surfactant and as cosurfactant. In this study, aqueous
micro-emulsion fuel dened water-in-oil microemulsions used as fuels.
However, the test results of performance, combustion and emission
characteristics of this fuel in CI engine were not available.
Recently, Melo-Espinosa et al. [99] had comprehensively reviewed
the formulation and characteristics of the emulsied biofuels using
animal fats and vegetable oils including the performance and exhaust
emissions of diesel engine fuelled with the emulsied biofuels.
According to this study, the soybean oil, rapeseed oil, canola oil as
SVO and ethanol, methanol and butanol as co-surfactants were mainly
used and reported. The use of alcohols was an eective component to
decrease the viscosity of neat biofuels and increase the water amount in
the emulsion. They concluded that the emulsied biofuels are suitable
as diesel engine fuel due to the improvements of the atomization
process. However, increases of the BSFC, ignition delay, HC and CO
emissions were reported, but decrease of HC and/or CO emissions for
the emulsied biofuels compared to diesel fuel or neat biofuels were
reported.
3.2.3. SVO with additives
The eect of the addition of oxygenates like diethyl ether (DEE) and
dimethyl carbonate (DMC) in dierent proportions to jatropha oil on
the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of single
cylinder DI CI engine was tested and compared with those of
petrodiesel and neat jatropha oil by Senthil Kumar et al. [100]. They
found that the oxygenate addition resulted in higher BTE than neat
jatropha oil, but lower BTE than diesel. Ignition delay and combustion
duration were reduced with DEE compared to neat jatropha oil and
were nearly equal to diesel level. The reductions in HC, CO and smoke
emissions were obtained in the addition of both oxygenates compared
with neat jatropha oil, while HC, CO and smoke emission levels of
oxygenates were slightly higher than diesel. The addition of oxygenates
resulted in lower NOx emission than neat diesel, while NOx emission
was lower with DEE, but higher with DMC than neat jatropha oil.
3.3. Engine modication
Apart from fuel modication discussed in the previous section,
engine modication can be one of the solutions to solve the main
problems associated with the use of SVO in CI engine. Engine
modication for the application of SVO to CI engine can be grouped
as preheating of fuel or heating the fuel line, dual fuelling, newly
designed engine including the injection system modication.
3.3.1. Preheated SVO
According to Russo et al. [10], the one of the benets originating
from the fuel preheating include viscosity reduction up to similar diesel
fuel. Compared to other methods to use SVO in CI engine, there are
many studies in the literature in which the preheated SVO is
investigated.
The evaluation of suitability of unheated and preheated Jatropha
curcas oil (40100 C with the interval of 20 C) as an extended fuel for
CI engine was conducted by Chauhan et al. [101]. The viscosity of
preheated jatropha oil decreased and the engine performance (BTE,
BSEC) improved with increase in the fuel inlet temperature by heating
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rapeseed oil, lard or chicken fat with two tank system was documented
by Kleinova et al. [20]. In this study, the engine was started on the rst
diesel tank and operated for the rst few minutes while the rapeseed oil
as SVO was heated up to 70 C to reduce the viscosity. The engine was
then switched over to the second tank and operated on SVO. In the
cases of all tested SVOs, the lower emissions of NOx than diesel or
biodiesel were obtained. The results for the performance and emission
of SVOs with high injection pressure of around 200 MPa were
comparable to those of petrodiesel or biodiesel.
The eect of preheated rapeseed oil on the behavior of the fuel in
the high-pressure diesel fuel injection system with mechanically
controlled fuel injection pump of tractor CI engine was investigated
by Vojtisek-Lom et al. [23]. They conrmed that at least for the engine
used in this study, preheating temperature of about 5560 C for
Fig. 2. Eect of rapeseed SVO on engine components (courtesy of Dr. J.A. Wloka,
institute of IC engines, Prof. G. Wachtmeister group, TUM, Germany).
rapeseed oil should be satisfactory in terms of combustion and
emissions. This was already proved by Wloka et al. [105] that rapeseed
oil was usually not preheated higher than 70 C because of polymer-
fuel from exhaust gases through shell and tube heat exchanger. NOx
ization (see Fig. 2) which starts at approximately 75 C.
emissions from jatropha oil during the whole range of experiment were
By preheating the karanja oil as SVO with shell and tube heat
lower than diesel fuel, while NOx emissions for preheated jatropha oil
exchanger, Acharya et al. [70] found that the preheating temperature
were increased. For preheated jatropha oil, CO, HC emissions and
for karanja oil up to 100130 C exhibited a similar performance to
smoke opacity were decreased, but CO2 emissions were slightly
that of diesel in a CI engine without any operational problems. In
increased. They suggested that 80 C was the optimal fuel inlet
addition, they concluded that the optimized injection pressure for
temperature, taking into account the BTE, BSEC and exhaust emis-
preheated karanja oil was 20 MPa. They also tested one of inedible oil,
sions, durability and safe operation of the engine due to the occurrence
rice bran oil in the same engine [71]. By preheating the rice bran oil to
of leakage of lube oil from the engine at 100 C.
100120 C, the viscosity of rice bran oil can be reduced to similar to
The performance, combustion and emissions tests were performed
that of diesel and in turn the performance of rice bran oil showed the
by Agarwal and Dhar [102] with petrodiesel, preheated (100 C) and
similar performance to that of diesel in a CI engine without any
unheated jatropha oil, one of typical inedible vegetable oils, at dierent
diculties.
engine loads and constant speed of 1500 rpm. In this study, SVO was
The eect of preheating temperature and additives on the combus-
preheated by utilizing waste heat of exhaust gas through shell and tube
tion and emission characteristics of twin cylinder CI engine fuelled with
heat exchanger. BTE was lower for preheated SVO compared to diesel,
karanja oil as SVO was investigated by Shah et al. [106]. Two
and BSFC and exhaust gas temperatures for preheated SVO was higher
commercially available fuel additives and three preheating tempera-
compared to diesel. Lower CO, HC and CO2 emissions for preheated
SVO exhibited compared to that of petrodiesel, whereas higher NOx tures of room temperature, 45 C and 65 C were selected for this
study. The experimental results revealed that cylinder pressure, heat
emissions for preheated SVO were obtained. In combustion character-
release rate, ignition delay and NOx emissions were decreased with
istics, lower ignition delay but slower heat release rate was revealed by
increase in temperature of karanja oil, whereas CO emissions for
preheating SVO. Combustion duration was observed to be higher for
preheated karanja oil were higher compared to diesel fuel. Even though
preheated and unheated SVO than diesel fuel, but preheating was
both additives reduced the injector deposits remarkably, only one
found to increase the combustion duration of SVO. The in-cylinder
additive could signicantly reduced NOx for both diesel and karanja oil
peak pressure of preheated SVO was always higher than unheated SVO
at the temperature conditions considered in this work. In their
at all engine load conditions.
continued study [107], a comparative study for neat diesel, karanja
In their continued study [103], carbon deposits, wear of vital engine
oil with and without additive at room temperature and at 65 C,
parts, and the eect of preheated SVO (JO100) and 50% blend of
respectively was performed on a two cylinder DI CI engine. They
jatropha oil (JO50) on lubricating oil were compared with mineral
emphasized that the reduction in NOx and smoke emissions simulta-
diesel. They found that the deposits on the vital engine parts were
neously for SVO could be achieved because the introduction of additive
relatively higher on heated J050, and JO100 fuelled engine. The
with preheating further improves the injection characteristics.
viscosity of lubricating oil initially decreased for the preheated JO100
However, it should be pointed out that the additive was not eective
and the life of the lubricating oil was over in about 400 h. However,
in changing the injection characteristics at room temperature and to
viscosity, density and carbon residue of the lubricating oil for the
improve smoke emission with Karanja oil at 65 C.
preheated JO50 fuelled engine were nearly comparable to petriodiesel
Applying croton megalocarpus oil (CMO) preheated to 90 C to CI
up to 400 h operation.
engine generator was studied by Wu et al. [108]. They found that
Eects of three preheated SVOs on performance and emission
injection timing was delayed and injection duration was prolonged due
characteristics of two CI engines were studied by Yilmaz and Morton
to preheating CMO. The low in-cylinder peak pressure and temperature
[104]. Peanut, sunower and canola oils as SVO and 25 C and 90 C as
and high exhaust temperature were obtained. In addition, the PM
preheating temperature were selected in this study. The three pre-
emission test showed the similarity of both total number and total
heated SVOs were operated in two four-cycle DI CI engines having
weight of the PM emitted from the engine generator system operating
dierent number of cylinder, compression ratios, rated power and
on diesel and CMO in 90 C. In their subsequent work [31], CMO along
cooling systems but relatively similar engine speed. The experimental
with three dierent SVOs, jatropha, sunower and rapeseed oils, had
data indicated that all of the preheated SVOs showed higher BTE than
been tested at injection pressure of 120 MPa and fuel temperature of
diesel fuel for both engines. An increase in CO and NOx emissions for
60 and 90 C in a single cylinder optical CI engine with common-rail
preheated SVOs were shown as compared to petrodiesel, whereas HC
fuel injection system. They concluded that sunower oil had very good
emission was reduced for preheated SVOs. In addition, they found that
combustion properties at lower temperatures compared to other SVO.
engine type aected remarkably the emission characteristics of three
The combustion of jatropha oil was improved at higher fuel tempera-
preheated SVOs.
ture, whereas CMO did not show the outstanding combustion behavior
Performance and emission characteristics of engines running on
at any conditions.

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Experimental study on a single cylinder direct injection CI engine
supplied with seven SVOs to investigate the eect of oil fatty acid
composition on combustion and emissions was carried out by Hellier
et al. [3]. Seven oils such as corn, groundnut, palm, rapeseed, soybean,
sunower and micro-algae oils were tested with preheating tempera-
ture of 60 C at constant injection timing and constant ignition timing
at as constant engine speed of 1200 rpm. All of the SVO were found to
exhibit durations of ignition delay similar to that of petrodiesel, but
displayed much reduced maximum heat release. In addition, peak heat
release rates increased with increase in viscosity of SVO. NOx emis-
sions were lower for all of the SVO relative to the petrodiesel, while CO,
THC and PM emissions were higher and sensitive to the injection
timing. As will be discussed later, however, SVO with preheated SVO-
diesel blends showed increase in NOx and decrease in CO with
preheating [38].
Electric heater can be used for preheating the SVO in CI engine.
Acharya et al. [109] carried out the experimental investigation to study
the performance and emission characteristics of a single-cylinder DI CI
engine fuelled with preheated karanja oil and its blends(10% and 20%
v/s, SVO10 and SVO20) with diesel. In the preliminary test, they found
that by heating the karanja oil with electric heater in the range of 40
130 C, the viscosity of karanja oil was close to the diesel at about
120 C. In addition, the viscosity of karanja oil was close to that of
diesel by blending karanja oil up to 20% with diesel. The reduction in
BTE for preheated karanja oil and increase in BTE for SVO20 were
observed. CO, HC and CO2 emissions of preheated karanja oil and
SVO20 blend were higher that diesel. The increase in NOx emission for
blended oil and reduction in NOx emission for preheated oil were
found. They found that the trade-o relation between NOx and PM
exists in both the preheated and blended SVOs.
There is a study using shell and tube heat exchanger for preheating
SVO. A single cylinder CI engine was tested using karanja and kusum
oils in preheating mode with the help of a heat exchanger at dierent
loads [110]. For both preheated karanja and kusum oils, reduction in
NOx emissions and increase in CO, HC and CO2 were observed
compared to diesel fuel. Emissions for kusum oil were slightly higher
than those of karanja oil because of higher viscosity. However, as the
preheated temperature was not measured in this study, the proper
preheating temperature was not supplied.
For the comparative study of engine eciency and emissions from
SVO, biodiesel and petrodiesel, four dierent vegetable oils (sunower,
canola, camelina and soybean) and their biodiesel derivatives were
tested in single cylinder DI CI engine with two tank fuel preheating
system [111]. They found that overall engine emissions (CO, HC, NOx
and PM) for SVO were signicantly higher than petrodiesel. They
observed the general trends that oils having higher levels of poly-
unsaturated fats produce higher levels of NOx and HC emissions. In
addition, they suggested that ideal SVO preheating temperature for the
CI engine used in this study was 60 C. Comparison of data for raw and
rened SVO revealed that rened SVO produced lower PM emissions
that raw SVO.
The comparative study of exhaust emissions of high grade low heat
rejection (LHR) engine with jatropha oil as SVO and diesel with varied
injector opening pressure and at dierent operating conditions of SVO
was recently carried out by Janardhan et al. [33] It should be noted
that SVO was preheated up to 90 C instead of 100 C suggested by
Agarwal and Dhar [102] for having a similar viscosity to that of diesel
fuel at room temperature. They reported that engine with LHR-3
combustion chamber with jatropha oil operation revealed reduction of
PM emissions and increase of NOx at full load and at injection timing
of 27 BTDC and these emissions decreased marginally with increase in
injector opening pressure compared to conventional engine with diesel
and SVO at 27 BTDC. In their subsequent studies [112,113], they
found that engine with LHR-3 combustion chamber with SVO opera-
tion showed improved performance and as the injector opening
pressure increased, the performance was slightly improved in compar-
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
ison with conventional engine with diesel and SVO.
Preheating method of SVO in automotive on-board engine is one of
the research areas for the application of SVO in CI engines. To meet the
optimal preheating temperature range of 7090 C, there is a study by
using a phase change material storage system [18]. High temperature
commercial paran was selected in this study and a numerical model
of the phase change material thermal storage system was developed to
recover and store engine exhaust heat to preheat SVO at cold starts.
3.3.2. Dual fuelled SVO
To improve the performance, combustion and emission character-
istics of CI engine fuelled with SVO, dual fuel mode was introduced in
the several works.
A single cylinder DI CI engine was modied by Senthil Kumar et al.
[100] to operate in the dual fuel mode with methanol, orange oil, and
hydrogen being used as the inducted fuels and the jatropha oil being
used as the pilot fuel. The performance and emission characteristics of
this engine were compared with the dierent application techniques
such as neat diesel, neat jatropha oil, jatropha biodiesel, jatropha oil
blended with methanol and orange oil, addition of oxygenates such as
DEE and DMC. BTE was highest for methanol, with orange oil and
hydrogen following in the dual fuel mode. Highest BTE was obtained in
the dual fuel operation compared to other techniques, particularly BTE
with methanol was higher than that of neat diesel. Remarkable
reduction in smoke emission was observed in the dual fuel mode than
the other methods, especially lowest with methanol. HC and CO
emissions were highest in the case of dual fuel operation with methanol
and orange oil, but lowest with hydrogen induction. Hydrogen induc-
tion revealed the highest NO emission compared to all other methods,
but NO emissions in the dual fuel mode with methanol and orange oil
were much lower than neat diesel, jatropha oil and jatropha biodiesel.
Dual fuel mode showed the highest ignition delay as compared with all
other methods. They suggested that the ecient application method of
jatropha oil in CI engine with high power output will be the dual fuel
operation with methanol and orange oil.
In the studies by Edwin Geo et al. [114], one of ether, diethyl
ether(DEE) was injected into the intake port during suction stroke at
the ow rate of 100g/h, 150g/h, and 200g/h, while rubber seed oil
(RSO) was injected directly inside the cylinder at the end of compres-
sion stroke in a single cylinder DI CI engine with rated output of
4.4 kW at 1500 rpm. The experimental results indicated that the higher
BTE, peak pressure and rate of pressure rise were obtained with DEE
injection with RSO compared to neat RSO. DEE injection reduced HC,
CO and smoke emissions, while NOx emissions were higher with DEE
injection compared with neat RSO.
The performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a
single-cylinder CI engine operated with LPG and neem SVO in dual fuel
mode was investigated [115]. The LPG was mixed with air and supplied
through intake manifold and liquid SVO or diesel was injected into the
cylinder. The experimental results revealed that in the dual fuel model
of operation, NOx emissions were reduced up to 70% of the rated
power and smoke emissions were reduced by 62% in the entire power
range. In addition, the maximum BTE for diesel, diesel-LPG, neem
SVO, and neem SVO-LPG were 26.7%, 28.6%, 23.2% and 25.6%,
respectively, while BTE for single fuel operation was high at low power
ranges.
Performance of a single cylinder DI CI engine on dual fuel operation
with jatropha oil as pilot fuel and orange oil as primary fuel was
evaluated by Senthil Kumar et al. [116]. They concluded in this study
that jatropha oil as pilot fuel and orange oil as the inducted fuel could
be used in CI engine with reduced smoke levels and improved thermal
eciency with no major deterioration in performance.
Recently, the dual fuel mode of operation with methanol induction
(15% by mass) and mahua SVO injection was studied experimentally in
a single cylinder DI CI engine by Masimalai and Subramanian [81].
The experimental results were compared with the performance,
S.-Y. No
combustion and emission characteristics of neat diesel, neat Mahua oil
and methanol blending with mahua oil. They concluded that drastic
reduction in smoke and NOx along with superior thermal eciency at
power output can be obtained by dual fuel model of operation with
methanol induction. However, methanol blending with mahua oil will
be preferred for the moderate improvement in performance and
reduction in emissions at all power output, particularly in case of no
requirement of engine modication.
3.3.3. Newly designed engine
Another engine modication technology includes the injection
system modication kit or newly developed engine. For allowing
remote farmers to use locally grown vegetable oils as a diesel
substitute, an engine modication kit had recently been developed by
Basinger et al. [34]. IDI diesel engine modication kit includes a
preheating system and the tuning of the injector pressure and timing to
better atomize the waste vegetable oil as SVO. They found that 25
BTDC with an injector valve opening pressure of 15 MPa was ideal for
IDI CI engine-the Lister-type CS 6/1 when fuelled on waste vegetable
oil preheated up to 90 C. Their further study had analyzed the use of
this modication kit through its utilization in a 500 h longevity study
[35].
According to the specialist, German company HeiPro, for the
conversion of diesel engines to SVO such as palm, soybean, rapeseed
and jatropha oils, around 7500 vehicles such as cars, trucks, buses,
agricultural vehicles and large stationary engines are running on SVO
with their conversion system [117]. Their conversion kit includes two-
tank system inclusive oil preheating.
A new engine, Elsbett engine, known as Elko engine and invented
by Ludwig Elsbett in 1977, is a diesel engine designed to run on SVO
[118]. According to Jeschke [119] and Russo et al. [10], the newly
designed Elsbett engine necessary to run a diesel engine with SVO can
be divided into two categories: one and two tank systems.
As one of method to overcome the adverse eect on engine and
environment caused by the high viscosity of SVO, the eect of the
oxygen enrichment in the intake air of diesel engines on the combus-
tion and emission characteristics using rapeseed SVO as fuel was
investigated by Li et al. [120]. The oxygen enrichment method resulted
in the decrease of the ignition delay and premixed combustion
duration, and the increase of in-cylinder peak pressure and tempera-
ture. They suggested the oxygen enrichment method in intake air of
22% rate for the direct combustion of SVO in diesel engines with
remarkable reduction of PM, HC and CO emissions and with the lowest
NOx penalty.
3.4. Simultaneous modication of fuel and engine
Many studies were carried out to reduce the viscosity of SVO
through the simultaneous introduction of preheating of inlet fuel and
blending with diesel fuel. This technology can be one of category for the
application of SVO to CI engines.
Optimum injection timing of DI CI engine operated on preheated
karanj-diesel blend was investigated by Khatri et al. [121]. The blends
having viscosity equal to that of petrodiesel at room temperature were
xed by considering the preheating temperature up to 5560 C at no
load with heat exchanger developed and the concentration of karanj in
the blends up to the extent of 40% at this temperature range. On the
basis of experimental results at dierent fuel injection timings (23,
21, 19, 17 and 15 BTDC), they concluded that the optimal injection
timing determined for karanj-diesel blend was 19 BTDC.
The analysis of particulate matter coming out of exhaust emissions
from engine fuelled with petrodiesel, karanji oil as SVO, and blend of
SVO with petrodiesel (20% v/v) was carried out by Agarwal et al. [122].
In this study, the waste heat of the exhaust gases through heat
exchanger had been used to preheat the vegetable oil, so that their
viscosity came in a range close to petrodiesel. They concluded that SVO
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097
and blended SVO gave better PM emission results than petrodiesel with
respect to lower toxic metal emissions as well as less soot formation.
Hazar and Aydin [38] investigated performance and emission
characteristics of 20% and 50% (by volume) mixture of rapeseed SVO
and petrodiesel in a single cylinder, DI CI engine in order to nd out
the eect of fuel preheating to 100 C. It should be noted that when
blending SVO with petrodiesel, viscosity for blended SVO was de-
creased by 49.9% and 73.6% for SVO50 and SVO20, respectively. They
found that BSFC for all fuels signicantly decreased with the preheat-
ing process, particularly at the lower running speeds of engine. CO
emissions were decreased for all test fuels with preheating due to the
improvement in atomization and better fuel-air mixing. The results
indicated that NOx emissions were lowered with the substitute of SVO
as fuel due to the lower peak combustion temperature as a result of the
lower heating value of SVO. However, NOx emission was increased
with the introduction of fuel preheating. They also found that smoke
emission for SVO blends was higher than diesel fuel due to their higher
viscosity and poor volatility of SVO blends.
The eect of fuel temperature and injection angle on the perfor-
mance of soybean SVO blended with diesel at volume percentage of 10,
30, 50, 70 and 100% was studied by Wander et al. [123] in a single
cylinder DI CI engine. Their results showed an increase in torque and
power for blends compared to neat diesel, particularly SVO 50 and SVO
70 blends. A reduction in torque and power were observed with an
increase in preheated temperature from 30 C to 60 C. The use of high
percentage of SVO decreased the smoke index compared to diesel fuel.
The highest BTE were obtained at end of injection angle of 15 using
low SVO blends, whereas the lowest smoke index was observed at 17
for SVO 100.
Performance of preheated cottonseed oil and diesel fuel blends in a
single cylinder CI engine was investigated by Martin and Prithviraj
[124]. The cotton seed oil was blended with diesel in dierent
proportions (20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%) to reduce the viscosity. In
addition, in order to further reduce the kinematic viscosity, the blends
were heated from 20 C to 90 C in interval of 10 C. They concluded
that a blend containing 60% of cotton seed oil with diesel, which is
preheated up to 70 C, can be recommended to decrease emissions and
to improve the performance of CI engine without any engine modica-
tion.
Combustion and emission characteristics of preheated (70 C) pure
rapeseed oil (SVO) and blends of 10%, 20%, 30% and 50% of SVO in
diesel have been investigated by Labecki et al. [2] in a multi-cylinder
direct DI CI engine. The total duration of combustion (DOC) and
ignition delay (ID) for diesel and SVO 30 (30% rapeseed SVO blend)
under standard engine operating conditions (80 MPa, 9 bTDC) and
diesel equivalent soot conditions (120 MPa, 3 bTDC) are shown in
Fig. 3. They obtained in the preliminary test that the soot emissions for
SVO 30 blend were reduced to diesel equivalent soot levels by
Fig. 3. The overall duaration of combustion and ignition delay for diesel, SVO 30 under
reference and diesel equivalent soot conditions (adopted from [2]).
S.-Y. No
Fig. 4. The regulated exhaust emissions for diesel, SVO 30 under reference and diesel
equivalent soot conditions (adopted from [2]).
increasing the fuel injection pressure from 80 MPa to 120 MPa and by
retarding the fuel injection timing from 9 bTDC to 3 bTDC. It is clear
from Fig. 3 that the DOC has been increased for SVO 30 under
reference engine operating conditions compared to diesel, while it has
been reduced for SVO 30 under diesel equivalent soot operating
conditions compared to SVO 30 under standard engine operating
conditions. The nearly same IDs for SVO 30 and diesel were obtained
due to the eect of preheating and the presence of oxygen content.
However, the ID for SVO 30 for SVO 30 under diesel equivalent soot
operating condition has been reduced due to the high injection
pressure and retardation of the injection timing. They also found that
for preheated SVO and its blends with petrodiesel, CO and HC
emissions are higher, but NOx emissions are generally lower than that
of petrodiesel, but their soot emissions are much higher than petro-
diesel as shown in Fig. 4. They concluded that among four blends of
SVO in diesel, a blend of 30% SVO can be used in diesel engines with
diesel equivalent level of soot and low level of NOx emissions by
changing the fuel injection parameters such as injection timing and
injection pressure. Even though the diesel equivalent levels of soot
emission were obtained through varying injection parameters for 30%
SVO, they pointed out that the number concentration of soot is much
higher than that of petrodiesel.
Delalibera et al. [125] evaluated the performance, the useful life of
the lubricant and some components of an electronic injection system in
a long-term test operating with preheated (65 C) blend of 50% (by
volume) of soybean SVO in petrodiesel. Their results showed that there
was a reduction of the life of the fuel injectors and common rail system
was unstable to changes in fuel. This leaded to failure because of high
wear with 264 h of operation and to an increase in PM emissions.
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However, an increase in the useful life of the lubricants compared to
the literature was observed.
Tests of single-cylinder, mechanically injected, CI engine for power
generation in a dynamometric bench operating with SVOs of soybean,
sunower and tung and their blends with diesel were reported by
Hartmann et al. [12]. In this study, the heating system using exhaust
heat and the controller were developed and the SVOs were heated up to
95 c for tung oil, 85 C for soybean and sunower and 65 C for the
blends. Thermal eciencies for sunower, soybean and blends of
soybean oil were higher than that for neat diesel fuel. CO and NOx
emissions increased with decrease in engine speed. NOx emissions
were highest for diesel, with blends of soybean and sunower, neat
soybean and sunower, and neat tung oil following. The data for HC
and PM were not available in this work.
An experimental and thermodynamic analysis of a CI engine fuelled
with diesel, soybean SVO, and blend of 50% (v/v) soybean and diesel
fuel was carried out by Garzon et al. [126]. In this study, soybean SVO
was supplied at 85 C, blend at 65 C, and diesel at 25 C to reproduce
a similar spray pattern for three fuels tested. Due to the lower LHV and
longer ignition delay, SVO resulted in the lowest combustion tempera-
ture in the cylinder, and in turn the lowest NOx emissions. The
improvement of ignition delay due to the addition of diesel fuel makes
the NOx emissions of the blend to be the same as diesel. As a result of a
lower combustion temperature and longer ignition delay, SVO emits
the highest amount of CO. In addition, CO emission for the blends was
basically the same as that for diesel. However, the data for soot or PM
were not reported in this work.
Li et al. [127] recently investigated the fuel consumption and GHG
reductions by using used cooking oil as SVO called C2G Ultra Biofuel in
a 44 t articulated truck using a dual fuel tank containing both diesel
and rened used cooking oil as a SVO and an on-board fuel blending
system. This system was able to heat the SVO initially 2540 C with
engine coolant and transported from the tank to the fuel control
module/unit which further heated fuel to around 6080 C. In this
system called Bioltec, the required blending ratio of diesel and SVO
according to fuel temperature and engine load was automatically
determined. A series of real world driving tests were conducted on
the trip length of around 33 km. They found that fuel consumption in
terms of volumetric, mass and energy shows the similar level between
petrodiesel and SVO. The signicant reduction in GHG emissions by
8589% and 7378% by SVO for hot start and cold start trips,
respectively were obtained.
In their continued work, Hadavi et al. [128] reported the emission
characteristics from a same truck with the same preheating and
blending system with the previous one. Their experimental results
showed that SVO can reduce PM and CO emissions signicantly, but
HC emission slightly increase compared to the use of neat diesel. It
should be noted that their results were obtained from heavy duty trucks
on real world driving, not from engine test beds in the laboratory or
small diesel vehicles. Even though PM emissions were reported as mass
concentration and size resolved concentration, respectively, NOx
emissions were not available in this study.
4. Performance, combustion and emission characteristics of
SVO in gas turbine
Even though there is a review article written by Gupta et al. [129]
on biofuels for the gas turbine, the works on SVO use in gas turbine
were not extensively described. Nowadays, in the eld of power
generation technology, it is known that micro-gas turbine can be a
very reliable, clean technology with excellent performance in small
scale cogeneration area compared to conventional small scale diesel
engines. Therefore, as one of the application of alternative and renew-
able fuels in small scale power generation technology, several re-
searches on using SVO as a fuel in micro-gas turbine are recently
performed. Even though not so many researches can be found in the
S.-Y. No Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097

literature, the studies on combustion and emission characteristics of Table 1

SVO in gas turbine can be classied into two categories including neat Straight vegetable oils applied in CI engine with different technologies.
SVO, and blended SVO with diesel or other fuels such as biodiesel and
Straight vegetable oils Refs.
kerosene.
A. Neat SVO neem, cottonseed, sunflower, [25,52,5460]
hone, poon, jatropha, soybean
4.1. Neat SVO B. Fuel modication
1. blending
One study on the spray characteristics of neat SVO in gas turbine 1) SVO polanga, jojoba, rapeseed, [58,6070,7279,123]
+diesel sunflower, cottonseed, corn,
can be found in the literature. The air-assisted impinging jet atomiza-
olive neem, karanja, waste
tion strategy for continuous spray applications such as in gas turbine cooking, soapnut, eucalyptus,
engines in order to obtain eective atomization of high-viscosity poon, opium poppy, kusum,
jatropha SVO have been experimentally assessed by Avulapati and soybean, honne,
Raviskrishna [26]. In the impinging jet air-assisted method, improved 2) SVO rapeseed, neem [37,80]
+ethanol:
atomization could be accomplished by increasing the gas ow rate and 3) SVO mahua, polanga [81,123]
eective atomization of jatropha SVO was achieved at gas-to-liquid +methanol:
ratio on the order of 0.1. A SMD on the order of 40 m was obtained at 4) SVO croton, cotton seed, canola- [83,94,95]
gas-to-liquid ratio of < 0.1 for jatropha SVO. +butanol hazelnut-cotton seed,
+diesel: sunflower-corn-soybean
5) SVO honne [84]
4.2. Blended SVO +kerosene
+diesel
6) SVO rapeseed+camelina [22]
The sunower oil as SVO was tested in micro-gas turbine for power mixtures:
generation by Prussi et al. [21]. Initially, the analysis of atomization 2. emulsion
and evaporation based on the empirical correlations was conducted 1) SVO coconut, waste cooking [8587]
+ethanol:
and supported by CFD modeling to qualitatively investigate the ow
2) SVO canola, palm, karanja, [88,89,91,92,99]
pattern. Tests with 15% and 30% v/v sunower oil/diesel blends and +ethanol rapseed
SVO were carried out to assess the modied micro-gas turbine. They +diesel
concluded that micro-gas turbine with minor modication can be 3) SVO colza, palm, cottenseed, [9496,98]
successfully operated with SVO without sacricing the performance +butanol canola, soybean
+diesel
and increasing the pollutant emissions.
sunflower, corn, olive, [93]
Cavarzere et al. [130] experimentally evaluates the operation of hazelnut
micro-gas turbine fed by blends of SVO with diesel in dierent 3. use of jatropha [100]
concentrations (0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 60%, 100%). The SVOs additives;
C. Engine modication
selected for the experiment were obtained from dierent types of
1. preheating: camelina, rapeseed, corn, [3,23,33,38,70,71,101
oilseeds such as rapeseed, sunower, and soybean oil. The SVO groundnut, palm, soybean, 104,106,107,109113]
properties such as elemental composition, lower caloric value, den- sunflower, karanja, kusum,
sity, specic heat and viscosity were determined experimentally. In all canola, jatropha
blends cases, CO emissions increased with increase in SVO content in 2. dual jatropha, rubber seed, neem, [20,81,100,114,115]
fuelling: mahua
the blend and were usually higher than that of neat diesel fuel.
3. newly waste cooking, plam, soybean, [10,34,35,118120]
However, NOx emissions were slightly lower than that of diesel fuel. designed rapeseed, jatropha
Instead of blends with diesel, there are several studies on the engine
blended SVO with other fuels such as biodiesel or kerosene. For the test D. Fuel and karanja, rapeseed, cotton [2,12,38,121,122,124128]
of micro-gas turbine with diesel, biodiesel and SVO, Chiaramonti et al. engine seed, soybean, sunflower,
modication tung, used cooking
[29] had selected the mixtures of 25%, 50% and 75% SVO in biodiesel
instead of diesel. Rened vegetable oil from rapeseed was used as SVO. *SVO: straight vegetable oil.
In this study, exhaust emissions were measured from micro-gas turbine
fuelled with diesel, biodiesel(with and without preheating of 80 C, 5. Discussions
100 C and 120 C), with SVO (with preheating of 120 C) and blends
of SVO with biodiesel. Compared to diesel, higher CO emission was This review on the application of SVO produced from the triglycer-
shown in biodiesel, SVO and SVO/biodiesel blends, but CO emission ides based biomass to IC engines such as CI engines and gas turbines
can be remarkably reduced by preheating of fuel. They emphasized that shows that a number of SVO can be used satisfactorily in IC engines.
preheated SVO at 120 C generates CO emissions very similar to diesel The several correlations for the prediction of kinematic viscosity,
at 20 C conditions. Preheating up to 120130 C was essential to density, and heating value of SVO and its blends were suggested.
achieve stable operation of micro-gas turbine with SVO and SVO/ The studies on the application of SVO in CI engines can be grouped
biodiesel blends. There was no remarkable dierence between all fuels as neat SVO, fuel modication, engine modication, and simultaneous
tested in NOx emissions. modication of fuel and engine. The discussion for fuel modication
The experimental study on emission characteristics of commercial was limited only to physical fuel modication such as blending,
micro-gas turbine fuelled with blends of SVO and Jet A1 kerosene was emulsied SVO and SVO with additives as shown in Table 1. In case
performed by Chiariello et al. [24]. CO, NOx, and PM emissions were of blending strategies, blending with petrodiesel was mainly investi-
measured at full and partial load for blends of 10% and 20% of gated, but blending with alcohols such as ethanol, methanol, butanol
rapeseed and sunower oils, respectively, with kerosene (four SVO were also studied. Instead of using binary blend, there are studies for
blends). They found that CO and NOx emissions are basically insensi- the introduction of ternary blends and SVO mixtures. The optimum
tive to the composition of the ve fuel tested at both partial and full concentration of SVO when blended with petrodiesel suggested by the
loads. However, PM emissions were three times higher for blends of dierent investigators for the dierent SVOs is summarized in Table 2.
rapeseed oil and more than ve times greater for blends of sunower It is clear from Table 2 that most inedible vegetable oil when blended
oil than those of pure Jet A1 kerosene.

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S.-Y. No Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 8097

Table 2 Table 4
Optimum blending percentage for SVO. Optimum preheating temperature and percentage of blend for SVO.

Common names (botanical Percentage (%) Refs. SVO/diesel blend Temperature (C) % of Refs.
name) SVO

Polanga (Calophyllum 20 Mishra et al. [64] edible oil

inophyllum L.) rapeseed/diesel 70 30 Labecki et al. [2]
Neem (Azadirachta indica) 5 Singh et al. [68] soybean/diesel 65 50 Delalibera et al. [125]
Karanja (Pongamia pinnata) 20 Acharya et al. [70] soybean/diesel 65 50 Garzon et al. [126]
Karanja (Pongamia pinnata) 15 Hotti and Hebbal [72] soybean/diesel 65 50 Hartmann et al. [12]
Karanja (Honge; pongamia 20 Agarwal and Dhar [73] sunower/diesel 65 50 Hartmann et al. [12]
pinnata)
Rice bran 20 Acharya et al. [71] inedible oils
Soapnut (Sapindus mukorossi) 10 Misra and Murthy [75] cotton seed/diesel 70 60 Martin and Prithviraj
Honne (Calophyllum 20 Venkanna and [124]
inophyllum linn) Venkararaman [73] karanja/diesel 5560 40 Khatri et al. [121]
tung/diesel 85 50 Hartmann et al. [12]
used cooking/ 6080 Li et al. [127]
with diesel up to a concentration of 20% is a promising alternative to diesel

petrodiesel and would not require any engine modication.

In combustion characteristics, SVO except orange oil displayed
to be established for each type of SVO. The preheating method of SVO
longer ignition delay and combustion duration and lower heat release
includes engine coolant [127], heat exchanger [110], electric heater
rate and in-cylinder peak pressure than diesel. However, the blended
[109], phase change material storage system [18]. Most studies related
SVO with diesel showed the dierent combustion processes with the
to the preheating SVO showed the increase of CO, HC and PM and
variation of concentration of SVO in the blend and engine load etc.
decrease of NOx compared with petrodiesel. However, opposite results
Most studies reported lower BTE and higher BSFC for blended SVO
for NOx and PM can be found in some studies.
with diesel than for petrodiesel. Increase of CO and HC and decrease of
Apparently, the combined use of preheating, blending with diesel or
NOx were noticed for blended SVO compared with petrodiesel.
other fuel, increasing the injection pressure, and advancing the
However, the eect of the blended SVO on the PM emission or smoke
injection timing could produce the best performance and emission
opacity was dierent from one study to another. This may be attributed
characteristics. The optimum preheating temperatures and blending
to the application of dierent engines, dierent fuel delivery system or
percentage for several SVO suggested by dierent researchers are
dierence in test procedures. For emulsied fuel, increase in BSFC,
summarized in Table 4. While it is generally agreed that SVO increases
ignition delay, HC and CO emissions as well as smoke opacity and
CO, CO2, HC and PM emissions relative to biodiesel, there is signicant
decrease in BTE and NOx emissions are generally reported.
discontinuity in the literature as to how it compares with petrodiesel. It
Engine modication includes preheating the fuel line or fuel itself,
can be founded that lower concentration of SVO has been used by
dual fuelling, and newly designed engine as well as injection system
blending, but higher concentration of SVO has been used by preheating
modication kit. Most studies for engine modication were concen-
SVO before injecting into the cylinder. According to the comparative
trated on the preheated SVO. The optimum preheating temperatures
study between preheated kusum oil and blend of kusum oil with diesel,
for several SVO suggested by dierent investigators are summarized in
preheated kusum oil was slightly inferior in terms of BTE, BSFC and
Table 3. It is clear from Table 3 that the optimum preheating
emissions such as CO, HC and NOx [62]. Similar results were obtained
temperature is virtually related to the viscosity of SVO itself and has
for karanja oil in terms of BTE and BSFC [70]. However, for karanja oil,
preheated karanja oil showed the lower NOx emission than that of
Table 3
blended karanja oil [109].
Optimum preheating temperature for SVO.
The studies on combustion and emission characteristics of SVO in
Common names (botanical Temperature (C) Refs. gas turbine can be classied into two categories including neat SVO,
name) blended SVO with diesel or other fuels such as biodiesel and kerosene.
More studies are required for the application of SVO to gas turbine.
edible oils
canola (Brassica napus) 60 Nettles-Anderson et al.
[111]
palm (Elaeis guineensis) 92 Misra and Murthy [6] 6. Conclusions
rapeseed (Brassica napus) 5560 Vojtisek-Lom et al. [23]
soybean (Glycine max) 60 Nettles-Anderson et al. This paper reviews the application of SVO produced from the
[111]
soybean (Glycine max) 85 Hartmann et al. [12]
triglycerides based biomass to IC engines such as CI engines and gas
soybean (Glycine max) 85 Garzon et al. [126] turbines. The study for the verication of applicability of existing
sunower (Helianthus 60 Nettles-Anderson et al. correlations for the prediction of kinematic viscosity, density, and
annuus) [111] heating value of SVO and its blends is required in the future.
sunower (Helianthus 85 Hartmann et al. [12]
For the application of SVO as an alternative fuel for diesel fuel, the
annuus)
selection of inedible SVO is preferable because of the great need for
inedible oils edible oil as food. The blended SVO in the fuel modication strategy
camelina (Camelina sativa) 60 Nettles-Anderson et al. and the preheating SVO in the engine modication technique were
[111] mainly investigated. The optimum blending ratio of inedible SVO with
jatropha (Jatropha curcas) 90100 Misra and Murthy [6]
jatropha (Jatropha curcas) 80 Chauhan et al. [101]
diesel was found to be 20%. The optimum preheating temperatures
jatropha (Jatropha curcas) 100 Agarwal and Dhar [102] were 6085 C for edible SVOs, and 80120 C for inedible SVOs,
jatropha (Jatropha curcas) 90 Janardhan et al. [33] respectively. In addition, the preheating temp and the blending
karanja (Pongamia pinnata) 100130 Acharya et al. [70] percentage were 65 C and 50% for edible SVOs, and 6580 C and
karanja (Honge, Pongamia 120 Acharya et al. [109]
50% for inedible SVOs. The most practical and eective method for
pinnata)
tung (Vernicia fordii) 95 Hartmann et al. [12] decreasing the viscosity of SVO is found to be the preheating and
blending SVO simultaneously.

94
S.-Y. No
For the application of SVO to CI engines, little is known on the dual
fuel mode which will be more attractive in terms of combustion,
performance and emission characteristics of CI engines. A comparative
study of dierent methods of using SVO in fuel modication and in
engine modication respectively is required.
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