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HVAC Equipment for the Mechanical


PE Exam
This section of the exam guide book focuses on the Mechanical Equipment and
Systems used in the HVAC and Refrigeration eld. The equipment discussed in
this section are the most common pieces of equipment and systems and include:
air distribution equipment like ducts, fans and dampers and uid distribution
equipment like pipes, pumps and valves. Also included are other equipment
include chillers, cooling towers, energy recovery devices, boilers, etc.

Air Supply Ducts


In the HVAC eld, air distribution systems are used to supply cold/hot air to various spaces to keep the
occupants comfortable and/or to keep equipment operational. Fresh air shall also be provided through
the air distribution system to provide appropriate ventilation levels, in order to alleviate carbon dioxide
(CO2) levels.

DUCTS

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The method in which air is routed throughout a building is through the use of ducts, which can be
constructed of metal, plastic or berglass. As a minimally competent engineer, one should be able to
accomplish the following:

1) Determine the velocity in ducts.


2) Determine the pressure drop in ducts.
3) Size the duct based on required velocity or pressure drop.

Darcy Weisbach Equation

The equation used to determine the pressure drop in ducts is the Darcy Weisbach Equation.

Converting to more commonly used HVAC and Refrigeration units:

Although this equation is the governing equation for determining pressure drop, it is most often not
used in the HVAC and Refrigeration eld. In this eld, air ow pressure drop calculations through are
completed through the use of Friction Charts. Air ows, pressures, elevations and duct construction
NOT normally encountered in the HVAC and Refrigeration should use the Darcy Equation.

Determining Velocity in Ducts for Pressure Calculations.

In the HVAC and Refrigeration eld air ow is typically measured in cubic feet per minute or CFM. But
velocity is the term that is required in determining the pressure drop of the air ow through a duct. In
order to determine the velocity, the area of the duct must be found. Finding the area of ducts is a
simple calculation for circular ducts, which are shown below.

For rectangular and oval ducts, the area CANNOT be calculated as shown below. The rectangular and
oval duct dimensions MUST FIRST be converted to Equivalent Diameter. Remember, that the pressure
loss calculations require a circular shape.

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Determining Diameter of Duct

The Friction Charts and the Darcy Equation are typically a function of duct diameter. Thus no
calculations are necessary for a circular duct. However, rectangular and oval ducts must be converted
to an equivalent diameter circular duct before the equation can be properly completed. The equations
for determining equivalent diameters are shown below.

A quicker way to determine equivalent diameter is to use the Equivalent Diameter Tables for
Rectangular and Oval ducts shown in ASHRAE Fundaments.

Determining Pressure Drop in Ducts

Once the equivalent diameter of the duct is found and the CFM is known, then simply refer to the
Friction Charts for Ducts and simply read the pressure drop. This process is detailed more in Fan Sizing,
later on in this section.

Air Supply Fans


Di users, registers and grilles are at the end of ducts and serve as the distribution equipment to the
conditioned space. The purpose of these mechanical pieces of equipment is to provide thermal comfort
for the occupants of the space or to provide proper thermal conditions suitable for the equipment in
the space.

Di users are de ned as air terminal devices that distribute conditioned air in various directions
through the use of its de ecting vanes. It is designed to promote the mixing of conditioned air with the
air already in the space. It is important to properly mix the conditioned air into the space, in order to
provide cooling/heating and to distribute fresh air to the entire space and to avoid stagnant air in the
space. However, not all types of di users have the same performance in mixing the conditioned air in
the space. Each di user will be provided with a table describing its performance similar to the one on
the following page.

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The values shown in tables similar to the one above are speci c to a certain manufacturers type of
di user and size. The third row indicates the total amount of CFM that is distributed through this
di user. This term is the value with which the designer will begin. From this value, the velocity and
pressure drop through the di user can be determined. It is also important to note that at higher
velocities, the pressure drop increases and the NC or noise criteria increases. The NC rating
corresponds to a curve of DB levels at various frequencies. This NC rating is used to rate the sound
levels of air conditioning equipment and also used to rate the sound requirements of rooms. For
example, a typical classroom will require a NC rating of 25-30. Using the table above, this corresponds
to a maximum air ow somewhere between 85 and 95 CFM.

Throw is de ned as the horizontal distance from a di user at a speci ed velocity. For example, T50 =
15, indicates that at a distance of 15 from the di user, the velocity of the air will be 50 feet per minute.
T100 = 10, indicates the distance at which the air velocity is 100 feet per minute and T150 = 5, indicates
the distance for 150 feet per minute. Often times throw is shown simply in the following format, [T150 -
T100 - T50]. For example, in the table above an air ow of 60 CFM results in a velocity of 150 fpm at 7
from the di user, a velocity of 100 fpm at 9 from the di user and a velocity of 50 fpm at 12 from the
di user. Refer to the following gure for a graphical explanation.

Typically in di user layout design for occupied areas, it is required to locate di users so that the T50
length is nearly equivalent to the characteristic length. The characteristic length is de ned as the
distance by one of the following:

1. Perpendicular distance between the center line of the di user and the wall.

2. Midpoint between the centerline of two di users.

Grilles are de ned as air devices that consist of an opening with a covered grating or screen. Grilles are
often used to return air back to the fan or to exhaust air from a space. Grilles are not typically used to
supply air because there is an inability to accurately control the amount of air being supplied.

Registers are simply grilles with a damper that is used to restrict the amount of air ow required to be
returned, supplied or exhausted.

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Types of Fans
Fans are provided in HVAC and Refrigeration systems to distribute conditioned air, to provide
ventilation or to exhaust un-wanted air.

Mechanical Horsepower (MHP): Mechanical horsepower is the measure of the power produced by
the fan, a function of the air ow rate measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM) and the total static
pressure (TSP) measured in in. wg..

MHP=(CFM*TSP[in.wg])/6,356

Brake Horsepower (BHP): Brake horsepower is the measure of the power drawn by the motor to turn
the fan, a function of the fan e ciency and the mechanical horsepower.

BHP=MHP*(1/(fan e ciency))

Horsepower (HP): Horsepower is the motor size. It is a function of the BHP and the motor e ciency.

HP=BHP*(1/(motor e ciency))
*upsize HP to nearest motor size

Velocity Pressure (VP): Velocity pressure is de ned as the pressure caused solely by moving air.

VP=FPM/4005 [in.wg]

Static Pressure (SP): Static pressure is the pressure caused solely by compression, the outward force
on a duct.

Total Pressure (TSP): Total static pressure is the sum of the velocity pressure and the static pressure at
any point.

Fan Sizing
The professional engineer must be able to properly size a fan. There are two main parameters that
must be determined, (1) Volumetric Flow Rate [CFM] and (2) Static Pressures.

DETERMINING VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE [CFM]

In order to nd the volumetric ow rate of air that the fan must blow, will depend on the following
factors, (1a) heat/cooling load, (1b) ventilation/exhaust or (1c) velocity.

(1a) First in the HVAC and Refrigeration eld fans are used to provide cool/hot air to properly control
the temperature of the space. The amount of air required is determined by the cooling/heat load and
the desired temperature and the supply air temperature.

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(1b) Second in the HVAC and Refrigeration eld fans are used to provide ventilation to adequately
remove noxious fumes, like carbon dioxide from occupied spaces. The amount of ventilation or exhaust
is determined by researching ASHRAE 62.1 for the required factor. This factor could be a person factor,
for example, Provide 15 CFM per person or it could be an area factor, for example, Provide 1 CFM per
square foot of area.

(1c) Volumetric ow rate (CFM) can also be determined by the required velocity. This method is typically
used in industrial ventilation situations and in kitchens. A high velocity is required in a system in order
to keep particles suspended in the air so that they may be exhausted out of the space.

DETERMINING TOTAL STATIC PRESSURE [IN. WG]

The second parameter that must be found in order to size a fan is to determine the total static
pressure. This is the total pressure that the fan must overcome in order to deliver the required CFM to
the required location. The total static pressure is a function of the (2a) duct friction losses, (2b) duct
tting losses and (2c) miscellaneous equipment losses.

(2a) Duct Friction Losses: Straight lengths of duct incur friction losses on the air ow, which must be
calculated by the engineer in order to properly size the fan. The amount of friction loss is a function of
the velocity of air and the size of the duct. Another important tool that is required is the Standard
Friction Loss in Standard Duct graphs, which can be found in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook or
the Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual.

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(2b) Duct Fitting Losses: Each tting also will have a friction loss associated with its construction. In
order to nd these ction losses, the engineer will need the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook or the
Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual. Duct ttings losses are dependent on the type of tting and
the velocity of the air through the tting. The type of tting will have a corresponding K-factor or C-
Coe cient, which can be found in the ASHRAE of Fundamentals book and some typical tting losses
are also shown in the Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual. The K-factor or C-Coe cient is the
multiplied by the velocity pressure in order to get the pressure loss due to the duct tting. Remember
that the velocity is found by rst converting the rectangular or oval duct to equivalent diameter, then
calculating the area.

(2c) Miscellaneous Equipment Friction Losses: In a duct system, there are also miscellaneous
equipment losses due to di erent types of equipment, like lters, fans, di users, registers and grilles.
The friction losses are given by the equipment manufacturer for di erent velocities and ow rates.

Fan Curves
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The fan curve is graph depicting the various points that the fan can operate. It indicates the amount of
CFM the fan will provide at a given total static pressure, which is dependent on the connected ducted
system. Fans should be selected to operate at the stable region. The stable region is the area on the fan
curve where there is a single ow rate [CFM] value for ever pressure value. In the unstable region, a
pressure value can have multiple CFM values, which will cause the fan system to surge. The stable
region also has very little change in CFM for large changes in total pressure.

The second curve that works in conjunction with the fan curve is the system resistance curve. This curve
is summation of all the friction losses in the ducting system at varying CFM's. Typically, the friction
losses are summed up at the design CFM values, then this design point is connected to the 0,0 point by
an upward sloping square polynomial curve, as shown below. If for example, the ducting system has a
closed damper or dirty lter, this will cause the curve to shift to the left. If a damper is opened or the
dirty lter is cleaned then the curve will shift to the right.

Combining the system curve with the selected fan curve, determines the operating point of the fan
system, indicated in the gure below in green. Following the vertical line down determines the CFM and
the horizontal line from that point indicates the operating total pressure. During system operation as
dampers close, the system curve shifts toward the right in red. This movement decreases the amount
of CFM delivered by the fan. The opposite occurs as dampers open in the system, the amount of CFM
delivered by the fan increases.

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It has been shown that the amount of CFM blown by a fan can be changed by shifting the system
resistance curve. However, the volumetric ow rate can also be changed by changing the speed of the
fan, which shifts the fan curve.

Fan A nity Laws


Often times a fans speed or impeller diameter will be changed. If the fan is a centrifugal fan, then the
change in performance of the fan can be predicted quickly through the a nity laws.

First if the impeller diameter is held constant and the speed of the fan is changed, then ow rate varies
directly with the speed, available pressure varies with the square of the speed and the power use varies
with the cube of the speed.

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Second if the speed is held constant and the impeller diameter of the fan is changed, then ow rate
varies directly with the diameter, available pressure varies with the diameter of the speed and the
power use varies with the cube of the diameter.

Multiple Fans
FANS IN PARALLEL

A parallel arrangement of fans is characterized by the same pressure increase across each fan and the
total ow is the sum of ows through each individual fan. In the gure below, the total ow is shown as
x1 + x2 + x3, where xn is the ow through fan n. The resulting total pressure is equal to each
individual fan pressure, since they are all the same

FANS IN SERIES

Fans in series are characterized by the same ow across each fan and the total pressure increase is the
sum of the pressure increase through each individual fan. In the gure on the following page, the total
ow is shown simply as y, which is consistent throughout each fan. The resulting total pressure is equal

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to sum of each fans individual pressure increase, y1 + y2 + y3, where yn is the resulting fan pressure
increase at fan n.

Coil Systems
In the HVAC and Refrigeration eld, cooling and heating coils are used to exchange heat to/from air to a
heat exchange uid. A heat exchange uid is own through the coil and as air is passed over the coil,
the air is either heated or cooled. Coils consist of a metal box framing, which holds a series of copper
tubes in staggered rows and columns.

The amount of heat that is transferred is related to the amount of surface area that the air is in contact
with. In order to increase surface area, the size of the tubes may be decreased and more tubes can be
provided, the number of rows increased or the amount of ns per inch are increased. Aluminum or
copper ns are provided on each tube to increase the amount of surface area. Coils are rated by the
height of the ns and the number of ns per inch.

Cooling and Heating Coil Fluids There are several di erent types of heat exchange uids used in
cooling/heating coils.

Refrigerant: Hot refrigerant gas or cool refrigerant liquid can be used in a coil to provide either heating
or cooling. In a heating-coil, cool air is passed over a coil containing hot gas. Heat is exchanged to the
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cool air, which warms the air. The heat lost by the refrigerant gas causes it to condense to a liquid. In a
cooling-coil, warm air is passed over a coil containing cool refrigerant liquid. Heat is exchanged to the
cool refrigerant liquid, causing it to evaporate. The warm air loses heat, thereby decreasing the air
temperature.

Water: Chilled water or hot water can be used in a coil to provide either heating or cooling. The air
temperature is either raised or lowered as heat is transferred to raise or lower the temperature of the
chilled or hot water.

Steam: Steam can be provided to a coil to provide heating. Steam enters the coil and as the air passes
over the coil its air temperature increases. As the steam loses heat, it condenses to its liquid form.

Cooling and Heating Coil Terms

It is important to be able to understand the following terms, (1a) Apparatus Dew Point or (1b) E ective
Surface Temperature and the (2) Contact Factor

Apparatus Dew Point or E ective Surface Temperature is the temperature at which all air would be
cooled to if the cooling coil was 100% e ective. The ADP must be located on the saturation curve, refer
to the psychrometric chart below. The ADP, leaving coil conditions and the entering coil conditions are
located on the same line.

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How close the leaving coil condition is to the apparatus dew point is a function of the contact factor.
The bypass factor describes the percentage of air that is not cooled to the ADP. The air that is
bypassed remains unchanged from the entering coil conditions. The bypass factor is a function of the
air ow, number of rows, surface temperature, number of ns per inch, height of ns and many other
construction attributes of coils. The origin of the bypass factor is not important, but the use of the
bypass factor in calculations is important. The bypass factor can be found through the use of (a)
enthalpy, (b) dry bulb temperature or (c) humidity ratio. The contact factoris the inverse of the bypass
factor. It describes the amount of air that is contact with the coil and that is cooled to the ADP.

(De)Humidi cation Systems


In the HVAC and Refrigeration eld, humidi cation and dehumidi cation systems are used to transfer
moisture to/from the air. These types of systems are sized based on the amount of moisture, measured
in pounds of water per hour that is added or removed to the air.

Humidi ers

Humidi ers are used to add moisture to air typically in order to achieve the best conditions for human
occupancy. In dry areas, low humidity causes moisture to evaporate from peoples skin, creating the
feeling that it is much colder than the dry bulb temperature indicates. Other times humidi ers are used
to maintain best humidity levels for equipment or produce.

There are two main types of humidi ers, (1) Steam and (2) Evaporative humidi ers.

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(1) Steam Humidi ers, also known as isothermal humidi ers, add moisture to air without the change in
dry bulb temperature, hence isothermal humidi er. Steam is created through an external means like a
gas red boiler or electric boiler. Then the steam is typically directly injected into the air stream. It is
common to assume that the temperature of the air will rise since steam is 212 F. However, it is
important to think of steam as water vapor and as it is added to air, it will correspond to an upward
movement on the psychrometric chart [Pt 1 to Pt 2].

(2) Evaporative Humidi ers, also known as adiabatic humidi ers, add moisture to air without a change
in enthalpy, hence adiabatic humidi er. Evaporative humidi ers do not require an external energy
source like Steam Humidi ers. Evaporative humidi ers work by blowing dry air over water or through
water droplets. The energy to vaporize the water comes from the dry air. As the air releases heat to
vaporize the water, the air also cools. On the psychrometric chart, adiabatic humidi cation is shown as
an upward-left movement, along a constant enthalpy line. It is constant enthalpy because the enthalpy
lost to sensible cooling is gained by latent heating [humidi cation].

Evaporative humidi ers operate on the same principle as air washers, evaporative coolers and cooling
towers. These principles will be discussed in the Cooling Tower section. D

De-Humidi ers

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De-Humidi ers are used to remove moisture to air typically in order to achieve the best conditions for
human occupancy. In humid areas, high humidity causes the feeling that it is much hotter than the dry
bulb temperature indicates. Other times de-humidi ers are used to maintain best humidity levels for
equipment or produce. De-humidi ers are especially important in preventing mold and mildew from
forming.

There are two main types of de-humidi ers, (1) Condensing and (2) Desiccant de-humidi ers.

(1) Condensing de-humidi ers or cooling humidi ers work by decreasing the temperature of the
incoming air so that it is unable to hold moisture, which causes condensation. A cooling coil acts a
dehumidi er. In the Psychrometric chart below, hot, humid air enters the coil and leaves as cool air.
The amount of water vapor removed from the air is shown in red. In some cases the air is reheated in
order to lower the relative humidity and increase the dry bulb temperature.

(2) Desiccant de-humidi ers or chemical dehumidi ers use desiccants to adsorb water from air. As the
air loses its water vapor, the heat from condensing the water vapor is gained by the air stream, which
causes the air to increase its dry bulb temperature. A desiccant de-humidi er is shown as a downward-
right movement, along the constant enthalpy line (adiabatic).

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Energy Recovery Devices


An energy recovery device is an air to air heat exchanging device. In the HVAC and Refrigeration eld,
energy recovery devices are used to exchange energy from outgoing exhaust air to incoming outside
air. During the winter months the outside air is pre-heated prior to entering the air handler and during
the summer the outside air is pre-cooled.

Energy recovery devices are governed by the following equations.

The e ectiveness of an energy recovery device is de ned as the ratio of the actual heat transferred to
the maximum amount of heat that can be transferred. The e ectiveness can be rated in terms of
sensible heat transfer, latent heat transfer or total heat transfer.

The actual amount of energy transferred is found by multiplying each individual airstreams mass ow
rates by the change in conditions, whether it is a change in temperature, change in humidity or change
in total enthalpy.

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The maximum amount of energy transferred is met if the entering condition of the 1st air stream exits
the energy recovery device at the same conditions as the entering condition of the 2nd air stream.
However, if one airstream has more air ow than the other, then the smallest airstream should be
used.

There are various types of energy recovery devices listed below:

Rotary Sensible Wheel

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A rotary sensible wheel is typically a metal wheel that rotates and exchanges heat from one air stream
to another. The wheel is connected to a gear and motor, which rotates the wheel. As a section of the
wheel picks up heat from air stream, the wheel then rotates to the other air stream to move the heat to
the cooler air stream.

Rotary Enthalpy Wheel

A rotary enthalpy wheel is similar to a rotary sensible wheel, in that it has the same type of construction
and parts. But in addition, a rotary enthalpy wheel has a desiccant material that is used to absorb
moisture. A section of the wheel absorbs moisture from the more humid air stream, then rotates and
transfers the moisture to the more dry air mixture.

Wrap-Around Heat Pipe

A wrap around heat pipe is used typically in warm humid climates in spaces with a high amount of
outside air requirements. In these types of environments, warm, humid outside air is conditioned to a
low temperature in order to condense the water out of the air. A wrap-around heat pipe is used to pre-
cool the incoming warm humid outside air by transferring heat to the exiting cool supply air. This has
the e ect of providing sensible re-heat to the supply air, which also decreases the need for additional
re-heat.

The heat pipe contains a pressurized refrigerant, which proceeds through the vapor compression cycle
with the design temperatures. In the rst phase, warm air passes over the cool liquid refrigerant. This
e ectively pre-cools the outside air before it enters the main cooling coil. During this rst phase, the
liquid refrigerants gains heat, causing it to vaporize and move to the other side of the coil. In the
second phase, on the other side of the coil, the cool air passes over the warm vapor, which re-heats the
air. In addition, the warm vapor is condensed to a liquid, allowing the process to start over again.
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In this example, energy is transferred in the same air stream from the entering outside air to the
existing supply air. The heat pipe can also be used to transfer energy between two di erent air
streams. For example, it can be used between the outdoor/supply air and the return/exhaust
airstreams.

Run-Around Loop

The last energy recovery device that is explained in this section is the run-around coil. The run around
loops consists of two heat exchange coils connected by piping, a uid and a pump. A heat transfer uid,
typically water or a glycol-water mixture is pumped between the two coils. The uid transfers heat from
one air stream to the other air stream.

Econimizers
An economizer is another means of energy saving. In its simplest form it consists of two sets of
dampers, one set controlling the amount of return air that is directed either to exhaust or back to the
air handler and a second set controlling the amount of outside air routed to the air handler.

Cooling Season: When the outside air (OAIR) has a lower enthalpy than the return air (RAIR), then the
OAIR is directed to the coils and the RAIR is routed to the exhaust. By routing the lower enthalpy air
(OAIR), the coil requires less energy to provide cooling. If the enthalpy of the RAIR is lower than the
OAIR, then the RAIR is routed to the coil and only the minimum amount of OAIR is routed to the coil.
OAIR is still required in order to maintain the proper amounts of fresh air to the occupants.

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Pumps
The main focus of the pump section is to help the engineer develop an understanding of the major
skills and concepts needed for the PE exam. These concepts include (1) determining total head, (2)
determining net positive suction head, (3) reading pump curves, (4) using a nity laws. However, in
order to focus on these skills and concepts, the engineer will require a brief introduction on pumps,
types of pumps and how they work.

There are three main types of pumps, centrifugal, rotary and reciprocating pumps. Rotary and
reciprocating pumps are positive displacement pumps. This document will not cover positive
displacement pumps in detail because they are not typically used in the HVAC and Refrigeration eld.
Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pumps used in HVAC and Refrigeration. The following
information is tailored to centrifugal pumps and should not be applied freely to positive displacement
pumps.

Centrifugal pumps operate on the principle of "centrifugal force", which is the conversion of rotational
kinetic energy imparted by rotating impellers onto the uid to produce a ow rate (kinetic energy) at a
certain pressure (pressure energy). Fluid enters the pump at the center or eye of the impeller, there the
rotating impellers push the uid to the outer edges, imparting a ow rate and pressure. See Figures 1
and 2 for a diagram of the uid ow.

There are various types of centrifugal pumps, but there are two main families of centrifugal pumps are
(1) end suction pumps [refer to Figure 1] and (2) in-line pumps [refer to Figure 2]. These two families
di er on the path the water takes from the inlet to the outlet. In the end-suction pumps, the uid
enters the pump at the impeller and exits the pump at a 90 degree angle from the inlet. The in-line
pumps have parallel inlets and outlets.

Within each family are horizontal versus vertical pumps, which are characterized by the orientation of
the pump shaft as either horizontal or vertical. In addition, pumps can be further classi ed by the
number of stages that the uid proceeds through. Finally the last classi cation is how the pump is
connected to the motor. Pumps can be long-coupled where the pump is connected to the motor by a

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exible coupling or they can be close-coupled where the connection between the pump and motor is
through a rigid coupling.

Total Pump Head


In order to properly select a type of pump, the engineer must know which type is most applicable to the
situation. Sizing a pump depends on two criteria, (1) the ow rate and the (2) total dynamic head. The
ow rate is determined by the needs of the HVAC and Refrigeration system. The pump may be a chilled
water pump serving several air handlers, so the ow rate (GPM) can be found by adding up the design
ow rates to the air handlers and any diversity required. The (2) second criteria is the total dynamic
head. Determining total head is a must-have skill for the aspiring professional engineer.

Pump Selection:(1)GPM and (2)TDH [total dynamic head]

Total head or total dynamic head is the total equivalent height of water that a uid must be pumped
against.

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Head is a unit of pressure and has the units of feet of head, which is the total pressure exerted by a
certain amount of feet of a water column.

Total head can be broken up into the following components, (1) Static head or Elevation Di erence
between the inlet and the outlet of a piping system (2) Friction loss. In a closed system, both static
(elevation) head and friction loss are present. However, in a closed system there is no elevation
di erence, the beginning and the end of the piping system are the same, therefore there is no elevation
di erence. Refer to the following gures, which describe the di erent pressure losses in a open and
closed system./

The typical example of an open system in the HVAC and Refrigeration eld is the condenser water
system serving a cooling tower. The pump moves the condenser water from the cooling tower basin
through piping, then the chiller and back to the top of the cooling tower. The pump must provide a total
dynamic head to account for the (1) Static [Elevation] head and (2) the Friction Head through the piping,
chiller, ttings, other equipment and appurtenances.

(1) The static head is the di erence between the inlet and the outlet. The elevation di erence between
the inlet and the pump, on the suction side of the pump is called the suction static head and the
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elevation di erence between the outlet and pump, on the discharge side is called the discharge static
head. The di erence between discharge and suction static head is the static/elevation head that the
pump must pump against.

(2) Friction head. Friction head consists of pressure losses due to equipment like chillers, cooling
towers, lters, strainers, heat exchangers, air handlers, etc. The amount of friction head from these
pieces of equipment are provided by the manufacturer and are typically provided in a table format with
total friction head or pressure loss for the equipment versus the ow rate. Friction head also consists of
pressure losses due to the piping and the various ttings like elbows, tees, valves, etc. Calculating
friction had due to piping will be discussed later in this section.

The typical example of a closed system in the HVAC and Refrigeration eld is the chilled water system
serving the air handlers and chillers. The pump moves chilled water to and from the chiller and through
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the air handlers. The pump must provide a total dynamic head to account for only the Friction Head
through the piping, chiller, ttings, other equipment and appurtenances. There is no static/elevation
head because the system is closed.

Friction Loss: Friction loss is found through the use of either the Darcy Weisbach equation or the
Hazen-Williams equation. The Darcy Weisbach equation is slightly more involved and will be explained
below, starting with the equation.h

During the exam, in order to quickly complete a friction loss question using the Darcy Weisbach, the
aspiring professional engineer must have the necessary tools readily available to nd the values
necessary to complete the equation. These include the following, 1) Inner Diameter tables of common
pipe materials and sizes, 2) Flow unit conversions, 3) Inner Area table of common pipe materials and
sizes, 4) Kinematic viscosity tables of common uids at various temperatures and 5) the Moody
Diagram. 1) Inner Diameter Table of Common Pipe Materials

Collect inner diameter [ft] tables of schedule 40/80 steel [Pipe sizes to 30"], type K, L, and M copper
tubing [Pipe sizes to 6"] and schedule 40/80 PVC [Pipe sizes to 30"]. Provide inner diameters in feet for
ease in using the Darcy Weisbach Equation.

2) GPM to FT^3/sec Conversion Factor

Multiply GPM by 1/448.83 to get (FT^3)/sec.

3) Inner Area Table of Common Pipe Materials

Collect inner area [ft^2] tables of schedule 40/80 steel [Pipe sizes to 30"], type K, L, and M copper tubing
[Pipe sizes to 6"] and schedule 40/80 PVC [Pipe sizes to 30"]. Provide inner areas in feet^2 for ease in
nding the velocities through the pipes.

4) Kinematic Viscosity Tables [used to get Reynolds number which leads to the friction factor]

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5) Pipe Roughness

Collect pipe roughness factors for common pipe materials, steel, PVC, copper, etc.

6) Moody Diagram: The Moody diagram uses the Reynold's number and the relative roughness factor
to determine the friction factor. The relative roughness factor is found by rst nding the roughness
value corresponding to the pipe material. Then dividing the roughness factor by the inner diameter of
the pipe. Ensure that the roughness factor and the diameter are in the same units. The Reynold's
number is found by multiplying the velocity of the uid through the pipe by the diameter of the pipe
and dividing by the kinematic viscosity of the uid. Once these two values are found (a) Relative
Roughness and (b) Reynold's Number, then the friction factor can be found by nding the intersection
of the vertical Reynold's number line shown in black and the Relative Roughness factor curves shown in
red.

Step 1: Find relative roughness factor, step 2: nd intersection of reynold's number and relative
roughness factor. step 3: read corresponding friction factor.

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Net Positive Suction Head


The professional engineer must be able to properly determine net positive suction head in order to
avoid cavitation. Cavitation occurs when the suction pressure (head) is less than the vapor pressure of
the water. If the suction pressure is lower than the vapor pressure, then small vapor bubbles form and
when these bubbles reach the pump where the pressure is increases, the bubbles implode causing
damage to the impellers and other parts of the pump. This is what is known as cavitation.

Suction head is de ned as the pressure at the inlet of the pump and net positive suction head is the
di erence between the suction head at the inlet and the vapor pressure of the water at the inlet of the
pump.

Net Positive Suction Head Available=Suction Head_(inlet of pump)-Vapor Pressure_water

Net positive suction head is the total amount of head or pressure at the inlet of the pump. This value is
found by determining all the pressures acting upon the uid whether positive or negative. The
following gure best describes all the pressures that can be acting upon a pump.

(1) P_abs: This pressure refers to the absolute pressure acting on the uid. If the tank is pressurized,
then the value is pre-determined. If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then the pressure is equal to 1

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atmosphere [atm] or 14.7 psia or 33.9 ft of water.

(2) P_elev: This pressure identi es the elevation di erence between the top surface of the liquid and
the pump centerline. This value can be positive or negative and is measured in ft of head.

(3) P_fric: The friction pressure or head is the amount of pressure lost due to friction in the piping,
ttings, equipment, valves, etc. leading from the uid source to the pump.

(4) P_vel: The velocity head pressure is the pressure due to the owing liquid.

(5) P_suction: Finally, all of the pressures leading to the pump are summed and the resulting value is
the suction pressure at the pump.

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The vapor pressure of the water is found by simply looking up water (or pumping uid) tables and
nding the vapor pressure at the operating temperature. In the HVAC and Refrigeration eld, water is
the most common uid used in pumping systems and a table of corresponding vapor pressure and
temperatures are shown below.

From the table above, it can be seen that as the temperature of the water increases, the pressure at
which vaporization will occur also increases. Thus cavitation becomes even more critical at higher
temperatures.

Pump Curve
Pump curves are created by the manufacturers of the pumps through a series of tests and describe the
operating points for a speci c impeller diameter and pump type. The curve plots the corresponding
ow rates at varying pressures

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Pump A nity Laws


It is often necessary to determine how a pump will operate under di ering operating conditions. The
operating conditions of a pump that can most readily be changed are the impeller diameter and the
rotational speed of the pump. In order to predict how the pump will behave prior to changing the
speed or the impeller diameter.

The rst a nity law is that the ow rate (Q) is directly proportional to the size of the diameter of the
pump impeller (D) and/or the rotational speed (N) of the pump.

The second a nity law is that the total head (H) is directly proportional to the square of the size of the
diameter of the pump impeller (D) and/or the square of the rotational speed (N) of the pump.

The third a nity law is that the power (P) is directly proportional to the cube of the size of the diameter
of the pump impeller (D) and/or the cube of the rotational speed (N) of the pump.

Insulation
Insulation is provided in HVAC and Refrigeration systems on pipes, ducts, walls and roofs. The primary
purpose of the insulation is to limit heat transfer. For example, in chilled water pipes, insulation is
provided to limit heat transfer to the chilled water and to keep the water cold. In hot air ducts,
insulation is provided to limit heat loss to the surrounding areas.

Insulation is characterized by its ability to conduct heat transfer and is rated by either a k-value, U-
factor or an R-value. K-values are often used when rating pipe, duct or equipment insulation where R-
values and U-factors are typically used to describe roof and wall insulation. Please refer to the Heat
Transfer section for more detail on insulation for roofs and walls. This section primarily deals with
insulation for pipes and ducts, speci cally being able to determine the insulation requirements for a
pipe or duct, in order to (1) Control Surface Temperature.

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Controlling Surface Temperature: One important skill that the professional engineer must attain is to
be able to determine the insulation required to keep the surface temperature of a pipe, duct, wall, roof
or other piece of equipment within a set range. A common problem encountered in the HVAC and
Refrigeration eld is determining the required insulation for a chilled water pipe in order to stop
condensation from forming on the surface.

The governing equation for this problem is that the heat transfer from the chilled water pipe through
the insulation and to the outer surface is equal to the heat transfer from the outer surface to the
ambient air.

Cooling Towers
Cooling towers are mechanical pieces of equipment that function on the principle of evaporative
cooling. Evaporative cooling is the process by which a liquid is cooled to a lower temperature by
evaporating a small portion of the liquid into an airstream. Relatively dry air moves through a falling
liquid and as the air moves it picks up water vapor from the liquid, thereby increasing the airs moisture
content. In order for the liquid to evaporate, the liquid needs a heat source to meet the latent heat of
vaporization. This heat source is the sensible heat loss from the remaining liquid.

A cooling tower consists of two uid ows, the air ow and the water ow. The water ow starts from
the top of the cooling tower. Warm water is pumped to a series of nozzles. The nozzles purpose is to

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break up the water into tiny droplets to increase the surface area of the water that is in contact with the
air stream. The droplets then fall through a ll material, which also serves to break up the droplets
further to increase the surface area of the water. As the water moves downward it steadily decreases in
temperature as heat is lost due to evaporation. Finally the water collects at the basin and is sucked out
distributed to its required location.

The air ow starts at the bottom of the tower, where cold dry air is brought into the cooling tower
where it comes into contact with the water droplets. As the air moves upward through the tower it
picks up water vapor and slightly increases in temperature. Prior to exiting the cooling tower, the air
must travel through the drift eliminators which is a series of ba es. The purpose of the drift
eliminators is to catch any suspended water droplets in the air stream and return them to the ll.

CHARACTERIZING COOLING TOWERS

The following section provides information on the di erent types of cooling towers used in the HVAC
and Refrigeration eld. This information is merely provided to give the engineer additional background
on cooling towers.

Mechanical vs. Natural Draft Cooling Towers:

There are two main categories of cooling towers: (1) Mechanical draft and (2) Natural draft cooling
towers. Natural draft cooling towers move air based on the di erence in buoyancy of the airstream
inside and outside of the cooling tower. Mechanical draft cooling towers move air through the cooling
tower by means of a mechanical fan. In the HVAC and Refrigeration eld, mechanical draft cooling
towers are the primary type of cooling tower.

Induced vs. Forced Draft Cooling Towers:

Induced and forced draft cooling towers are both mechanical draft type fans and di er by the location
of their fan. Forced draft fans blow air into the cooling tower and are located at the airstream entrance
into the cooling tower. Induced draft cooling towers on the other hand, have the fans located at the exit
of the airstream for the cooling tower and suck air into the cooling tower.

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Counter- ow vs. Cross- ow Cooling Towers:

Counter- ow and cross- ow cooling towers are characterized by the relationship between the air ow
and water ow. In a counter ow tower the air and water ow are at 90 degrees to each other. The
water is falling downwards and the air is moving across from either left to right or right to left. In a
cross- ow tower, the air and water ows have directly opposing directions. The water is falling
downwards and the air is moving upwards.

The following gure is a schematic of a forced mechanical draft, counter ow cooling tower. The fans
are located at the air inlets, near the bottom of the cooling tower. Also the air ow counters the water
as the water drops downward through the ll material.

The following gure is a schematic of a forced mechanical draft, cross ow cooling tower. Since this
cooling tower is forced draft, the fans are again located at the inlet of the cooling tower near the
bottom. The air ows counter or perpendicular to the water as the water falls downward through the
ll.

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The following gure is a schematic of an induced mechanical draft, counter ow cooling tower. The fan
is located at the exit of the cooling tower and air is sucked or induced through the cooling tower. This
cooling tower is also a counter ow type, where air ows upward through the ll and counters the
downward moving water droplets.

The following gure is a schematic of an induced mechanical draft, cross ow cooling tower. Again the
fan is located at the exit of the cooling tower. This cooling tower is a cross ow cooling tower, where air
ows perpendicular through the ll as it crosses the falling water droplets.

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Cooling Tower Performance


The professional engineer must be able to properly design and size and select a cooling tower to t the
HVAC and Refrigeration application. Cooling towers are characterized by two terms the approach and
the range. The range of the cooling tower is the di erence between the entering and exiting
temperatures of the cooling tower water.

Range=T_(water,in)-T_(water,out)

The approach or approach to wet bulb is the temperature di erence between the water out and the
wet bulb temperature of the air.

Approach=T_(water,out)-T_(air in,WB)

The approach is important because it describes the level of performance of the cooling tower. The
smaller the approach the better the cooling tower is at providing cooling. The wet bulb temperature of
the entering air is the lowest the temperature of the exiting water can reach. If a cooling tower has a 0
degree approach then the cooling tower is using all of the available heat exchange from the air to cool
the water. Typical approaches are in the range of ~10 F.

Approach also leads to another important term in determining the performance of cooling towers,
called e ectiveness. E ectiveness is a term used to describe how e ective the cooling tower is at
cooling the water or how close the actual temperature di erence between the water temperatures in
and out is to the maximum temperature di erence. The maximum temperature di erence that a
cooling tower can produce is the di erence between the water temperature in and the air wet bulb
temperature.

E ectiveness=Range/(Range+ Approach)

The range is important because when used in conjunction with the water ow rate, the capacity of the
cooling tower can be found. The capacity and the amount of cooling provided by the cooling tower are
found by multiplying the ow rate of the cooling water by the di erence in temperature at the inlet and

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outlet of the cooling tower, using the following equation, Q = mcT and for a simpli ed equation to use
during the test, follow the derivation below.

Cooling Tower Water Loss and Make-up

In a cooling tower, water is lost due to multiple sources such as evaporation, drift and blow-down. The
rst term, evaporation, is calculated through the following equation, where the assumption is made
that the total heat loss is due to the heat loss through evaporation.

The second water loss is due to drift. Drift is the amount of water that is carried out through the
airstream. Drift eliminators provided prior to the discharge are best described as a maze of ba es that
the air must travel through before exiting to atmosphere. The drift eliminator trap the water droplets
that get picked up by the exiting air and send the droplets back to the ll material. Typical water loss
due to drift is less than 0.2%.

The third major source of water loss is due to blow-down. Blow-down is required because as water is
evaporated it leaves behind the total dissolved solids (TDS), which increases the concentration of the
TDS in the water. In order to bring the concentration of the TDS back to normal conditions so that it
may be used safely with the equipment, the high concentrated TDS water is drained regularly and this

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