Chapter 2

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemistry, The Central Science, 14th
edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay,
Jr.; and Bruce E. Bursten

Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 John Dalton (1766-1844)
Dalton is the Father
of Atomic Theory
Daltons ideas were
so brilliant that they
have remained
essentially intact up
to the present time
and has only been
slightly corrected. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Theory of Matter

The concept that atoms are the

fundamental building blocks of matter was
reemerged in the early 19th century,
championed by John Dalton.

Atoms,
Molecules,
2009, Prentice-
and Ions
Hall, Inc.
 Dalton's Postulates

1. All matter is composed of

extremely small particles called
atoms.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Dalton's Postulates
2. All atoms of a given element are
identical, having the same:
- size
- mass
- chemical properties.
.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Dalton's Postulates
3. All atoms of different
elements are different.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Daltons Postulates
4. Atoms cannot be created,
divided into smaller particles,
or destroyed.
In a chemical reaction, atoms of
different elements are separated,
joined or rearranged. They are
never changed into the atoms of
another element.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Daltons Postulates

5.Atomscombine in definite
whole number ratios to make
compounds
(you cant have a of a Carbon bonding with
Oxygen; its a whole atom or no atom)
.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Law of Conservation of Mass

The total mass of substances

present at the end of a chemical
process is the same as the mass of
substances present before the
process took place.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Discovery of Electron

Streams of negatively charged particles

were found to exit from cathode tubes.Atoms,
J. J. Thompson is credited with their and Ions
Molecules,
 The Electron
Thompson used a magnetic field to bend the cathod
rays.
The amount the cathode ray bent from the straight
line (using the magnetic field) allowed Thomson to
calculate the e/m ratio= 1.76 108 coulombs/g.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Millikan Discovery
Robert Millikan determined the charge on
the electron to be :
qe=-1.60 10- 19 coulombs.
For convenience, this charge is expressed as
-1 which is -1 x qe

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Electron Mass
Using the results of Thomson and
Millikan The electron is determined
to be:
m= 9.10938 x 10-20g.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Radioactivity:
The spontaneous emission of radiation
by an a radioactive atom.
First observed by Henri Becquerel and
also studied by Marie and Pierre
Curie.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Radioactivity
Three types of radiation were
discovered by Ernest Rutherford:
particles (
particles
rays

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Rutherford Experiment

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 The Nuclear Atom
Since some
particles were
deflected at large
angles, and some
went through

Atoms,
Molecules,
2009, Prentice-
and Ions
Hall, Inc.
 The Nuclear Atom
Rutherford postulated a very small,
dense nucleus with the electrons
around the outside of the atom.
Most of the volume of the atom is
empty space.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Other Subatomic Particles
Protons were discovered by
Rutherford in 1919.
Neutrons were discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Subatomic Particles
Protons and electrons are the only particles that
have a charge.
Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass.
The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
1 amu = 1.66054 x 1024 g.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Symbols of Elements

Elements are symbolized by one or two

letters.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Number

All atoms of the same element have the

same number of protons:
The atomic number (Z)

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Mass

The mass of an atom in atomic mass units

(amu) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atom.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Isotopes:
Atoms of the same element with different
masses.
Isotopes have different numbers of
neutrons.
11 12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C 6 C

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Isotopes of Hydrogen

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic weight
Atomic weight (AW) is also known
as average atomic mass (atomic
weight).
Atomic weights are listed on the
periodic table.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic weight

Atomic and molecular masses can be

measured with great accuracy with a
mass spectrometer.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Average Mass
Because in the real world we use
large amounts of atoms and
molecules, we use average masses
in calculations.
Average mass is calculated from the
isotopes of an element weighted by
their relative abundances.

Atoms,
Molecules,
2009, Prentice-
and Ions
Hall, Inc.
 Example
Naturally occurring C consists of 98.93%
12C (12 amu) and 1.07% 13C (13.00335

amu).
The average mass of C is:
(0.9893)(12 amu) + (0.0107)(13.00335
amu) = 12.01 amu.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table

The periodic
table is used to
organize the
elements in a
meaningful way.

Rows in the periodic table are called periods.

Columns in the periodic table are called groups.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table
Several numbering conventions are used (i.e.,
groups may be numbered from 1 to 18, or from
1A to 8A and 1B to 8B).
Some of the groups in the periodic table are
given special names.
These names indicate the similarities between
group members.
Examples:
Group 1A: alkali metals
Group 2A: alkaline earth metals
Group 7A: halogens
Group 8A: noble gases
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table
The rows on the
periodic chart are
periods.
Columns are
groups.
Elements in the
same group have
similar chemical
properties.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Groups

These five groups are known by their

names.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Non Metals

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Non Metals

Nonmetals are brittle, poor conductors

of both heat and electricity, and tend to
gain electrons in chemical reactions.
Nonmetals tend to be gases, liquids or
solids

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Metalloids

Metalloids
border the
step-like line

Elements with properties similar to both metals and

nonmetals are called metalloids
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Metalloids
Metalloids, such as Si and Ge, are
useful in semi-conductors. This
property makes metalloids useful in
electronic components.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Metals

Metals are on the left side of the chart.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Metals
Metals are solid (with the exception of
mercury, Hg, a liquid).
Metals are shiny, good conductors of
electricity and heat.
Metals are ductile (they can be drawn into
thin wires).
Metals malleable (they can be easily
hammered into very thin sheets).
All these metals tend to lose electrons
easily.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
A molecule consists of two or more
atoms bound tightly together.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemical Formulas
Each molecule has a
chemical formula.
The chemical formula
indicates :
1. which atoms are found in
the molecule
2. in what proportion they are
found.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds
are composed of
molecules and almost
always contain only
nonmetals.
A molecule made up
of two atoms is called
a diatomic
molecule.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Diatomic Molecules

These seven elements occur naturally as

molecules containing two atoms.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Allotropes
Different forms of an element, which
have different chemical formulas, are
known as allotropes. Allotropes
differ in their chemical and physical
properties.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Allotropes
Examples:
Oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3).
The two most common, naturally
occurring allotropes of carbon are
C(graphite) and C(diamond).
S and S8

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Molecular Formulas
These formulas give the actual
numbers and types of atoms in a
molecule.
Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2O2,
O2, O3, and C2H4.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Empirical formulas
Empirical formulas give the lowest
whole-number ratio of atoms of each
element in a compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Example
A compound is analyzed and found
to contain 68.54% carbon, 8.63%
hydrogen, and 22.83% oxygen. The
molecular weight of this compound is
known to be approximately 140
g/mol. What is the empirical
formula? What is the molecular
formula?

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 carbon: 68.54 / 12.011 = 5.71 mol
hydrogen: 8.63 / 1.008 = 8.56 mol
oxygen: 22.83 / 16.00 = 1.43 mol. Divide by the
small number of moles:
carbon: 5.71 1.43 = 3.99 mol
hydrogen: 8.56 1.43 = 5.99 mol
oxygen: 1.43 1.43 = 1.00 mol
The empirical formula of the compound is C4H6O.
the molecular formula:
The molar mass of C4H6O is 70.092 g/mol.
140 70 = 2. Multiply the subscripts of the
empirical formula by 2.
Therefore, the molecular formula is C8H12O2.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Combustion Analysis
Apparatus for Combustion
Analysis

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Combustion Analysis
A compound containing carbon
and hydrogen (CaHb) or carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen (CaHbOc) is
burned completely to form H2O and
CO2. The products are drawn through
two tubes. The first tube absorbs
water, and the second tube absorbs
carbon dioxide.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Example

17.471 g of Trioxane is burned in the

combustion apparatus, and 10.477 g
H2O and 25.612 g CO2 are formed.
What is the empirical formula?.If the
molecular mass of Trioxane is 90.079
what is the molecular formula?

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Determine the mass in grams of the
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in
17.471 g of trioxane
Because we assume that all the
carbon in Trioxane has reacted to
form in CO2, we can find mass of
carbon in 25.612 g CO2.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
.

? g O = 17.471 g trioxane - 6.9899 g C - 1.1724 g H = 9.309 g O

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Picturing Molecules
The structural formula shows
how atoms are connected to
each in the molecule

Molecules occupy three-

dimensional space.

We often represent them in

two dimensions.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ions

When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.

Cations are positive and are formed by elements on
the left side of the periodic chart.
Anions are negative and are formed by elements on
the right side of the periodic chart.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Predicting Ionic Charges

An atom or molecule can lose more than

one electron (transition metals).
Many atoms gain or lose enough electrons
to have the same number of electrons as
the nearest noble gas (group 8A).
The number of electrons that an atom
loses is related to its position on the
periodic table.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ionic Bonds
Transfer of electrons between species. They are
generally formed between metals and nonmetals
Example:NaCl can be formed by the transfer of an
electron from Na to Cl. By losing an electron Na and Cl
become Na+ and Cl respectively .
The Na+ and Cl ions are attracted to form an ionic
NaCl lattice, which crystallizes.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Writing Formulas For Ionic
Compound
Writing formulas for ionic compounds:
You need to know the ions of which it is
composed.
The formula must reflect the electrical
neutrality of the compound.
You must combine cations and anions in a
ratio so that the total positive charge is
equal to the total negative charge.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Example

Because compounds are electrically

neutral, one can determine the formula
of a compound this way:
The charge on the cation becomes the
subscript on the anion.
The charge on the anion becomes the
subscript on the cation.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Common Cations

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Common Anions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Chemical nomenclature
Chemical nomenclature is the
naming of substances.
Chemical compound are divided into
organic compounds (those containing
C, usually in combination with H, O,
N, or S) and inorganic compounds
(all other compounds).

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and Formulas of
Ionic Compounds

Positive Ions (Cations)

Cations formed from a metal have the
same name as the metal.
Example: Na+ = sodium ion..
If the metal can form more than one
cation, then the charge is indicated in
parentheses in the name.
Examples: Cu+ = copper(I) ion;
Cu 2+ = copper(II) ion.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and Formulas of
Ionic Compounds
Positive ions:
An alternative nomenclature method uses
the endings -ous and -ic to represent the
lower and higher charged ions,
respectively.
Examples: Cu+ = cuprous ion; Cu2+ =
cupric ion.
Cations formed from nonmetals end in -
ium.
Examples: NH4+ = ammonium ion;
H3O+ = hydronium ion. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and Formulas of
Ionic Compounds
Negative Ions (Anions)
Monatomic anions (with only one atom)
use the ending -ide.
Example: Cl is the chloride ion.
Some polyatomic anions also use the -ide
ending:
Examples: hydroxide, cyanide ions,

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and Formulas of
Ionic Compounds
Polyatomic anions (with many
atoms) containing oxygen are called
oxyanions.
Their names end in -ate or -ite.
(The one with more oxygen is called
-ate.)

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Patterns in Oxyanion
Nomenclature
When there are two oxyanions
involving the same elements:
The one with fewer oxygens ends in -it
NO2 : nitrite; SO32 : sulfite
The one with more oxygens ends in -ate
NO3 : nitrate; SO42 : sulfate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Inorganic Nomenclature

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Oxyanion Nomenclature
When there are more than two oxyanions involving the same
elements: ClO-, ClO2- , ClO3-, ClO4-
The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo-
and ends in -ite
ClO : hypochlorite ions
The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in ate
ClO4 : perchlorate ions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Acid Nomenclature
If the anion ends in ide,, change the
ending to -ic acid and add the prefix
hydro
HCl: hydrochloric acid
HBr hydrobromic acid

If the anion ends in ate change the ending to -ic

acid
HNO3 nitric acid
-HClO3 chloric acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Acid Nomenclature

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Acid Nomenclature
If the anion ends in ate change the ending to -ic acid
HNO3 nitric acid
-HClO3 chloric acid
If the anion ends in ite change the ending to -ous acid
HNO2 nitrous acid
-HClO2 chlorous acid
-HClO hypchlorous acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Molecular
Compounds

The less electronegative

atom is usually listed first.
A prefix is used to denote
the number of atoms of
each element in the
compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
The ending on the more
electronegative element is
changed to -ide.
CO2: carbon dioxide
CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
P2S5 Diphosphorous Pentasulfide

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Molecular
Compounds

If the prefix ends with a or o and

the name of the element begins
with a vowel, the two successive
vowels are often elided into one:

N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Simple Organic Compounds
Organic chemistry is the study of
carbon-containing compounds.
Organic compounds are those that
contain carbon and hydrogen, often
in combination with other elements
such as S , O. N..

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Alkanes
Compounds containing only carbon
and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons.
~more than 30 million chemical
compounds are known
95% are compounds made of
carbons

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Simple Organic Compounds
Able to bond strongly to other carbon
atoms
Forms long chains
Very few other elements can form
short chains
Capable of forming ring structures
Bonds strongly to other elements
In particular, H, O, and N
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons in which
carbon is linked to 4 hydrogen by
single bonds (i.e. they are saturated
compounds.
Saturated hydrocarbons can be:
linear (general formula CnH2n+2),
branched (general formula CnH2n+2,
n>3
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Condensed structural formulas: show how
many H are attached to each C
CH3-CH3 for ethane
Structural formulas show how atoms are
bonded together Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Isomerism
Isomers: compounds with same molecular
formula but different structural formulas
Differences in structure may give rise to
differences in chemical and physical properties

n-propyl alcohol; I, isopropyl alcohol; II, methyl-ethyl-ether; III

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Other EXample of Isomers
C5H12
pentane

Isopentane

Neopentane Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Properties of Alkanes
Odorless or mild odor, colorless,
tasteless, nontoxic
Nonpolar, insoluble in water but
soluble in nonpolar organic solvents,
less dense than water and flammable

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Properties of Alkanes
Main property: will burn

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Reactions of Alkanes

Combustion
The reaction of an alkane with oxygen is
called combustion.Carbon dioxide and
water are the products of complete
combustion of any hydrocarbon, and a
large amount of heat is released.

When hydrocarbon combustion is

incomplete, carbon monoxide and carbon-
containing soot are among the products.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Reactions of Alkanes
Halogenation
Halogenation is the replacement of an alkane
hydrogen by a chlorine or bromine initiated by
heat or light.
Halogenation is used to prepare a number of key
industrial solvents, as well as other molecules
that are used for the preparation of other larger
organic molecules.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Carbon atom chains in form of rings
Can be represented by structural
formulas or symbolic representations

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Can have more H atoms added

Alkene: hydrocarbon that
contains one or more C-to-C
double bonds
General formula of CnH2n
Simplest: ethylene, C2H4

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Alkyne: hydrocarbon that
contains one or more C-to-
C triple bonds
General formula ofCnH2n2
Simplest: acetylene, C2H2

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Properties of Alkenes and
Alkynes
Similar physical properties to alkanes
Undergo more reactions than alkanes:
Addition reaction: add compounds
across double bond
Importantly, they can form polymers

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of chemical
substances which are characterized by having
molecular structures which are called benzene rings.
They possess alternating double and single bonds
between carbon atoms forming rings.
Example: Benzene: C6H6 ,
Methyl
H Benzene and Naphthalene

H H

Atoms,
Molecules,
H H
and Ions
Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
Benzene and Relatives

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/94
and Ions
 Functional Groups
Atoms or groups of atoms attached to
hydrocarbon skeletons are known as
functional groups
Functional groups are specific groups of
atoms within molecules that have very
characteristic properties regardless of the
other atoms present in a molecule.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/95
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Alkyl Group
CH2CH3, that branch off the main
chain are called alkyl groups.
Methyl group: CH3
Ethyl group: CH2CH3

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Alkyl Groups

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Alcohol Family
OH group
Replace -e with -ol
CH3OH, methanol
Produced industrially
Mainly a chemical intermediate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 C2H5OH, ethanol
Made industrially or by fermentation
Industrially produced alcohol has
noxious (harmful) substances added
Small, simple alcohols tend to be toxic

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Multifunctional Alcohols
Several common alcohols have more than
one OH group
Ethylene glycol: main ingredient in
antifreeze

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ethers
Ethers are compounds with two alkyl
groups bonded to the same oxygen.

General formula: ROR or ROR

CH3CH2OCH2CH3 is diethyl ether.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/102
and Ions
 Aldehydes and Ketones
Aldehydes and ketones are two
families of organic compounds that
contain the carbonyl (C=O) functional
group.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/103
and Ions
 Carboxylic Acids
Organic acids contain the carboxyl
(COOH) functional group.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/104
and Ions
 Carboxylic Acids
When the carboxyl group is attached
directly to the benzene ring, it is called
benzoic acid.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/105
and Ions
 Esters
Esters are derived from carboxylic acids
and alcohols o.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/106
and Ions
 Esters
Esters generally have a pleasant odor.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/107
and Ions
 Amines and Amides
Amines are derivatives of ammonia.
When one or more hydrogen of ammonia
is replaced by an alkyl group, an amine is
the result. Like ammonia, amines tend to
be basic and have similar odors.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/108
and Ions
 Amines and Amides
Aniline has an amine functional group
attached to a benzene ring.

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/109
and Ions
Amines and Amides

Atoms,
Molecules,
9/110
and Ions
 Amines and Amides
Amides have nitrogen bonded to a
carbonyl group.

The amino acids are linked by amine and

carboxylic groups. Atoms,
Molecules,
9/111
and Ions