Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Maintaining a Balance
1. Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a
simple model to describe their specificity to substrates
Enzymes:
Chemical Composition:
Enzymes are globular proteins made up of long chains of amino acids
o Proteins are large, complex macromolecules, built from a linear sequence of amino
acids. As enzymes they control the metabolic reactions of cells
o Cofactors are a non protein component of an enzyme and may be an inorganic
molecule. Often added component of enzyme to complete catalytic properties.
Prosthetic groups (permanent) or coenzymes (temporary)
o Amylase acts of starch to create glucose
.
The part of the enzyme surface which the substrate is bound and undergoes the reaction is
known as the active site.
o Catabolism single substrate molecule to be drawn into active site , breaking
chemical bonds, breaking substrate into 2 separate molecules.
o Anabolism two substrate molecules are drawn into active site, chemical bonds
form single molecule
Role
Increase rate of reaction without a change in temperature
Lower the activation energy by bringing substrate specific molecules together rather than
random collision
Act of specific substrate
Chemically unchanged but can be reused
Biological catalysts
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal
metabolic efficiency
All chemical reactions within cells must occur efficiently and be effectively co ordinate to
bring about optimal metabolic efficiency.
Enzymes are extremely sensitive to changes in their internal environment (intercellular or
interstitial fluid and cytoplasm) and any imbalance can adversely affect their function
Internal environment of an organism must be maintained within a narrow range of
conditions (temp, volume, chemical contents) so that enzymes can function effectively and
metabolic efficiency can be maintained.
o Metabolic efficiency relies on temp/pH, concentration of metabolites, water and salt
concentration and absence of toxins that may inhibit enzyme to Regulate respiratory
gases, Cope with disease and pathogens, Maintain nutrient supply and Repair injury
Homeostasis is the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable constant internal
environment, regardless of the external environmental conditions.
Variables within internal environment have a set point. If the fluctuation of these variables is
large, the stimuli is detected by receptors and a negative feedback mechanism operates to
counteract the change, returning body to homeostasis.
1. Detecting changes
2. Counteracting changes
Effector organs (such as muscles or glands) respond to change and counteract it to return to
homeostasis.
The nervous system consists of Central Nervous System (CNS) [brain and spinal cord] and Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) [sensory nerves and effectors nerves]
- The nervous system detect changes, sending neuron messages to the hypothalamus in the
brain to respond to the changes and ensure homeostasis is maintained
Receptors:
Rods and cones in the retina detect light
Hair cells in the cochlea of the ear that detect pressure waves in the cochlea fluid
Taste buds on the tongue
Olfactory receptors in nose
Mechanoreceptors, thermo receptors, pain receptors in skin
Endocrine system: consists of endocrine glands which produce hormones into the bloodstream.
Chemical message which travel through the blood, so take longer to act than nerves but their effects
are longer lasting.
Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the
narrow limits for individual species
The ambient temperature is the temperature of the environment the air, water in the immediate
surroundings on an animal.
Ectothermic: Organisms that depend on an external source the environment for heat energy
Endotherm: Remains relatively stable despite the environment, but varies metabolism.
Ectotherms- Hot tropical Frilled neck lizards will flatten their body to Dependent on the
climates- dry absorb as much sun as possible in order to exterior hot
Frilled neck forests and increase their body temperature. climate in order to
lizard woodlands Frilled neck lizards will narrow their body if regulate body
temperature.
the ambient temperature is too high or if
their own body temperature is too high. This
Varies
is performed in order to reduce their surface
dramatically
area. depending on the
Frilled neck lizards move into shades or ambient
burrows to cool down from the rising temperature
ambient temperature. The temperature in
burrows is fairly constant, which enables the
lizard to cool down. Burrows in particular
also minimise water loss which is beneficial
to the lizard.
Due to the ambient temperature being too
cold frilled neck lizards can go into a state of
torpor whereby their body shuts down for
the winter and their metabolic rate is
slowed.
Ectotherm- Dry desert - In hot temperatures, becomes active
areas in at night whilst sheltering during the
Eastern australia day
brown snake - In low temps, the snake basks in
sunlight to gain additional heat-
becomes less active by slowing down
metabolism.
- If long periods of low temperatures,
hibernates in a well sheltered spot
to retain stored food
- Temperatures above 40 may cause damage to proteins and those above 75 to chlorophyll
pigment within the plant. These responses are mostly structural and physiological
o Causes the stomata in plants to open, leading to the loss of water via transpiration.
This in turn decreases the internal temperature
o However this can cause dehydration of the plant, so excessive heat causes the
stomata to close to preserve water
o Reduce the exposure of their surface area to the sun and its associated heat and
light.
o In extreme heat, the plants transpire and lose turgor in the palisade cells of leaves,
resulting in leaves wilting, reducing SA. If water is available, wilting is temporary,
however if not then wilting will lead to death. Many introduced plants do not have
the adaptations for the dry climate such as hydrangeas and roses.
Leaf orientation
o Some leaves can hang vertically downward in hot temp to reduce surface area
Reseeding and resprouting in response to extreme high temperatures - fire eg. eucalypts
o Substance that reduces the temperature at which the cytoplasm or cell sap in the
vacuole freezes
o Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter and undergo a period of dormancy, which
allow them to survive, storing water and lower availability of sunlight
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism
2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a
fluid medium
Identify the forms in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
o Carbon dioxide
o Oxygen
o Water
o Salts
o Lipids
o Nitrogenous waste
o Other products of digestion
Water In plasma as the basis of the cytoplasm in all cells and the interstitial
fluids surrounding cells and blood and lymph system
Salts Carried in blood as ions dissolved in blood plasma
Lipids Are insoluble due to their strong hydrophilic end so many are not
able to dissolve in plasma. Although small proportions of fatty acids
and glycerol are soluble and enter the blood stream directly, most
are packaged into droplets, then through lymph system and into
bloodstream. called micelles
Micelles are transported in colloidal solution. Which are then
absorbed as they pass into lacteals inside the villi of the small
intestine. During this process they form into chylomicrons to which
they join the blood stream.
Nitrogenous waste Includes urea, uric acid, creatinine and ammonia and some non used
amino acids are carried dissolved in blood plasma
Metabolic nitrogenous waste is broken down by liver and removed
via kidneys
Haemoglobin:
Structure
Adaptive advantage
Major role of Hb is to transport oxygen. This is insoluble so cannot be dissolve in plasma, this
binds to haemoglobin
At high altitude, blood cannot absorb amount of oxygen at sea level. Thus body adapts by
initially increasing heart rate, breathing rate, then the number of red blood cells --> more
haemoglobin
Is able to increase the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
o 4 haem units on haemoglobin molecule allow it to bond with 4 oxygen molecules
Ability to bind oxygen increases once the first oxygen molecule binds to it
o The bonding on each oxygen molecule to the haemoglobin molecule, changes it
shape slightly making the rate and efficiency oxygen uptake increase.
Small increase in oxygen concentration in the lungs can result in a large
increase in oxygen saturation in the blood.
Capacity to release oxygen increase when carbon dioxide is present.
o Important to release oxygen to cells that need it, while uptaking oxygen at
respiratory surfaces
o Metabolising cells release CO2 which combines with water and forms carbonic acid,
lowering the pH. Haemoglobin reduces the affinity for oxygen at lower pH, release it.
Bohr effect
Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around
the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
Organ/ Chemical that changes in Why does the change in concentration occur
Tissues composition
Lungs - Oxygen increases in - Gas exchange occur
blood - Oxygen diffuse from lungs into blood for
- Carbon dioxide respiration
decreases - Co2 diffuses from blood to be excreted
Small - Products of digestion - Diffuse across the villis of small intestine
intestine increase (glucose, and into blood to be carried to body cells
amino acids) for respiration
Large - Water, vitamin, - Diffuses across the large intestine walls and
intestine mineral into blood to reach cells
concentration
increases
Liver - Unwanted - Removes and breaks down toxins etc
substances decrease - Removes excess amino acids and ammonia
(toxin, alcohol) from blood and converts to urea called
- Urea increases DEAMINATION
- Minerals decrease - Stores some vitamins and minerals
- Glucose may - Can remove glucose wen sugar levels are
increase or decrease high
- When levels are low- release glucose into
blood from stores of glycogen
Kidney - Urea decreases - Urea is filtered out of blood and kidneys
- Salt and water and excreted
decrease - Remove any excess salt and water by
osmoregulation
Brain and - Oxygen decreases - High rate of respiration occurs which
active muscle - Co2 decreases requires glucose and oxygen
- Glucose decreases - Releasing CO2 in the blood
Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from
cells in essential
Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials
through plants xylem and phloem tissue
1. CAT Theory (cohesion-adhesion-tension theory) Xylem
What is it:
- Movement of water and mineral ions through xylem
- Root pressure forces the solution which has been absorbed into the roots into the xylem
upwards
- Most upward movement is due to Transpiration stream occurs due to physical forces from
water being moved by passive transport, evaporative suction pull of water is pulled up
through stem
Evidence:
- Xylem vessels are hollow very little resistance to the flow of water
- Properties of water:
o Cohesive forces (attraction of water molecules to each other)
o adhesive forces (attraction of water molecules to walls of xylem) lead to capillarity
(water rises up xylem)
- Concentration gradient exists across leaf
o Surface of the leaf, the osmotic pressure is high, water concentration is low as it is
constantly being evaporated through the stomata
o Centre of the lead, the osmotic pressure is low, water concentration is high
What is it?
- Translocation in phloem tissue moves products of photosynthesis by active transport
- Mechanism of flow is driven by an osmotic pressure gradient, which is a continuous flow as
sucrose is continually being added to one end and removed at the other- due to difference
in sugar and water concentration
What happens:
- Active loading of sugar, amino acids, sucrose, other mineral nutrients into phloem (source
eg. leaves)- the pressure attracts water to flow in due to differences in osmotic pressure
1. Symplastic loading- sugars move in the cytoplasm from the mesophyll cells
2. Apoplastic loading- sugars move along a pathway through the cell walls, cross cell
membrane to enter phloem tube, pass through sieve cell by active transport
- Increases the solute (sugar) concentration
- Active unloading of sugar from phloem into surrounding tissues (sink eg. roots or flowers)-
pressure causes water to flow out
Phloem
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow
measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentration in blood and
describe and explain the conditions under which the technologies are used
- Takes blood samples from artery and the sample is tested to determine different
substances. The test evaluates respiratory diseases and conditions to show how effective the
lungs are at removing carbon dioxide and bringing oxygen to the blood. It is an invasion
procedure. A limitation is that a sample left at room temp must be analysed within 10-15
min and a sample on ice within an hour.
Capnometers Use changes in the infra Uses: They are used during anaesthesia, in
measure the red light transmission lung studies and in intensive care, monitoring
amount of carbon properties and consist of the performance of assisted ventilation.
dioxide in expired an infra red transducer, a
air. pump to draw the gases Limitations:
- It is a through a tube, a water include the presence of gases in the sample
safe, non trap and a microprocessor. that the device cannot measure, e.g. helium.
invasive High breathing frequency can also affect the
test with response capabilities of the capnometer.
few
hazards
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from
donated blood and discuss the uses of each product
Donated Blood
Products Uses Discussion
Red Blood cell concentrate Contain about twice as many For: can be used to boost the
red blood cells as normal, is oxygen carrying capacity of a
used to boost the oxygen patient.
carrying capacity of patients High level of specificity more
with anaemia or after blood efficient when separated into
loss separate components.
Treats the haemoglobin levels
of patients while not increasing Against: is a liable product, a
the blood volume for people perishable blood component
suffering anaemia, kidney with a short shelf life and must
failure, and traumas. be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
42 day shelf life
Risk of infection,
allergic reaction
Platelet concentrate Is given to patients who need For: can be stable and have
extra blood clotting capability, long shelf life if it is blood
such as leukemia sufferers or clotting component.
following severe blood loss
Against: is a liable product, a
perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
5 day shelf life
White blood cell concentrate Given to patients needing a For: can help boost the immune
boost to their immune system, system of patient and prevent
perhaps following a severe infections
infection
Against: is a liable product, a
perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
Plasma Is the liquid part of the blood For: can be used as a blood
and is often given in an volume expander after blood
emergency to boost the volume loss, obtain intragram,
of blood following severe blood immunoglobins, anti-D,
loss albumex and prothrombinex
- Contains blood clotting
factors
- Adjust the osmotic Against: is a liable product, a
pressure perishable blood component
- Treat haemophilia with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
12 month shelf life
Cryoprecipitate Is a fraction collected from For: can be used to treat severe
plasma and contains blood bleeding and contains blood
clotting factors. It is used to clotting factors
treat severe bleeding
Against: is a liable product, a
perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
Factor VIII and Monofix Are extracted from plasma and For: is a stable product, thus it
are used to treat people who has longer shelf life and can be
have haemophilia (an inherited produced fractionally or by
and incurable disorder in which recombinant manufacteuring.
the blood will not clot properly) Used to treat haemophilia and
blood clotting
Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the
production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such
research is needed.
Further research needed to enclose the haemoglobin, with the required enzymes, inside an
artificial cell membrane a lipid vesicle to increase circulation time.
Further research is needed to make perflurocarbon emulsions with lipids for effective with
large enough quantities to make a significant result as they currently have short circulating
life
1. Cheaper to produce
- Current estimates of the costs of blood substitues range between 300 and 1000 dollars. The
current cost of a unit of blood varies by region, but the highest current cost is about $200.
2. Safer to use
- Although transfused blood in the US is very safe, with between 10 and 20 deaths per million
units, blood substitutes could eventually improve on this.
3. Developing nations
- 10-15 million units of blood are transfused each year without testing for HIV or hepatitis.
Blood transfusion is the second largest source of new HIV infections in Nigeria. In certain
regions of South Africa as much as 40% of the population has HIV/AIDS, and thorough
testing is not financially feasible. A disease-free source of blood substitutes would be
incredibly beneficial in these regions. Hemopure is currently approved for use in South
Africa, largely because it is a major improvement over the blood supply in this region.
4. Increase in demand
- About 14 million units of blood were used last year in the United States alone. According to
Dr. Bernadine Healy, former president of the American Red Cross, donations are increasing
by about 2-3% annually in the United States, but demand is climbing by between 6-8% as an
aging population requires more operations that often involve blood transfusion. New York
City currently relies on Europe for 25% of its blood supply.
- Supply blood quickly and effectively to soldiers and people in critical trauma situations.
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow
range for optimal function
Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
- the by-products of the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids, are toxic to cells and must
therefore be removed quickly
- Nitrogenous wastes have the ability to change the pH of cells and interfere with membrane
transport functions and may denature enzymes.
o Nitrogenous waste such as ammonia can cause an increase in pH of cells, resulting
in them becoming more alkaline
o Carbon dioxide accumulation which lowers the pH, results from internal
environment becoming too acidic.
- Increased solute concentrations interfere with reaction rates and an osmotic imbalance
adversely affects membrane functioning
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
Kidney:
Mammals:
Filtering the blood and removing nitrogenous
wastes from the body in the form of urine
- Plays a central role in homeostasis, forming
and excreting urine while regulating water
and salt concentrations in the blood. It
maintains the precise balance between
waste disposal and the animals need for
water and salts
- In marine (salt water) environments, the kidneys excrete small quantities of isotonic (same
concentration as sea water) urine. This helps conserve water and excrete the excess salt
they gain from their hyperosmotic environment.
- In freshwater fish, the kidneys work continuously to excrete copious quantities of dilute
urine, which also has a very low salt concentration. This helps to remove excess water
gained from the hypo-osmotic environment.
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved
nitrogenous waste in some organisms
Diffusion and osmosis are both types of passive transport that require no energy input and are
relatively slow. They rely on random movements of molecules. Diffusion is too slow for the normal
functioning of the body and does not select for useful solutes. Osmosis only deals with the
movement of water and thus would only allow water to move out of the body, not the nitrogenous
wastes.
Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these processes occurring in
the mammalian kidney
- Within the kidney, the movement of substances between the bloodstream and excretory
fluid in the microscopic tubules (nephrons) involves both active and passive transport
Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron
regulate body fluid composition
Filtration
- occurs in glomerulus filtrate in the Bowman's capsule where high blood pressure in the
glomerulus forces all small molecules out of the blood into the capsule
- Water, urea, ions (Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+, HCO3- ), glucose, amino acids and vitamins are all small
enough to be moved into the glomerular filtrate. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be
removed. This filtering process is non-selective and therefore many valuable components of
the blood must be recovered by reabsorption.
- Filtration of blood takes place at the surface between the glomerulus and the inner lining of
each Bowmans capsule.
- Substances within the blood that are small enough to go through the capillary wall under
pressure pass through the cellular layer lining the bowmans capsule and move into the
lumen. Blood cells and proteins are retained n the blood, while large volumes of water pass
through, carrying dissolved substances such as amino acids, glucose, salts and nitrogenous
wastes glomerular filtrate
- Separates from blood depending on size
- Is the movement of materials across the filtration membrane into the lumen of Bowmans
capsule to form filtrate
Reabsorption:
- Reabsorption takes place selectively at various points along the proximal tubule, loop of
Henle and distal tubule. All glucose molecules, amino acids and most vitamins are
recovered, although the kidneys do not regulate their concentrations. The reabsorption of
the ions Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+ and HCO3-occurs at different rates depending on feedback from
the body. In some cases, active transport is required. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis in all
parts of the tubule except the ascending loop of Henle. The amount of water reabsorbed
depends on feedback from the hypothalamus. If no water were reabsorbed human would
soon dehydrate, losing water at a rate of around 7.5 L per hour. The chemical composition
of the body fluids is precisely regulated by the control of solute reabsorption from the
glomerular filtrate.
Hormones are chemical control substances that are secreted by endocrine glands, directly into the
bloodstream.
Aldosterone brings about the retention of salts ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) brings about water
within the body reabsorption within the body.
- Applicable to any organism (plant or animal) that live an environment that varies
- E.g. estuary in its salt concentration varies to carry out enantiostasis to maintain
homeostasis
Estuaries
Osmoconformers Osmoregulators
Organisms that tolerate the changes in the Organisms that avoid changes in their internal
environment by altering the concentration of environment and have the ability to keep the
their internal solutes to match the external solutes at an optimal level
environment
Use small organic molecules to vary the solute Their body fluids are similar to those in a marine
concentration in their cells to match that of the environment, so when exposed to fresh water,
surroundings the water tends to accumulate by osmosis. To
counteract this, the animal produces more dilute
urine, to reduce the internal water concentration
to a level at which the cells can function
The osmotic pressure inside the body and A higher osmotic pressure is maintained inside
outside are the same the body than in the external environment
Examples: Examples:
- Fiddler crab - Mussels
- Sharks - Salmon
- Polychaete worms
Organisms that tolerate changes by altering the Use active transport to maintain a constant
concentration of their internal solutes to match osmolarity of blood and intersitiual fluid
external environment regardless of changes in surrounding water
Metabolism able to tolerate changes in salinity
Minimising Water Loss in Plants: (note: main form of water loss is transpiration)
Analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with
the function of the kidney
Renal Dialysis
Wastes in the blood are removed by diffusion across a partially permeable membrane. Limitations-
time consuming; only lmited amounts of wastes can be removed from the blood, sodium phosphate
and potassium ions are not excreted
Similarities Differences
Renal - Remove wastes - Movement across membrane through diffusion
Dialysis in the form of - Removal of wastes (urea) only
urea - An external body process
- Movement of - Perfmoed by a dialysis machine attached to a computer
dissolved - Periodically- 3x a week
substances - Concentration is monitored by machines so wastes are
through removed
semipermeable - Inconvenient, time consuming, less effective, some side
membrane effects
Kidney - Both involve - Movement across membrane is active transport,
passive osmosis, diffusion
transport - Filters and reabsorbs substance and secretes
- An internal body process
- Performed by two fist sized organs
- Removes waste constantly
- Varies concentration of ions automatically, depending
on the bodies needs
- No side effects
- Wastes may be removed by both active and passive
transport
Outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot secrete
aldosterone
Aldosterone increases the amount of salt reabsorbed from kidney tubules and as a result it also
helps regulate blood pressure, blood volume
Ammonia- highly
toxic, remove quickly
Explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and
excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and
terrestrial mammals
Blueprint of life
1. Evidence of evolution suggests that the mechanisms of inheritance,
accompanied by selection, allow change over many generations
Evolution: is the development and progression of life forms and organisms overtime
Chemical Changes in pH, salinity, presence of minerals DDT antibiotic resistant bacteria
Condition - Anoxic to oxic environment has led to Peppered Moth
simple to more complex organisms Mangroves for salt secretion
Competition - biotic (living) and abiotic (non living) Fly catchers feed on same
for Resources - Factors: food, water, shelter, pred-prey insects so competition exists
relationships within the species- they now
- resources have become limited (dry have different behavioural traits
climate) and thus competition to catch prey
Macroevolution takes place over millions of years and a new species arises. There is a correlation
between chemical change and the type of organism. E.g. red wolf, jackel, dog
Microevolution is a shorter period and involves changes within a population, e.g. peppered moth
Describe, using examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the following areas
of study
o Palaeontology
o Biogeography
o Comparative embryology
o Comparative anatomy
o Biochemistry
- Pentadactyl Limb- monkey, bird, pig, horse, cat basic plan consists of
one bone in the upper limb, two in the lower limb leading to five
fingers/ toes
- Suggest a common ancestor existed
Explain how Darwin Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent and convergent evolution
Darwin Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection assumes that living things arose from a
common ancestor and that some populations move into new habitats where they adapt over time to
their environments.
1. Variation exists
2. Favourable Characteristic
3. Survive and Reproduce
4. More Common
Darwins Theory of In the moth population there would have been variation, some black
Evolution and some lighter. Due to the selective pressures caused by the industrial
revolution, the black moths had the selective advantage to camouflage
and the white moths more likely to be killed by predators due to
conspicuous colour. The black moths became more abundant having the
favourable characteristic they can survive and reproduce. Passing on this
characteristic to the offspring, the black have become more common in
the population.
Analyse using an example, how advances in technology have changed scientific thinking
about evolutionary relationships
Uproar of
theologians
Alfred Theory of evolution Biochemistry Challenged by Science was Similar and
Wallace via natural and punctuated socially accredited
1848 - 62 selection and observations equilibrium accepted but alongside
isolation of Indonesian against not fully Darwin
- Gradual birds gradualism understood
Uproar of
theologians
Gould and Theory of Many Modern Debated
Eldridge punctuated fossilised industrial although
1970s equilibrium remains power and accepted in
- Short showed no knowledge of some
bursts of noticeable science circumstances
evolution evolutionary
change
e.g. soft
bodied sea
organisms
Results: the yellow sticks were found to be ill-suited to the environment and were eaten more than
the green which were conspicuous
Mendel derived principles based on mathematical calculations. He showed that these ratios arise if
an individual possesses two factors for any characteristic, where one is dominant over the other and
these two factors segregate or separate when they are passed from parent to offspring
Explanation: Mendel proposed that during reproduction, the two factors segregate and each passes
into a separate gamete. When two gametes combine during fertilisation, each contributes one factor
to the new formed offspring
- Mendel used statistics to calculate the probability of different combinations of factors
pairing in offspring and he obtained a 3:1 ratio
5. Assessing the validity of conclusions
Collated data: Mendel made direct counts of the resulting offspring, giving quantitative data which
he collated and analysed identifying patterns and trends
Conclusions: Mendel applied logical thinking and mathematical model to the data he had gathered,
leading to valid conclusions.
Describe the aspects of the environmental techniques used by Mendel that led to his
success
Valid and reliable used large sample size and repeated his experiments for different traits
Describe the outcome of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using mendels
explanations
- Only one member of a pair of factors can be represented in any gamete (segregation)
- When two hybrids breed statistically they produce a ratio of three offspring showing the
dominant trait to one recessive offspring. He called these traits factors but today they are
called genes. Contrasting forms of the same gene are alleles.
Mendels Laws
Homozygous Individual with the same two factors from individual pure breeding
TT or tt
Heterozygous Individual with different factors and from hybrid parents (dominant factor evident
in phenotype) Tt
Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using
examples
Phenotype: is the outward appearance of an organism. The genotype is the actual alleles that are
present on the chromosomes of the organism.
Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognised until
sometime after it was published
Mendel began his work in 1858 and published the results of his experiments in 1866, but his work
lay undiscovered until 1900 when others performed similar experiments. It was only then that the
importance of his work was realized. It is unclear why such original work went unnoticed, perhaps:
o Mendel was not a recognized, high profile member of the scientific community
o he presented his paper to only a few people at an insignificant, local, scientific
journal
o accepted theory was that characteristics were blended in offspring- Darwins origins
of species, not that one factor came from each
o Other scientists did not understand the work or its significance.
o His work was too progressive, radical and was based on very little background sound
knowledge
o His work differed radically from previous research and the scientists may not have
understood it
Pedigrees: are used to show all the individuals within a family and can reveal certain traits genetic
disorders. Show the transmission of a character across several generations where the number of
individual organisms in each generation is small.
The pattern of inheritance of a trait in a pedigree may indicate whether the trait concerned is
dominant or recessive.
Solve problems
involving
monohybrid
crosses using
punnet squares
and other techniques
- A monohybrid cross involves the inheritance of one characteristic. All problems apply
Mendel's basic laws of inheritance. The following is typical of a problem that uses Punnett
squares to solve problems involving monohybrid crosses.
- Worked example
- In peas, the gene for the characteristic tall (T) is dominant over the gene for a short plant (t).
If a homozygous tall plant (TT) is crossed with a heterozygous tall plant (Tt), what will be the
possible phenotypes of the offspring?
- A Punnett square is a diagrammatic method of indicating the possible offspring produced
from a particular cross.
-
- In the sample problem, a homozygous tall plant (TT) is crossed with a heterozygous tall plant
(Tt), By filling in the squares, it is possible to work out all of the combinations that are likely
to occur.
-
- When you analyse the information in this case, you can predict that 100% of the offspring
will be tall plants: 50% are homozygous tall (TT); 50% will be heterozygous tall plants (Tt).
Describe an example of hybridisation within a species and explain the purpose of this
hybridisation
Hybridisation within a species- the crossing of different variations of one species to produce new
varieties of offspring with desirable characteristics
Example:
1870 William Farrer became aware that wheat growing in Australia was presenting
problems as strains being grown were not suited to the harsh, dry environment and
were susceptible to diseases such as rust and the grain quality was not of a high
enough standard for milling and baking
Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes
Developed the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance- chromosomes cary the units of inheritance
(genes) and occur in distinct pairs
Genes - portions of DNA with a specific sequence of bases that code for
a particular trait.
- genes have the same chemical composition as DNA
- A locus is the position of a gene on a chromosome
- The total amount of genetic material that an organism has in
each of its cells is called its genome
Identify that DNA is a double stranded molecule twisting into a helix molecule with each
strand comprising of a sugar phosphate backbone and attached bases adenine, thymine,
cytosine, guanine, connected to a complementary strand by paring the bases, A-T and C-G
DNA
DNA - double helix shape two strains of
structure nucleotides
- Each strand of the helix consists of 4
different nucleotides made up of
deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate molecule
and a nitrogen base.
- sides of the ladder- deoxyribose sugar and
phosphate molecules.
- The complementary bases, A-T,C-G, form
the rungs (Adenine pairs with thymine and
guanine pairs with cytosine)
Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during
meiosis and the inheritance of genes
During Meiosis 2
1. Two daughter cells that result from
meiosis 1 each undergo meiosis 2 and
the behaviour of chromosomes does
not affect genetic variation.
Hence:
- One cell undergoes two meiotic
divisions to generate 4 haploid
cells
- The genes in each haloid cell are a
new combo of the paternal genes
Explain the role of gametes formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring
- Gametes form by meiosis, where recombination of genetic material takes place as a result of
crossing over and random segregation
o In crossing over, homologous chromosomes exchange genes and so the resulting
combination of alleles on chromatids differs from those originally on the parent
chromosomes.
o In random segregation and independent assortment, genes on different
chromosomes sort independently of each other, giving different gene combination
in gametes from those of the parents.
- In sexual reproduction each female or male cell produces 4 sex cells (gametes) from the
process of meiosis. Each of these sex cells is haploid (has half the normal chromosome
number) and has a random assortment of genes from the parent. The genes (Mendel's
alleles) are separated and the sex cells have a random assortment of dominant and recessive
genes. More variability is introduced depending on which sex cells are successful in
fertilisation. The resulting embryo has a completely different set of genes from either of the
parents.
Describe the inheritance of sex linked genes, and alleles that exhibit co dominance and
explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios
- Y - XN Y - XN Y
- All offspring have normal sight. But if the female is a carrier for colour blindness and crosses
with a normal male then 50 % of the males will be colour blind and none of the females.
F2 - XN - Xn
- XN - XN XN - XN X n
- Y - XN Y - XnY
Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage
Thomas Morgan:
- worked on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. He looked at crosses between red- eyed
and white-eyed flies and found that the results could not be accounted for by simple
Mendelian crosses.
- He showed that some genes were sex-linked because they were located on the X
chromosome and that hereditary factors can be exchanged between the X chromosome of
an individual
Experiments
1. Cross 1
a. He cross bred pure breeding parents to obtain F1 hybrid offspring. Morgon crossed a
white eyed male and a pure bred homozygous red eyed female
2. Cross 2
a. He then crossed the F1 hybrid offspring to obtain the F2 generation expecting a
Mendelian 3:1 ratio but instead found that more than 80% of the flies had red eyes
and less than 20% had white eyes
3. Cross 3
a. He performed a typical test cross to investigate this hypothesis. He crossed a white
eyed male with a hybrid red eyed female. His results showed in the F2 that both
females and males could have white eyes.
He determined that the white eye characteristic is sex limited and is carried on X chromosome.
Following this pattern he proved that red eyes were sex linked.
- Supported Sutton and Bovery Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the
resulting phenotypes in examples of co dominance
Co dominance: does not show a mendelian pattern because in genes of some organisms, pairs of
alleles do not show dominance of one over the other exceptions to mendels law of prominence.
Homozygous: when the individual expresses only one characteristic in there phenotype they only
have one allele in genotype. Eg. A, B, O for blood type
Heterozygous: can show both alleles in phenotype- separate, unblended- or has 2 dominant alleles
in genotype eg. note A and B are both dominant so AB is co-dominant
- W - RW - RW - R - RR - RW
- W - RW - RW - W - RW - WW
- When the roan cattle are crossed in F2 Half the
offspring will be roan while a quarter will be red and quarter white.
Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of genes in an individual
- Studies have shown the effect of a gene can be enhanced or masked by variation in the
environment.
Example 1: Coat colour of Siamese cats is determined by a colour mutation. They can change on
their environmental temperature. The darker the hair the poorer the circulation. Thus the
phenotypic expression of colour is therefore influenced by the temperature of the environment.
Example 2: Hydrangeas- The acidity or alkalinity of the soil influences the colour of the flowers.
Hydrangeas growing in acidic soil develop blue flowers, whereas those grown in alkaline soil develop
pink flowers.
Construct a model that demonstrates meiosis and the processes of crossing over,
segregation of chromosomes and the production of haploid gametes
Sex linkage
Co dominance
Identify data sources and perform a firsthand investigation to demonstrate the effect of
environment on phenotype
4. The structure of DNA can be changed and such changes may be
reflected in the phenotype of an affected organism
Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance
Process Diagram
DNA 1. The DNA double helix unwinds.
Replication Each DNA molecule is a double
stranded helix and an enzyme
Replicates called helicase causes the DNA
prior to cell helix to progressively unwind
division 2. DNA unzips that is, the two
(meiosis strands separate
and mitosis) a. Weak H bonds break
between the
complementary bases of
the nucleotides on
opposite strands and the
two DNA strands
separate, exposing the
nucleotide bases.
3. Nucleotides are added to each
single strand
a. Each separate strand of
existing DNA molecule
acts as a template for
the production of a new
DNA strand. Nucleotides
are picked up by the Significance
enzume DNA
polymerase and slotted - Heredity relies on DNA
in opposite their replication
complementary base - Gene expression relies on protein
partner. synthesis
b. Base pairing is checked
by another DNA
polymerase enzyme
Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of
polypeptides
Perform a firsthand investigation to develop a simple model for polypeptide synthesis
Process Diagram
Polypeptide 1. Transcription
Synthesis: - an enzyme cause the DNA in nucleus to
separate where the active gene (section
that codes for the necessary polypeptide)
is copied
- Free RNA (ribonucleic acid) nucleotides
made in the nucleus line up with their
complementary DNA bases (C-G, U-A)
join by the enzyme-RNA polymerase
forming messenger RNA strand (mRNA)
- continues until a stop triplet is reached
- mRNA carries the code out through
nuclear pores to a ribosome in cytoplasm
- the DNA zips back up
2. Translation synthesis of polypeptides at
ribosome
- mRNA binds to a ribosome
- mRNA message is read as triplets of
bases CODONS (codes for amino acid)
note: has a start codon AUG and has one
STOP codon
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules pick up
amino acids from the cytoplasm and take
to ribosome, each tRNA has an ANTI-
CODON (3-bases which are
complementary to codon on mRNA)
- tRNA with the complementary anticodon
attaches to the mRNA in the ribosome
- ribosome moves along one codon on the
mRNA strand
- second tRNA binds to the next codon. Its
amino acid links with a peptide bond to
the first amino acid
- the first tRNA molecule is released to go
back out into the cytoplasm and pick up a
new amino acid
- a third tRNA molecule binds to the next
mRNA codon and so on..
- process continues until the entire
polypeptide is complete and a STOP
codon is reached
- STOP codon becomes a release enzyme
which causes the ribosome parts to
separate and release the polypeptide
chain into the cytoplasm
Explain the relationship between proteins and polypeptides
Proteins: are large complex macromolecules made up of one or more long polypeptide chains
Polypeptides are a long single chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. (there are
about 20 different amino acids linked together in chains of up to 300)
- It can be a:
o Deletion of bases
o Insertion of bases
- If the mutation takes place in an essential part of the gene, the protein that is coded for by
the gene will be changed also. (sickle cell anaemia is caused by the substitution of only one
base)
- Note: if a gene is altered from its original form the 2 variations are termed alleles
- Mutations occur naturally due to the possibility of error when genes are copied, so there is a
small percentage of natural mutation in a population for every gene (important for
evolution)
- Most gene mutations produce recessive alleles because they prevent the gene from
producing a functional protein. If the homozygous form is present or it is dominant, a change
in phenotype will result.
- The variation may be harmful, beneficial or neutral. With a change in environment, they may
become beneficial or harmful to the organism if selective pressures arise (e.g. peppered
moth)
A mutation is a natural or human made agent (physical or chemical) that can change the structure or
sequence of DNA. Mutations are known in molecular terms to be changes in the genetic material.
Mutations are known to arise as a result of mistakes in DNA replication the addition of an incorrect
nucleotide by DNA polymerase. The frequency with which the DNA polymerase makes mistakes
determines the frequency of spontaneous mutations
Radiation is defined as energy in the form of waves or moving subatomic particles. Radiation may be
ionising (causing atoms to split into ions or charged particles) or non ionising. Ionising radiation
includes the emission of alpha and beta particles, X rays, gamma rays and neutrons.
- UV rays react with DNA seen through the incident of skin cancer as well as chromosomal
rearrangement. UV exposure tends to affect somatic cells and so it may cause cancer in
individuals
- Evidence from war and disaster from the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- Hans Muller received the Nobel Prize in 1927 for showing that genes had the ability to
mutate when exposed to X-rays. Beadle and Tatum used X-rays to produce mutations in
bread mould in the formulation of their one gene one polypeptide hypothesis.
- The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki also increased the evidence for
mutations caused by radiation. There was a tenfold increase in cancer deaths directly after
the bombs were dropped.
- Mutagens may cause death in the individual but unless they affect the sex cells the effect is
not passed on to the next generation.
- Cancer and mutation
- Cancer treatment provides evidence of mutagenic nature of radiation.
3. Fertilisation
- Random joining of a male and female gamete (sex
cell)
Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from
gradual process proposed by Darwin
Outline the evidence that led to Beadle and Tatums one gene one protein hypothesis
and explain why it was altered to one gene one polypeptide hypothesis
Construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA sequences can result in changes in
cell activity
If there is a simple substitution for a single base pair on a strand of DNA such as a G-C replaced
by A-T, then this will result in a different amino acid codon forming a different polypeptide. If
one base pair is lost from the sequence there will be a shift along the DNA molecule producing
different polypeptides.The flow chart below shows the reaction if thymine is lost from the start
of a DNA sequence.
Cell activity is controlled by enzymes. Enzymes are formed from chains of polypeptides. If the
chain of amino acids forming the polypeptide is not in the right sequence, then the enzyme
formed will not be functional. In this case, there is a premature stop.
Describe and analyse the relative importance of work of...in determining the structure of
DNA and the impact of the quality of collaboration and communication on their scientific
research
o James Watson
o Francis Crick
o Rosalind Franklin
o Maurice Wilkins
- Scientific discoveries are rarely the work of one person but tend to result from teams of
people bringing together different skills. These teams may be working together or may be
scattered all over the world working independently in different laboratories. Determining
the structure of DNA is a good case study exemplifying the role of collaboration and
effective communication in scientific research.
- The four people in this story worked at two different places. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice
Wilkins were from King's College London and James Watson and Francis Crick were from
Cambridge University. Rosalind Franklin was a woman working in a field that was male
dominated. You will see as the story progresses that she didn't get equal recognition for her
contributions. Her work on X-ray diffraction showed that DNA had the characteristics of a
helix. She wished to gather more evidence of this result but Maurice Wilkins showed her
results to Watson and Crick without her permission or knowledge.
- This information was enough to encourage Watson and Crick to develop their model of the
double helix for the structure of DNA.
- Rosalind Franklin died of cancer in 1958 at the age of 37. Watson, Crick and Wilkins received
the Nobel Prize for their work in 1962.
Peppered Moth:
Prior the peppered moth were of a light appearance. The light coloured moths were
at a selective advantage because they were camoflagued against white lichen on
trunks. The black variety were clearly seen by predators, keeping their overall
numbers low.
Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic
composition of a population
o Artificial insemination
o Artificial pollination
o Cloning
Reproductive Technologies:
Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproductive technologies on the genetic
diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been genetically
altered
- Involves 3 animals: one that donates the nucleus, one that acts as egg donor and one that
plays role as surrogate mother
1. Cells are taken from udder (mammary glands) of 6 year old ewe
2. Nucleus was removed from an unfertilised egg, a process called enucleating, on another
sheep. Scientists make cytoplasmic contents and membrane
3. An udder cell from sheep 1 was injected into the enucleated egg of sheep 2. The two cells
were then zapped with electricity, which caused the cells to fuse or blend together and now
fertilised egg cell was allowed to undergo normal growth and development, dividing by the
process of mitosis. As the cells continue to divide, the embyro was impacted into the uterus
of a third sheep. The embryo continues to grow and born identical to sheep 1.
Identify examples of the use of transgenic species and use available evidence to debate
the ethical issues arising from the development and use of transgenic species
Health is hard to define as it is something that is ever changing- the absence of disease. The WHO
defines health as,
A state of physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
- Physical health refers to the physical state of the body and includes fitness level,
bodyweight, and amount of energy and proper functioning of body functions.
- Mental health is related to our ability to function effectively in society and to cope with
changing situations in our lives.
- Social health is our ability to interact, communicate and socialise effectively.
any condition that adversely affects the normal functioning of any part of a living thing
- Diseases fall into 5 main categories; congenital and hereditary, inflammatory, degenerative,
metabolic and abnormal cell growth (neoplastic) diseases.
There are difficulties in defining both health and disease because the definitions change in
different circumstances and are used in different ways in everyday conversation.
Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation assist in
the maintenance of health.
Factor How the factor assists in the maintenance of health Mutation/ Example
Genes - A hereditary unit that controls the Mutation can disrupt
production of polypeptides that make up the metabolic pathway -
proteins in cells health of the person
- control the development and behaviour of could be affected
the organism cystic fibrosis is a genetic
- The production of the proteins by genes, disease that is caused by
regulate cell growth and repair and assist in the mutation of the CFTR
maintenance of health. gene.
Cell Cell differentiation is a process that causes a cell to Proto-oncogenes code for
Differentiation become specialised to perform a specific function. proteins that regulate
E.g. skin cell, nerve cell differentiation and cell
Ensures different tissues are produced- to perform growth. Health can be
specific functions affected in a proto-
oncogene becomes
defective as it becomes an
oncogene, increasing the
malignancy of tumour
cells.
Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and the maintenance
and repair of body tissue.
2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating
cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene.
Note: Hebrews and chinese (200BC) began implementing hygiene practices such as drainage
systems, disposal of faeces, cleanliness of body
Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in control of
disease
Hygiene:
- Hands washed with soap and water- before/ after food, toilet
- Body, teeth and hair regularly washed
o Reduce build up in mouth- cause gingivitis
- Cough or sneeze into tissue (reduce airborne droplets )
Effect:
- Reduce the risk of pathogens entering our bodies, or transmission of these pathogens to
others, which can invade and cause disease
- Reduce the spread and growth of pathogenic micro-organisms
- Control spread of disease
- Inhibits the build-up of micro-organisms on our bodies
Treatment of Water:
1. Sedimentation
2. Coagulation and Flocculation
3. Filtration - to remove particulate matter that may harbour pathogens
4. Disinfection - to kill or inactive pathogens
o Chlorine is added
o Fluoride is added to tap water- maintenance of dental health
Treatment of Food:
- Hands washed before and during preparation of foods
- Hair always tied back, cuts covered
- Utensils washed in hot soapy water
- Different surfaces and chopping boards- prevent cross-contamination
- Frozen foods thawed in refrigerator or microwave (avoiding room temp- growth )
- Meats are all cooked thoroughly
Effect:
- Treatment of water is to destroy pathogens and prevent their further multiplication whilst
reducing their presence and control in society
- If food is not cooked properly, the bacteria is not killed, and grows rapidly and can invade
the host when eaten or handled
o Hepatitis A is transmitted by eating foods that have been handled by an infected
person
o Salmonella- undercooked food
- If water is contaminated with the faceces of animals or sewage, could contain unsafe levels
of pathogens such as protozoans
o Cholera is a fatal disease that is transmitted in water- untreated sewage
A pathogen is an infective agent or organism that lives on or in another living organism, causing
disease.
- Modes of transmission include direct, indirect and vector transmission.
- different types of pathogens such as prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi and macro
parasites
Conditions:
- causes disease when invading the host
- reproduce in or on the host
- avoid being affected by hosts immune response
Identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand
investigation to identify microbes in food and water.
Method:
1. Wash hands and sterilise bench with disinfectant spray
2. Collect 5 nutrient agar plates, and label
3. 1 unexposed (control), 2 different foods and 2 different types of water samples
4. 0.5ml of sample on each, using cotton bud and streak in zig zag pattern
5. Seal the agar plates, incubate for 2-3 days at 27 C
6. Wash hands with antibacterial soap and disinfect benches
Results:
No. of types and Percentage Coverage
- note: reproduce in suitable conditions: temperature, nutrients, moisture
- colonies are distinguished by their size,shape, surface, profile, colour
Conclusion:
Successfully answered our aim, and identified various microbes- bacteria and fungi.
Discussion:
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe the ways in
which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these
methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens
1. Sedimentation
o Water is poured into a sedimentation basin, using a sludge thickener it is excreted
from the water
2. Coagulation and Flocculation
o Small particles are forced together by coagulants to make larger particles, then left
to settle the particles are dense enough to fall to bottom
3. Filtration - to remove particulate matter that may harbour pathogens
o force water molecules through a membrane that has extremely tiny pores, leaving
the larger contaminants behind
4. Boiling
o rapid vaporization of a liquid, which typically occurs when a liquid is heated to its
boiling point
o effective method of killing most protozoan parasites and bacteria present in the
drinking water as the enzymes will be denatured
5. Disinfection
o removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic microorganisms through the addition
of certain chemicals
o Second Disinfection can take place at end: to ensure bacteria doesnt multiply during
distribution
6. Chlorination
o Water which has been treated with chlorine is effective in preventing the spread of
waterborne disease, eliminating almost all bacteria, viruses and amoeba
Reduced Risk:
- Water supplies are treated in various ways before distribution to the community
- Bacteria, particles, viruses, protozoans are eliminated and killed from the water so they do
not survive, reproduce, invade the host and cause disease
Describe the contributions of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious diseases
Louis Pasteur:
Proposed the Germ Theory disproving the theory of Spontaneous Generation (living things arise
from non-living matter)
Robert Koch:
Distinguish between prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, macro parasites and
name one example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen
Antibiotics are chemicals that interfere (by either damaging the structure or interfering with
metabolism) with disease causing bacteria. Antibiotics are chemicals that are capable of destroying
or inhibiting the growth of bacteria that cause disease.
An important aspect of antibiotics is their selective toxicity can act on the pathogen with little or
no effect on the patient taking the antibiotics, and can be altered by varying the dosage and the
duration of use.
Note: (penicillin, first antibiotic in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, Howard Florey- medical use in 1941)
Aim: To disprove spontaneous generation and show decay of food was caused by microorganisms
carried in the air
Method:
Results/ Conclusion
- Swan neck maintained same colour and clear, whilst straight glass went cloudy in colour
(decay)
- Decay of food is casused by the microorganism carried in the air
- Microorganism are not spontaneously created
Gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding
of the cause and prevention of malaria
Date Development
100 BC- Ancient romans find that draining marsh water reduces risk of malaria
Prevention
1879- Cause Laveran, identifies the protozoan- Plasmodium by studying blood under
microscope
- Tried to find source- air, soil, water (yet water isnt a source)
1897- Cause Ronald Ross- identifies mosquito as the vector
Maps the lifecycle of a Plasmodium that exists in both humans and in the salivary
glands of mosquitos
1940- The insecticide DDT is developed and used against mosquitos as part of global
Prevention eradication program
1960s- A range of prophylactic drugs developed to prevent people contracting malaria
prevention
Identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from secondary sources to
describe one named infectious disease in terms of its: cause, transmission, host response,
major symptoms, treatment, prevention, control
Antibiotic Resistance: Bacteria during the normal process of natural selection have evolved strains
that are resistant to antibiotics. Due to natural resistance or mutation, they are able to survive and
reproduce, further building up the population of resistant bacteria.
Causes:
- Widespread use of antibiotics
o Misuse of antibiotics- eg. viruses
o Does not take full dosage- surviving bacteria can reproduce
o Use of antibiotics as feed additives to food producing animals
o Use of cleaning products that contain anti-bacterial additives
- Contact with bacteria that can invade and cause disease
- Horizontal gene transfer through bacterial sex means higher chance of microbes
becoming resistant in production such as modification of crops
Problems
The first line of defence is non-specific and involves the body using both physical and chemical
barriers to try to prevent the entry of pathogens into the blood and tissues. Such barriers include:
Mucous - The respiratory, digestive, reproductive and urinary tracts are covered in
Membrane: membranes that produce thick layers of mucous which trap invading
pathogens.
- The pathogen is held there until it is excreted by coughing or sneezing.
The mucous can contain an antibody that prevents the bacteria or virus
from attaching to the surface.
Cilia: - Cilia are tiny hairs that line the respiratory surfaces of the trachea and
bronchial tubes. They constantly beat in an upward direction to move the
mucus contain the trapped pathogens towards the throat, were they can
be excreted.
Chemical - Different types of chemicals secreted in different areas of the body act as
barriers: barriers to invading pathogens
- The pathogens that enter by food or drink when swallowed in the
alimentary canal are destroyed by the acidic conditions of the stomach or
the alkaline conditions in the intestines.
- The urinary and vaginal openings are acidic which prevent the growth of
pathogens
Other body - Urine is sterile and slightly acidic, helping to clean the ureters, bladder
secretions: and urthera from bacteria growth
- Tears contain lysozymes that destroy the cell walls of some bacteria
- Saliva also contains lysozymes and washed microorganisms from the
teeth and lining of mouth.
An antigen is any molecule the body recognises as foreign and that triggers the immune response.
On the surface of cells in the body, there are MHC markers. When a pathogen enters the body they
have chemical markers, called antigens, on their surface; the immune system recognises these as
non self and activates the immune system to destroy the foreign organisms.
When a person has an organ transplant, the new organ received from a donor, will have different
MHC markers recognised as antigens to the host. The transplanted organ is therefore identified as
foreign and the immune system is activated to defend the body.
Prevention:
- Tissue typing is done to try match up the antigen as closely as possible between the donor
and patient. This will mean that there are fewer foreign antigens on the surface.
- A patient can also be treated with immunosuppressant drugs to lessen the immune systems
response to the transplanted organ.
Self-recognition has implications for medical procedures such as tissue grafts, tissue and organ
transplant and blood transfusions.
When pathogens are successful in penetrating the barriers of the first line of defence, a non specific
second line of defence is then activated to which defence adaptations try to destroy the invading
pathogen before they can cause much damage.
Lymph - As blood circulates around the body, some of the plasma moves out of the
System capillaries into the tissues, becoming tissue fluid. This tissue fluid moves into
the system of vessels known as the lymphatic system
- The lymph vessels form a one way drainage system from all parts of the
body back to a point near the heart where the cleansed lymph fluid is
drained back into the blood.
- If there is an infection in the tissues, the foreign particle, along with dead
cells and other debris, move with the tissue fluid into the lymph vessels.
When they get into the lymph node, the waste particles are filtered off and
any foreign particles are destroyed by macrophages.
Cell death to - If the infected cells are surrounded by a wall of dead cells it prevents the
seal off infection from spreading to other areas and infecting them.
pathogens - The cells inside then die, causing the destruction of the pathogen that are
infecting them
Other - Interferons are secreted by some cells when they are infected with viruses.
Secretions Interferons can cause nearby non infected cells to produce their own anti
viral chemicals which inhibit the spread of the virus.
- The complement system is a group of 20 proteins that assist other defence
mechanisms. These complement proteins can be involved in the destruction
of pathogens by stimulating phagocytes to become more active at the site of
infection or destroy the membrane of invading pathogens.
Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named
disease results from an imbalance in micro flora in humans
Diagnosis The diagnosis of the disease is done by taking a swab of the infected
area and examining it for the presence of Candida cells under a
microscope.
Treatment use of antifungal cream, but may also involve the insertion of
suppositories such as micronazole. In some cases, the insertion of
natural yogurt into affected area may help to retain the balance of
microflora in this region.
- Pro-biotics
- Digestive and systematic enzymes
Prevention careful washing and drying of susceptible areas, the avoidance of some
types of antibiotics and the practice of personal hygiene.
Explain why the disease is not always present and describe the conditions under which the disease
could develop.
Although the pathogen is present in our bodies micro flora all the time, we are not always affected
by the disease. The fungus that results in the disease is part of the natural micro flora of the human
body and is normally present on the mucous membranes of the female genital tract, mouth and
respiratory tract and the alimentary canal. However if a certain condition in this region alters the
natural balance of microflora an overgrowth of the Candida fungus may result in thrush disease. One
way the natural balance of microflora can be upset is by taking antibiotics to treat bacterial
infections as they kill almost all the bacteria in that area. Others include pregnancy, suppression of
the immune system, the use of steroids, oral contraceptives, general illness and intravenous drug
use.
Reliability of sources
The information obtained from the textbook and internet websites were reasonable valid and
reliable due to the consistency of information. Much of the information on the websites for example
the causes, symptoms and treatment had similar, if not the same information gained from the
textbook and worksheets. The websites were from reliable sources of information including medical
information government run sites.
Sources
Website:
http://www.return2health.net/articles/candida/candida-overgrowth-candidiasis-
overview/?gclid=CJyZ6J39rawCFaoB4godnn5cHw
http://thrush-information.com/ - http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000626.htm
Development Contribution
1. Understanding of how T and B - Body recognises its own tissues and will not destroy
lymphocytes seek and destroy it organ transplant
foreign antigens - formed the basis of organ transplant
2. Founder of immunology understanding- non-self
3. Clonal Selection Theory - understanding of immune system (developing
4. Developed a method of immunosuppressant drugs for transplant)
cultivating influenza viruses in - effective use of vaccination programs- influenza A
unfertilised chicken eggs strain
Identify the components of the immune response; antibodies, T cells and B cells
Third Line of Defence: If a pathogen is successful in penetrating the barriers of the first line of
defence, and then survive the responses of the second line of defence, a specific response, third line
of defence in activated involving the production of T and B lymphocytes
T-Cell - T cells originate from stem cells in the bone marrow and mature after
passing through the thymus gland. They are then released into the blood,
spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes.
- They respond to specific antigens that match their receptor proteins and
produce clones of cytotoxic T cells that release chemicals to destroy infected
cells
- T cells control cell mediated immunity (destroy cells already invaded)
- T cells defend against: intracellular bacteria and viruses, protozoa, fungi,
flatworm and roundworm, cancerous cells and transplant foreign tissues.
B- Cell - B cells/lymphocytes originate and mature in the stem cells in the bone
marrow. After they mature they are released into the blood, tonsils, spleen
and lymph nodes (lymphatic organs)
- Each B cell has a different antibody on its surface that will respond to a
specific antigen. A mature B cell may carry as many as 100 000 antibodies
embedded in its surface and will become activated if it comes into contact
with its specific antigen.
- When a B cell is activated it produces many copies of itself and each of these
cells forms plasma cells to that particular antigen. These antibodies move to
the site of infection to form antigen antibody complexes, which
deactivated the antigen.
- B cells control antibody mediated (humoral) immunity (produce Y-shaped
antibodies that circulate in lymph, blood to attack pathogens)
- B cells defend against: bacteria and viruses outside the cell and toxins
produced by bacteria.
Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:
o Interaction between B and T lymphocytes
o The mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes
o The range of T lymphocyte types and the difference in their roles
Interaction between B and
T cells
1. Phagocytosis: When a
macrophage encounters a
foreign particle with an
antigen on its surface, it
surrounds it and engulfs it
2. antigen on surface of
foreign particle is moved to
the surface of the
macrophage, which is then
transported to the lymph
nodes
4. Interleukin 2 produced by
the helper T cell activates
the production of specific B
cells, clones of cytotoxic T
cells
Cytotoxic T Cell - Destroys target cells on contact by releasing chemicals that destroy
the infected cells
- Activated by Helper T cells or when they detect an antigen that
matches their surface receptor proteins, they produce many copies
of themselves and move to the site of infection.
Suppressor T cell - Turns off the immune system when no more antigens are present
Vaccines: provide artificially acquired immunity without the need for a person to have suffered the
disease initially.
Active acquired immunity is where the immune response occurs and own antibodies- memory cells
are produced
It can be natural induced as the body as to undergo the immune response and suffer the symptoms
of the disease in order to develop immunity to it. Or it can be artificially induced though the use of
vaccines, which cause the production of memory cells without the body experiencing the symptoms
of the disease.
Vaccines are all harmless to the body and will not caused the disease they are specific for, but still
contains the antigen that causes the body to undergo an immune response and produce memory
cells for that particular antigen. Vaccination involves the introduction of a vaccine into the body.
Immunisation
- Immunisation is the process in which the body reacts to the vaccine by going though the
immune response that produces memory cells for the antigen and confers immunity to the
body so that if the antigen enters the body in the future, the secondary response will occur
and the body will not suffer the symptoms of the disease
- Over a series of vaccinations the lymphocytes will more rapidly recognise the antigen and
the number of memory cells produced will be enough for long term immunity.
Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant
patients
Donor organs have marker molecules called antigens on their surface. These antigens are specific to
the donor and will differ to the antigens in the hosts body, thus the antigen on the donor organ are
identified as foreign in the patients body, initiating the immune response.
Cytotoxic T cells then move to the site of infection to destroy the foreign material which may cause
the rejection of the donor organ.
1. Tissue typing, which involves matching the antigens of the donor and recipient, are done to
minimise the severity of the immune response.
2. Immunosuppressant Drugs- Cylorosporin is a drug given to suppress the immune system so
the risk of rejection is lower. These drugs act to reduce the activity of T cells that attack the
transplanted organ. However not all of the immune system is suppressed, e.g. B cells , and
will inhibit normal T and B cell interaction which makes the recipient more susceptible to
disease as a result of the diminishing activity of the immune system.
3. Anti rejection drugs must then be taken for the rest of the recipients life.
Process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the
effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of one
common diseases; smallpox, diphtheria and polio.
- The purpose of establishing strategies to prevent and control their development and
spread by improving public health
Gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect
relationship of smoking and lung cancer
Result:
- Consistency in results showed- smokers had a 10x greater change of dying from lung
cancer
- More cigarettes smoked each day, the greater the incidence of lung cancer
- Cigarette smoking and reduced life expectancy
Non-infectious Disease: are diseases not caused by a pathogen, but may be caused by
genetics, exposure to environmental factors of various of nutrients in diets.
Quarantine: is a period of isolation, of disease organisms is a strategy that has been used for
a very long time to control the spread of a disease.
Strategies
Border control - Check passengers and cargo at entry points into Australia
- Xray, dogs, surveillance
- All containers, luggage and ships are checked and some
materials such as some plants and foods are prohibited
- Bans, fines and jail sentences apply
Example: - Close to insects and pests from the exotic nations to the north
Northern Aus - sentinel animals such as cattle and pigs that are regularly
Quarantine checked for disease as a warning system about the diseases
strategies prevalence in the society.
- Surveys to look for signs and trends
- Restrict moment of fruit/vegetables/plants/soils and seeds
- Quarantine check points on the roads
Animals were
vaccinated and could
not move regions of
Aus
Explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and /or prevented
disease: genetic engineering to produce disease resistant plants and animals
Genetic Engineering:
Genetically engineered plants can now kill their own pests because of the insertion of a
gene from a soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which makes them resistant to
disease.
Transgenic Species: organisms with genes from other organisms inserted into their own
genetic material
Example Bt Cotton Potatoes
Ability to present Bt contains a gene that produces 1. Potatoes resistant to the
disease occurring, chemicals that kill certain insects, Colorado beetle
control spread of bollworm caterpillar, that feed on the 2. the potato leaf-roll virus
disease plant (natural insecticide) In Canada, genes from a frog
have been inserted into potato
By taking that gene from the bacteria and plants to cause them to
inserting into a genome of a plant, the produce the same chemicals as
plant now produces the chemical that will frogs.
kill the insect pests.
Perform an investigation to examine plant shorts and leaves and gather first hand
information of evidence of pathogens and insect pests.
Aim: to observe and describe evidence of pathogens and insect pests on plants
Method:
1. Examine and draw labelled diagrams of the diseased and non-diseased plant
material
2. Look for evidence of attack such as discolouration, browning or blotching, swelling,
leaf curling, bites over leaves
3. Identify the type of plant pathogen that is affecting each plant
Results:
Disease Black spot- black spots appear on the leaves, leaves fall early, less photosynthesis
able to be undergone, lower yield
Disease Citus leafminer- silver trail on leaf, distorted leaf, less photosynthesis
Gather and process information and use available evidence to discuss the changing
methods of dealing with plant and animals diseases, including the shift in emphasis
from treatment and control to management or prevention of disease.
Treatment: Involves strategies employed to either cure the disease or relieve its symptoms
once an organism has the disease. E.g. antibiotics to bacterial infections
Control: Involves reducing its spread through the population of organism once it is already
present. E.g. pesticides
Prevention: Involves the use of strategies that stop the occurrence of disease in organism.
Reduce the occurrence and incidence of disease in the population.
Management: Is defined in many different ways, but most commonly involves the programs
that improve the outcomes of chronic conditions and improve the quality of life of sufferers.
There has been a shift from waiting for a disease to occur, to preventing the occurrence of
the disease.
Earlier, the emphasis when dealing with diseases was on their treatment and control. As
problems such as antibiotic resistance developed, the emphasis shifted towards the
prevention and management of diseases. Less money would be spent on health and there
would be less drug and pesticide resistance
Communication- Option
1. Humans, and other animals, are able to detect a range of stimuli
from the external environment, some of which are useful for
communication
Identify the role of receptors in detecting stimuli
Receptor: detect a specific signal in the internal and external environment (usually sense organs)
Identify data sources, gather information from secondary sources to identify the range of
senses involved in communication
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation of a mammalian eye to gather first-hand data
to relate structures to functions
Aim: To investigate the structure of a mammalian eye, and relate the structure to functions
Risk Assessment: scalpel blades are sharp. Cut away from body, dispose in sharps container
Method:
Discussion:
- The toughness of sclera, cornea- relates to protection
- Vitreous humour- clarity, size, colourless- allows light to penetrate, maintain shape
- Hardness of lens- composed of protein fibres, easily change shape
Electromagnetic spectrum: made up of a large group of waves that all travel at the speed of light but
have different frequencies and wavelengths.
- Waves: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, VISIBLE light, infrared, microwaves, TV waves,
radiowaves
- Note: the shorter the
wavelength, the higher the
frequency, high energy- more dangerous
Humans - Can only detect colour in the visible spectrum- ROYGBIV (red, orange,
380-780 yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)
nanometers - Trichromatic Vision- See red, green, blue wavelengths
- Receptor cells in eyes (rods/ cones) are sensitive to these colours
Use available evidence to suggest reasons for the differences in range of electromagnetic
radiation detected by humans and other animals
Refraction: is the bending of light rays when light passes from one substance into another with a
different density
- speed INCREASES
- light rays become bent AWAY from the normal
3. Biconvex Lenses
Aim: to model the process of accommodation by passing rays of light through convex lenses of
different focal lengths
Method:
1. Attach ray box to power pack and set up 3 parallel rays of light emitting from box
2. Select a thin biconvex lens
3. Place the lens vertically 10cm from ray box
4. Mark the path of the rays, focal point
5. Measure focal length (distance from middle of lens to focal point
6. Repeat steps 1-5 using thick biconvex lens
Analyse information from secondary sources to describe changes in the shape of the eyes
lens when focusing on near and far objects
Process from secondary sources to describe cataracts and the technology that can be used
to prevent blindness from cataracts and discuss the implications of this technology for
society
- when the cells of the lens die, the protein from them can accumulate in the lens- creating a
cloudiness
- caused: old-age, diabetes, use of drugs containing stereoids, smoking, excessive salts,
alcohol consumption
Identify the cornea, aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous humor as refractive media
Accommodation: the process of focusing light from objects at different distances onto the retina by
changing the curvature of the lens
Importance:
1. communication- reading, seeing people
2. Social computers, body language
3. Safety-at a distance, see road signs, depth perception
4. Information- reading, textbooks
Compare the change in the refractive power of the lens from rest to maximum
accommodation
The rounder lens had the shorter focal length and therefore the greatest refractive power used for
near objects
Distinguish between myopia and hyperopia and outline how technologies can be used to
correct these conditions
Explain how the production of two different images of a view can result in depth
perception
Stereoscopic Vision: depends on the fact that the two eyes are separated horizontally so they have
slightly different views of objects located different distances away
- Both eyes view the same target from different positions, this is then combined by the brain
- Matching up the similarities and small differences into one picture- in a 3D stero picture
Depth perception: is the sense of depth that occurs when objects are viewed with stereoscopic
vision (viewing the world in 3D)
4. The light signal reaching the retina is transformed into an
electrical impulse
Identify photoreceptor cells
Photoreceptors:
- Found in the retina of the eye- nerve cell which contain light sensitive pigments by convert
light images into electrochemical images that the brain can interpret
Light energy electrochemical energy
Describe the differences in distribution, structure, and function of the photoreceptor cells
in the human eye
Rods Cones
Distribution 125 million rods (20x more than cones) 6-7 million cones
Spread evenly across retina, more dense on Spread across retina in groups
peripheral section Most found in the fovea (150 000)
No rods in fovea
Structure
Rhodopsin: a derivative of vitamin A called retinal is bonded to a protein called Opsin. The retinal is
the initial light- absorbed part of the molecule.
Identify that there are three types of cones, each containing a separate pigment sensitive
to either blue, green or red light
Three Types of Cone Cells: Trichromatic vision suggests that each is sensitive to a different range of
wavelengths- red, blue, green.
Each cone contains a different colour pigment, which is detected by the brain from the sensory input
from combinations of the cones. The brain builds up a colour picture due to the number of impulses
received.
Explain that colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or more of the colour
sensitive pigments in the cones
Colour Blindness: is the result of one or more missing photopsins (photosensitive pigments) in the
cones. It is caused by a mutation in the gene which codes for a cone pigment to not function
correctly.
Conditions:
1. A person with red-green colour blindness cannot distinguish red from green, because they
lack either the red or the green-sensitive cones. (diochromatism)- Sex linked genetic
2. Cocaine causes blue-green defects
3. Non-genetic forms from diseased condition of the optic nerve
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare and describe the
nature and functioning of photoreceptor cells in mammals, insects and in one other animal
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the use
of colour coordination in animals and relate this to the occurrence of colour vision in
animals
Sound:
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to identify the relationship
between wavelength, frequency and pitch of sound
Frequency: number of waves which pass a given point in one second determines the pitch
Amplitude: height of wave- maximum distance that a particle moves away from its original position-
volume
Aim: to identify the relationship between wavelength, frequency and pitch of sound
Equipment:
- CRO- cathode ray oscilloscope
- Audio oscillator
- Amplifier
- Selection of tuning forks and boxes
- Microphone
Method:
1. Using CRO and audio oscillator, select a sine wave output at 500Hz, adjusting volume
2. Select appropriate sweep time and volts per cm so that a sine wave has 4 crests on CRO
3. Observe and record- frequency of the note, wave shape, wavelength, amplitude
4. Change pitch of note to 200Hz and record observations
5. Change pitch of note to 1000Hz and record
Conclusion: The relationship is: L. L. L lower the frequency, longer the wavelength, and the lower
the pitch.
Gather and process information from secondary sources to outline and compare some of
the structures used by animals other than humans to produce sound
Explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and that the frequency of the sound is
the same as the frequency of the vibration of the source of the sound
The frequency of the vibrations of the source of the sound is the same as the frequency of the sound
produced.
Outline the structure of the human larynx and the associated structures that assist the
production of sound
Human Larynx
1. Production of airflow
- Relax diaphragm and intercostal muscles so air is force out of the body to equalise t the
pressure inside and outside the body
2. Production of sound
- the pharynx and sinuses of the cranium determine the quality of the voice
- The tongue, cheeks, lips shape the sounds into consonants and vowels
Middle Ear:
Sound waves travel through the solid
ear ossicles and is magnified in volume
Inner Ear:
The semi-circular canals have 3D
sensors for maintaining balance
Process information from secondary sources to outline the range of frequencies detected
by humans as sound and compare this range with two other mammals, discussing possible
reasons for the differences identified
Mammal Range of detected sounds in Hz Difference between Reason for the differences
human and other
Lower Upper mammal in Hz
Human 20 20 000 -
Dog 15 50,000 5 30,000 Relys on sound as main form of
communication so has wider range
Find prey- high frequency
Alert to danger
Bottlenose 1 150,000 19 130,000 Communication by whistling with
dolphin each other (without vision)
Navigate by echo location in low
light
Find prey- low frequency
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources on the structure of
mammalian ear to relate structures to functions
Eustachian Tube: Helps to equalise the air pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane by
bringing in air from the mouth
Outline the path of a sound wave through the external, middle and inner ear and identify
the transformations that occur
Describe the relationship between the distribution of hair cells in the organ of corti and
the detection of sounds of different frequencies
Organ of Corti Structure Different frequencies Diagram
The receptive Each inner hair cell has Activated at the base of
organ for hearing tiny sterocillia which the cochlea (oval
in the cochlea, that can be in contact with window)- Width and the
contains tiny hair the tectorial tension of the basilar
cells and connects membrane, sending membrane change along
to the auditory an electrochemical its length due to different
nerve message to auditory pitches
nerve
Outline the role of the sound shadow cast by the head in the location of sound
This allows the brain due to the small differences to interpret the direction, location of the sound,
usually turning the heads until the intensity of the sound is equal in both ears.
Process information from secondary sources to evaluate a hearing aid and a cochlear
implant in terms of- position and type of energy transfer occurring, conditions under
which the technology will assist hearing, limitations of each technology
Conditions - Patients must have adequate residual - Inner ear: damaged hair cells in cochlea
which assist hearing - Severe to profound sensoneural hearing
hearing and - Middle ear: ruptured tympanic loss
Candidates membrane, damaged ossicles - People with limited or no benefit from
- Sensoneural and conductive hearing hearing aids
losses - People with high motivation and
realistic expectations
Positioning - Sits inside the curve of the pinna and - Receiver package and electrode array
where is it ear canal are surgically implanted. Receiver is
placed? - Worn externally (modern aids are placed in skull and thread through the
worn completely in the canal) cochlea of the inner ear.
- Modern hearing aids are digital - Microphone (behind the ear) and
- speech processor are worn externally
Type of -
Energy
Sound energy
Transfer
Outline and compare the detection of vibrations by insects, fish, and mammals
Method:
1. View prepared slides of nerves and individual neurons using the light microscopes,
electron micrographs, internet images
2. Make a biological drawing of a neuron labelling dendrites, cell body, axon, axon
terminal, direction of the impulse
3. Make a cross section drawing of nerve and label the nerve fibres and myelin sheath
Results:
Parts of Neurons Structure Function
Cell body Contains the nucleus as well as Directs the activities of the rest of
other organelles (mitochondria) in the cell
grey matter
Dendrites Short branching structures receive impulses and direct them
to the cell body
Axon A long extension from the cell body Conducts impulses away from cell
(white matter) body
Myelin Sheath Fatty, insulating cover around the Protect the axon and also speed
axon and Dendron up the transfer of impulses by
- Produced by schwann cells travelling between the nodes of
Ranvier (the gaps between them)
Axon Terminals Branch from the axon Where impulses are passed on to
(nerve endings) the next cell or to an effector
Method:
1. Wear correct safety equipment, globes,
dissecting board
2. Identify the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla
oblongata, spinal cord
3. Identify the four lobes of the brain
o Occipital lobe- sight
o Temporal lobe- hearing
o Frontal lobe- sound production
o Parietal lobe- sound perception
4. Use the scalpel to cut vertically between the
hemispheres
5. Observe areas of grey (nerve cell bodies) and white matter (nerve fibres surrounded
by myelin sheath)
Discussion:
- Limitations: brain was soft and made it difficult to identify all the parts, sheeps brains
are smaller and elongated to humans, cerebrum was smaller
Identify neurones as nerve cells that are the transmitters of signals by electro-
chemical changes in their membranes
Neurones transmit signals in the form of electricity by an electrical impulse from one part of
the body to another
- Travel very fast in one direction (from dendrite to nerve ending)
- Produced by the movement of ions across the cell membrane of the nerve cell, thus
is called an electrochemical impulse
- Can be detected as a change in voltage (resting membrane potential action
potential)
- When a neurone fires it is known as the 'all or none' response, the reaction either occurs at
the maximum or does not fire at all.
- The depolarisation must reach a threshold, which has to be at least 15mV greater than the
resting potential (-70mV) otherwise a cell cannot produce an action potential
Identify those areas of the cerebrum involved in the perception and interpretation
of light and sound
Brain
Sight - Found in the occipital lobe
perceptio - receives information from the optic nerves
n area - The left visual cortex receives information
(visual from the right field of vision of both eyes
cortex) - The right visual cortex receives information
from the left field of vision of both eyes
- The optic nerves from each eye partly cross
over at the optic chiasma.
Examples How they impair the transmission of nerve impulses Symptoms, Effects
Multiple MS is an autoimmune disease in which the bodys muscle weakness,
Sclerosis immune system attacks the myelin sheath surrounding clumsiness, visual
neurones. disturbances
- The myelin is destroyed and becomes hard substances
called scleroses.
- The nerve impulses become short circuited and
eventually cease.
Alcohol all block the transmission of nerve impulses by reducing poor coordination, lack of
the ability of sodium ions to cross the cell membrane. concentration, slow
- no action potential reflexes, lethargy, blurred
vision and slurred speech
Neurofibrom This is a genetic disorder which causes tumours to grow learning difficulties and
atosis along various types of nerves. hearing loss and tumours
under the skin