Research: Science and Education
edited by
Chemical Education Research
Emphasizing Multiple Levels of Representation Vickie M. Williamson
Texas A&M University
To Enhance Students Understandings College Station, TX 77823
of the Changes Occurring during Chemical Reactions
A. L. Chandrasegaran* and David F. Treagust
Science and Mathematics Education Centre, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia 6845;
*A.Chandrasegaran@curtin.edu.au
Mauro Mocerino
Department of Applied Chemistry, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia 6845
High school students generally have limited understand
ing of multiple levels of representation in chemistry (macro
scopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic) and, as a result, they
experience conceptual difficulties transferring between these
levels (14). Beginning undergraduate students also have been
found to experience difficulty understanding multiple levels of
representation associated with chemical concepts (5).
To dis
play understanding when engaged in reasoning about chemical
reactions and other chemical phenomena, students should be
able to demonstrate facility in using these representations at
the appropriate stage of their reasoning. However, research has
shown that many high school teachers tend to move between
the macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic representational
levels without highlighting their inter-connectedness (6).
Purpose of the Study
Chemistry is first taught as a separate subject in Grade 9 in
Singapore high schools. The prescribed chemistry curriculum
includes several chemical reactions that students encounter in
their studies. In the regular program of instruction in Singapore,
students are required to know the chemical equations for vari
ous reactions but are not required to explain the accompanying
changes using the three representational levels. Based on their
limited understanding, students generally memorize the chemi
cal equations and reproduce them in tests and examinations. In
view of these reasons as well as reports in the research literature
that attest to difficulties associated with the use of multiple
levels of representation, an alternative program of instruction
was developed and incorporated within the regular instruc
tional program with one Grade 9 class in Singapore. (Secondary
schooling in Singapore comprises Grades 712.) The purpose
of this study was to ascertain the extent to which students in
the alternative instructional program, compared to the regular
program, achieved scientifically acceptable understandings of
chemical reactions using multiple levels of representation.
Methodology
Chemical Reactions Included in the Study
Seven frequently encountered reactions were included:
1. Combustion of reactive metals in air
2. Chemical reactions between dilute acids and reactive metals
3. Neutralization reactions between strong acids and strong alkalis
4. Neutralization reactions between dilute acids and metal oxides
Division of Chemical Education www.JCE.DivCHED.org Vol. 86 No. 12 December 2009 Journal of Chemical Education
Diane M. Bunce
The Catholic University of America
Washington, DC 20064
5. Chemical reactions between dilute acids and metal carbonates
6. Ionic precipitation reactions
7. Metal ion displacement reactions
Regular Program of Instruction
Syllabus imperatives for chemistry required students to
know only the chemical and ionic equations encountered during
the course of study (7). The topic Formulas, Stoichiometry, and
the Mole Concept was the first formal introduction to chemical
equations (as symbolic representations). Students were required
to perform stoichiometry computations involving solids, aqueous
solutions, and gases, in terms of masses, moles, and volumes.
A subsequent topicThe Chemistry and Uses of Acids,
Bases, and Saltsincluded the only direct reference to submi
croscopic representations involved, describing acids and alkalis
in terms of the ions these substances contain or produce in aque
ous solution, and describing neutralization as a reaction between
H+ ions and OH ions to produce water. Students were required
to know chemical reactions for preparing soluble salts from acids
and bases, and ionic precipitation reactions for preparing several
insoluble salts. Towards the end of the course in the topic Metals,
students were introduced to the reactivity series with particular
reference to the tendency of a metal to form its positive ion il
lustrated by the reactions of the metal with aqueous solutions
containing ions of other metals. The main practical experience
in performing most of the chemical reactions referred to above
was in the Experimental Chemistry topic, which involved iden
tification of ions and gases relating to the qualitative analysis
component of the practical examination.
Alternative Instructional Program
One of us (ALC) developed and incorporated the alterna
tive program of instruction designed to reinforce use of multiple
levels of representation for describing and explaining the chemi
cal reactions. This instruction emphasized four strategies:
1. Additional laboratory activities to familiarize students with the
chemical reactions
2. Explanation of the observed chemical changes at the particulate
and symbolic levels using small group and class discussions
3. Emphasizing the significance of coefficients and subscripts in
chemical and ionic equations
4. Deducing ionic equations from observed chemical changes, not
by simply canceling out spectator ions in chemical equations
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 Research: Science and Education

These features of the alternative instructional program

Item 12 would seem standard practices in many instructional settings.
Colorless aqueous solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potas However, the alternative program needs to be viewed within the
sium iodide, KI, are mixed together. A yellow powdery precipitate context of the expectations of schools and teachers in Singapore
of lead(II) iodide, PbI2, is immediately produced. for students to achieve high grades in a very competitive environ
ment. In addition, teachers have to meet deadlines for topic tests
The chemical equation for the reaction is
that are administered to all students in the same level within a
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) specific week as well as prepare students for mid-year and end-
PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
of-year examinations. Time constraints limit opportunities to
undertake additional practical activities and group discussions
Which of the following is the ionic equation for the reaction that that would further engender learning chemical concepts with
has occurred? fuller understanding of the students.
A. Pb2+(aq) + 2I(aq) PbI2(s) Research Design and Sample
The research methodology used was a mixed quantitative
B. K+(aq) + NO3(aq) KNO3(aq) and qualitative case study design (8) using a purposeful conve
nience sample (9). The students comprised two groups. One
C. Pb2+(NO3)2(aq) + 2K+I(aq) group of students (N = 33) from a Grade 9 high-achieving class
(Class 303) that participated in the alternative instructional
Pb2+(I) 2(s) + 2K+NO3(aq) program comprised the treatment group taught by one of us
(ALC). A second group of students (N = 44) from another
The reason for my answer is: Grade 9 higher-achieving class (Class 301) that participated in
1. Potassium nitrate is produced in the chemical the regular instructional program comprised the control com
reaction. parison group taught by a teaching colleague of ALC. Based on
the previous years examination scores (in Grade 8), students
2. The K+ and NO3 ions remain unchanged in
with the highest scores were placed in Class 301, students with
aqueous solution as spectator ions.
the next highest scores in Class 302, and so on. So, students in
3. All ions involved in the reaction must be repre Class 301 were measured as being higher achieving than those
sented in the ionic equation. in Class 303.
In the first two years in secondary school (Grades 7 and 8)
all students study a single general science subject. The following
Item 13 year, in Grade 9, students in the high-achieving classes in Grade
9 (both Classes 301 and 303 in this study) study three separate
The salt solution, sodium iodide, NaI, was used in place science disciplines: physics, chemistry, and biology. The period
of aqueous potassium iodide, KI, in Item 12. A yellow powdery of chemistry instruction for both the high-achieving classes in
precipitate was again produced. Grade 9 involved in this study (Classes 301 and 303) was nine
The chemical equation for the reaction is months, with a total of about 96 hours of instruction.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) Program Evaluation
PbI2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) At the end of nine months of instruction, the efficacy of
The ionic equations for both the reactions involving aqueous the instructional program was evaluated by administering the
lead(II) nitrate are Representational Systems and Chemical Reactions Diagnos
tic Instrument (RSCRDI) to the 33 students comprising the
A. similar. treatment group and to the 44 students comprising the control
B. different. comparison group. The RSCRDI developed by the authors
(10) consisted of 15, two-tier, multiple-choice items and had
The reason for my answer is: a Cronbachs reliability coefficient value of 0.65. These items
1. The spectator ions are different in both the required students to select a reason from the second tier for their
chemical reactions. choice of response in the first tier. In this respect, the items test
2. Both reactions result in the formation of in- students understanding rather than their ability to produce
soluble lead(II) iodide, PbI2. facts from memory. Several studies have been conducted using
two-tier, multiple-choice items over the past two decades in
3. Potassium iodide and sodium iodide both produce chemistry and other science subjects (11, 12). These studies
the same number of ions in aqueous solution. indicate that students scores were generally higher when only
4. Two moles each of potassium iodide and sodium the first tier was considered compared to the overall score that
iodide are required for reacting with one mole of included both tiers. For the purpose of this study, an item was
lead(II) nitrate. judged to be answered correctly when students selected the
correct responses in both tiers of the item. Figure 1 shows two
Figure 1. Examples of two different two-tier, multiple-choice items from items (each with both tiers) from the instrument relating to the
the Representational Systems and Chemical Reactions Diagnostic chemical reactions of aqueous solutions of lead(II) nitrate with
Instrument. (Correct responses are indicated by bold type.) aqueous potassium iodide and with aqueous sodium iodide.

1434 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 86 No. 12 December 2009 www.JCE.DivCHED.org Division of Chemical Education
 Research: Science and Education

Results and Discussion
An examination of the percentage distribution of the scores
on the RSCRDI showed a trend towards higher scores for the
students who were involved in the alternative instructional pro
gram compared to students in the regular instructional program.
Scores in the range of 1015 marks were obtained by 82% of
students involved in the alternative instructional program (from
Class 303) but by only 64% of students (from Class 301) who
were involved in the regular program.
Analysis of students responses to the RSCRDI indicated
that Class 303, which had experienced the alternative program
of instruction, outperformed the higher achieving Class 301,
which had experienced the regular program of instruction, vali
dating the effectiveness of the alternative program of instruction
designed to improve understanding of the three representations
among students in the treatment group. Analysis indicated a
significant difference between the mean scores of Class 303 from
the treatment group (M = 11.70, SD = 1.76) and Class 301 from
the comparison group [M = 10.02, SD = 2.21; t(75) = 3.59,
p < 0.01]. The data indicate a large effect size, calculated using
Cohens d, with d = 0.84.
Students Scientifically Acceptable Understandings of
Chemical Reactions Using Multiple Representation Levels
As shown in Table 1, analysis of students correct responses
to the items in the diagnostic instrument indicated overall better
understanding about the chemical reactions among students in

Table 1. Frequency Comparison by Programs of Instruction of Students Correct Responses in Using Multiple Levels of Representation
Chemical Selection of Students Responses Showing Correct Conceptions Correct Responses by Instruction Type, %
Reactions with Added Classifications of Macro, Sub, and Sym Alternative (N = 33) Regular (N = 44)
Burning magnesium The mass increases [Macro] as magnesium atoms have combined 88 73
ribbon in air with oxygen molecules. [Sub]
(Items 1 and 2) The symbol for the element magnesium is Mg [Sym] because the particles 97 68
in magnesium ribbon are neutral atoms. [Sub]
Excess dilute The iron(II) chloride solution produced is light green [Macro] because 73 71
hydrochloric acid of the presence of Fe2+ ions in aqueous solution. [Sub, Sym]
and iron powder Hydrogen gas is produced because iron, being more reactive than hydrogen 39 48
(Items 3, 4, 5) [Macro], displaces hydrogen ions [Sub] from the acid solution.
The correct ionic equation for the reaction is Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + 91 55
H2(g), because dilute acids are a source of H+ ions, not H2+ ions [Sub, Sym],
and gaseous hydrogen consists of H2 molecules, not H atoms. [Sub, Sym]
Excess dilute Vigorous effervescence occurs and a blue solution is finally produced [Macro] 88 77
sulfuric acid due to the presence of Cu2+ ions [Sub, Sym] in soluble copper(II) sulfate. [Macro]
and copper(II) Carbon dioxide gas [Macro] and water [Sub] are produced as a result 100 98
carbonate powder of CO32 ions reacting with H+ ions. [Sub, Sym]
(Items 6 and 7)
Dilute acids and When equivalent amounts of dilute nitric acid and aqueous sodium 73 59
aqueous alkalis hydroxide are mixed, the mixture becomes warm and neutral to litmus
(Items 8 and 9) [Macro] because equal amounts of H+ and OH ions [Sub, Sym] have
reacted to produce water molecules. [Sub]
The overall change when equivalent amounts of dilute sulfuric acid and 97 75
aqueous sodium hydroxide, and dilute nitric acid and aqueous potassium
hydroxide are mixed is the same [Macro], because the net reaction
is between H+ and OH ions [Sub, Sym] in both chemical reactions.
Excess dilute acids On warming, a blue solution is produced [Macro] because the Cu2+ ions 67 57
and metal oxides [Sub, Sym] originally present in insoluble copper(II) oxide are now present
(Items 10 and 11) in aqueous solution. [Macro]
On warming reddish-brown iron(II) oxide powder separately with dilute hydro- 73 68
chloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid, similar changes are observed [Macro]
because in both chemical reactions H+ ions combine with O2 ions. [Sub, Sym]
Aqueous solutions The separate reactions of aqueous lead(II) nitrate with aqueous solutions 64 68
of lead(II) nitrate of potassium iodide and with sodium iodide to produce a yellow precipitate
and iodides of lead(II) iodide [Macro] are represented by the same ionic equation,
(Items 12 and 13) Pb2+(aq) + 2I(aq) PbI2(s) [Sym], because both reactions involve
the removal of Pb2+ and I ions [Sub, Sym] from aqueous solution.
Excess zinc powder On shaking the mixture, the blue color of the solution gradually fades 49 30
and aqueous until it becomes colorless [Macro], because the blue solution of copper(II)
copper(II) sulfate sulfate due to the presence Cu2+ ions (sub, sym) has reacted completely
(Items 14 and 15) to produce a colorless solution due to the presence of Zn2+ ions. [Sub, Sym]
On shaking the mixture, a reddish-brown deposit is also produced [Macro] 85 66
because Cu2+ ions [Sub, Sym] have been removed from aqueous solution
to produce metallic copper. [Macro]
Note: The abbreviations Macro, Sub, and Sym denote macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic representations, respectively.

Division of Chemical Education www.JCE.DivCHED.org Vol. 86 No. 12 December 2009 Journal of Chemical Education 1435
 Research: Science and Education
the alternative instructional program compared to the students
in the regular instructional program. Examples of students cor
rect choice of responses involving the use of multiple levels of
representation when describing and explaining the seven types
of chemical reactions are available in the online supplement.
Conclusion and Implications for Classroom Instruction
Although the difference in the percentage of students
taught in the regular and alternative instructional programs
who selected the correct responses was relatively small (10%)
for six of the correct responses (relating to Items 3, 4, 7, 10,
11, 12, and 13), the range of differences was 1136% for the
remaining eight correct responses (relating to Items 1, 2, 5, 6, 8,
9, 14, and 15) (see Table 1). Also, the percentages of students
who provided correct responses were higher for students in the
alternative program in all cases except two (relating to Items 4,
12, and 13).
Despite the encouraging results for most of the items, it
cannot be denied that students in both groups displayed several
conceptions that are often resistant to instruction because these
conceptions are usually firmly entrenched in students minds as
coherent yet mistaken conceptual structures. The findings about
students inappropriate conceptions are reported in greater detail
elsewhere as part of a wider study (10).
This study has shown that in order to facilitate better
understanding of the use of macroscopic, submicroscopic, and
symbolic representations in chemical reactions, teachers need to
encourage greater student participation in practical and minds-
on activities. Students should be provided with opportunities
to perform the chemical reactions themselves and discuss their
observations in small groups, as well as explore additional,
similar reactions so that they will be able to better understand
the net chemical changes in terms of the particles and symbols
associated with specific types of reactions. In what would seem
as obvious instructional strategies that most chemistry teachers
would use, the instructional program that was used in this study
must be seen within the context of a compact curriculum in an
educational system that is highly performance-driven. In fact,
teachers success is often gauged on the number of students who
achieve distinctions in public examinations. The constraints im
posed leave teachers with limited options other than to employ
a didactic approach that almost always results in attaining the
desired achievement targets but with no certainty of ensuring
that students learn with understanding.
The outcomes of this study suggest that the alternative
instructional program has been successful to some degree in
improving students understandings of the use of multiple levels
of representation in relation to the changes during chemical
reactions. At the same time it cannot be denied that the Haw
thorne effect in which students (and people in general) respond
positively to an innovative change in their learning (or work)
environment (13) could have contributed in some measure to
the success of the alternative instructional program, as it was
1436 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 86 No. 12 December 2009 www.JCE.DivCHED.org Division of Chemical Education
likely that the students felt privileged to be participants in the
study and perhaps behaved differently than their control group
peers. From the point of view of chemical education research,
the findings of this study make a significant, albeit limited, con
tribution to our pedagogical practice, especially in view of the
paucity of studies that suggest instruction to enhance students
understanding of multiple levels of representation in relation to
chemical reactions.
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Supporting JCE Online Material
http://www.jce.divched.org/Journal/Issues/2009/Dec/abs1433.html
Abstract and keywords
Full text (PDF) with links to cited JCE articles
Supplement
Data synopses of students scientifically acceptable understand
ings of chemical reactions using multiple levels of representation
for seven reaction examples
JCE Cover for December 2009
This article is featured on the cover of this issue. See p 1347 of the
table of contents for a detailed description of the cover.