Earthquakes

Chapter 8
Forces Within Earth
Stress & Strain
Most earthquakes are the result of movement of Earths
crust produced by plate tectonics
Tectonic plates tend to move gradually
Over time, stress builds up
Stress: the total force acting on crustal rocks per unit area
Movement occurs when stress overcomes strength

Strain: the deformation of material in response to stress

Types of Stress
1. Compression
- Stress towards each other
2. Tension
- Stress in opposite directions (object becomes long and skinny)
3. Shear
- Top and bottom move in different directions
- Causes a material to twist
Earthquakes
Shaking of the ground caused by
the sudden release of energy
stored in the rocks beneath
Earths surface
Rocks can be twisted, squeezed
and stretched. They fracture
when stress and strain reach a
critical point.
Why do earthquakes occur?
Elastic rebound theory:
Sudden release of progressively stored strain in rocks causes
movement along faults

Stage 1: Stress acts on a rock

Stage 2: Stress causes strain in rock
Stage 3: Rock breaks suddenly, releasing energy, and rock moves
along fault

*Similar to the process of pulling a rubber band and it snapping

Faults
Fault: any fracture or system of
fractures along which Earth
moves

A. Dip-Slip Faults
Movement up or down parallel
to the fault plane
Hanging wall and footwall
B. Strike-slip faults
Movement is horizontal and
parallel to the fault surface
A. Dip-slip Fault
Hanging Wall: sits above footwall
Footwall: below the fault line
A. Dip-Slip Faults
1. Normal Fault
Hanging wall moves
down
Tensional Stress

2. Reverse Fault
Hanging wall moves
up
Compressional stress
B. Strike-Slip Faults
1. Right Lateral
2. Left Lateral
* Use movement of feature to determine left vs. right lateral
Describing Earthquakes
Location
Focus- center of movement of the earthquakes (occurs
underground)
Epicenter- point on Earths surface directly above the focus (can be
a city)
 Describing Earthquakes
Seismic Waves: waves of energy

A. Body waves- travel through Earths

interior
Move through the rocks in the
subsurface

B. Surface waves- travel along Earths

surface
A. Body Waves
1. P waves: compressional
waves
Motion parallel to
direction
P stands for primary first
to arrive (because they
travel the fastest)
Speed: 4-7 km/sec
Travel through solids or
liquids
A. Body Waves
2. S waves: shearing waves
Motion transverse to
direction
S stands for secondary
arrive after P waves
Speed: 2-5 km/sec
Travel through solids only
B. Surface Waves
Surface waves: travel on
the surface
Cause LOTS of damage

1. Love waves: side to side

2. Rayleigh waves: up and

down (similar to the way
waves move on water)
Measuring Earthquakes
Seismometer: recording device that
produces a record of earthquake motion
The first seismic wave detected by a
seismometer is a P wave
Seismogram: output of the seismometer
Can calculate strength and location of
earthquake
Now digitized
Seismogram
Locating Earthquakes
Each station calculates a
distance radius to earthquake
3 stations are required for an
unique epicenter solution

Epicenter Location: where all

three distances overlap
 Locating Earthquakes
Depth of focus beneath
Earths surface can also be
determined
Shallow focus: 0-70 km
Intermediate focus: 70-350 km
Deep focus: 350-670 km
Earthquake Distribution
Along Plate Boundaries
Divergent: Shallow, low magnitude
Convergent (Subduction Zones): Shallow to Deep focus, low to
high magnitude
Transform: Shallow, along faults, low - medium magnitude

Most earthquakes are shallow focus (<70km)

The deepest earthquakes are associated with subduction
convergent plate boundaries (Caused from friction on the plate as
its subducted)
Describing size of Earthquake
Mercalli Index:
Earthquake intensity measured by damage (close to
epicenter, the intensity is higher)
Values I to XII
Varies with distance from quake and type of
geologic material underlying buildings
Mercalli Index
Describing size of an Earthquake
Richter Scale:
Measure of earthquake magnitude =
energy releases
How much energy came away from the site of
the earthquake
Height of wiggles on seismogram
Values 1 to 10: Logarithmic scale
Logarithmic scale- when you move up one
value, the energy increase by 10x
Earthquake Prediction
Earthquakes cannot be predicted to an exact time or
place unless the earthquake has already occurred
They MAY be predicted in a time frame and general
area
Based on change in rock properties
Small tremors
Water pressure
Surface elevation or tilt
Earthquake Prediction
Based on patterns of earthquake in space and time
Seismic gaps: a segment of an active fault known to produce
significant earthquakes that has not slipped in an unusually long
time
Calculate average time between earthquake and estimate probability of
another occurring

Historical record analysis

Effects of Earthquakes
Ground motion
Displacement of land surface
Breaks windows, cracks walls
Topples buildings
Most injuries or fatalities are from
falling debris
Building design
Building location
Effects of Earthquakes
Fire broken gas and water
mains

Landslides triggered by
ground shaking

Liquefaction water saturated

soil turns from solid to liquid
when shaken
 Tsunami
Tsunami: A wave of ocean water generated by an earthquake
Seismic sea waves
Caused by sudden upward or downward movement of the sea floor
Can also be caused by underwater landslides or volcanic eruptions

Generally produced by magnitude 8+ earthquake

Wavelength: 160 km
Speed: up to 700 km/hr (430 mi/hr)
Can cross the entire Pacific Ocean in less than a day
Waves: 45-90 ft high
 In the deep ocean, tsunami waves
may appear only a foot or so high
As they approach shoreline and
enter shallower water, they slow
down and begin to grow in energy
and height
A tsunamis trough, the low point
beneath the waves crest, often
reaches shore first. When it does, it
produces a vacuum effect that
sucks coastal water seaward and
exposes harbor and sea floors
A warning sign of a tsunami
26 December 2004
Earthquake in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia
Magnitude 9.3
Waves up to 30 meters (100 ft) high
Over 230,000 causalities
One of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history

Earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was subducted by the
Burma Plate