EPS Chemical Engineering Laboratory Notes

HERIOT - WATT UNIVERSITY/BAKU HIGH OIL SCHOOL

School of Engineering & Physical Sciences

Chemical Engineering Laboratory

Nozzle Pressure Distribution

CONTENTS
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 1
2. Objective.................................................................................................................................................. 1
3. Block Diagram.......................................................................................................................................... 2
4. Basic Theory............................................................................................................................................. 2
5. Method..................................................................................................................................................... 3
6. Operational Notes.................................................................................................................................... 4
7. SAFETY NOTE........................................................................................................................................ 5
8. References............................................................................................................................................... 5

1. Introduction
Gases are different fluids from liquids in that they are compressible. The understanding of compressible
fluids is important not only for general transport purposes but also in the operation of safety systems. i.e.
pressure relief, bursting discs, control lines, etc.

This experiment demonstrates some of the characteristics of compressible flow. One of the important
effects which will be investigated is that of choking a nozzle, where at pressure differences, the gas
reaches a maximum velocity and cannot accelerate more. This has particular properties for the pressure
and velocity downstream of the restriction.

Compressible flow is normally dealt with during teaching in thermodynamics or a specialist fluid
mechanics course. The section in Chemical Engineering, Coulson and Richardson (ref 1) on
compressible flow from a tank through a nozzle is relevant to this experiment.

2. Objective
The main objectives of this experiment are to investigate the effects of varying the inlet and outlet
pressures on the mass flowrate of air through various nozzles. In addition the pressure distribution along
the nozzles for varying outlet pressures is also investigated.

3. Block Diagram

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Pi Po
P
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Air
Flow
Meter

Ti To
Air Inlet
from
Filter/Regulator Inlet Pressure Outlet Pressure
Control Nozzle Control
Valve Valve

Air from the main laboratory compressor is supplied through a regulator and passed through the INLET
VALVE. There is a temperature sensor that can be used to record the temperature of the gas as it enters
the nozzle. The nozzle is a small metallic section that has a number of tapping points, each tapping point
allows the pressure along the nozzle to be measured by gauges 1 to 8. There are at most 3 nozzles to
test Nozzle A,B and C. Dimensions of these nozzles are given later. There are to larger gauges that
measure the pressure across the nozzle PI is the inlet pressure gauge and Po is the outlet pressure
gauge. There is a control valve on the outlet line which regulates the outlet pressure (or sometimes called
the back pressure). This means the rotameter can be used to record the mass flowrate of air as it leaves
the unit since the pressure of this air will be atmospheric.

4. Basic Theory
In the conditions at which the air is being used in this experiment, it can be assumed that it is behaving
like an ideal gas.

therefore
Pv = RT
In the case where the flow is adiabatic, the relationship between pressure and volume is given by:
cP
g = g
c v Pv = const

cP
g is the adiabatic index (for air g =1.4) or more usually g =
cv

It can be shown that the velocity through the nozzle at a point, x, along the length of the nozzle, can be
expressed as
g 1

2. g Px g
u 2
= R. Ti 1
x
g 1 Pi

where Px is the pressure at the position x.

The mass flowrate through a nozzle can be found by looking at the pressure upstream P 1 and the
pressure at the point where the cross sectional area is a minimum P 2, by the expression:
2P1 P1
G = Cd r 2 A ln
r1 P2

where
A is the cross sectional area of the nozzle

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Cd is the discharge coefficient

Subscript 1 refers to the upstream condition, 2 refers to the condition at the nozzle throat.

The maximum mass flowrate through the nozzle can then be given as:
1 1
2 g 1 2g Pi 2 2
G = At . . .
g 1 g 1 R. Ti
and the critical pressure ratio is
g
Px 2 g 1
=
Pi g 1
where g = ratio of specific heats at const. pressure and volume.
= 1.4 for air under the conditions used in this expt.
R = Universal Gas Constant
P = absolute pressure (Pi - inlet pressure)
Ti = inlet temperature
G = mass flowrate of air

A nozzle is said to be choked when the back pressure is low enough for the critical pressure to be
reached at the throat.

Further details of flow through a restriction can be found in any good text book (ref 2), and general
discussions are found in the Chemical Engineering Handbook (ref 3).

5. Method
This is a straightforward experiment to do and should not take too long to collect all the data necessary.
However, the processing of the data will take some time.

Before any experimental work can be done the gauges must be calibrated against the inlet air pressure
gauge which has been factory checked against a master. Each pressure gauge has a specific
characteristic which means that given the same pressure, they will all ready slightly different. This is a
result of intrinsic differences in the construction of each gauge. Details of the calibration procedure are
given below

Once the calibration procedure has been done, make sure that the correct nozzle for testing has been
fitted and each tapping point is connected to the correct pressure gauge. Open the outlet valve and
slowly open in the inlet valve. Allow air to flow through the system. Adjust the inlet and outlet valve so
that the desired pressures appear on the appropriate gauges. Record the pressures from all gauges and
the mass flowrate using the rotameter. The rotameter is calibrated to give the mass flowrate of air through
the nozzle.

Use each of the nozzles, and cover a range of inlet/outlet pressures. Using the pressure data:
1. Plot out the appropriate pressure curves along each nozzle see the diagrams in Coulson &
Richardson (ref 1). Compare these with what the text suggests should happen. Note that you may
have to plot the pressure ratio using the inlet pressure gauge as the reference.
2. Determine if any of the nozzles exhibit choked flow. Use the theory and calculate the critical
pressure ratio and hence pressure value that gives choked flow. Compare what you find.
3. Determine the velocity of the air as it flows through the nozzle and show this by any suitable
means.

6. Operational Notes
1. The air to the apparatus is supplied by the main compressor via a reducer. This has been set and
requires no further adjusting. Air is switched on / off by the valve on the wall.

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2. To change nozzles, gently loosen the knurled unions holding the nozzle in the line. Carefully loosen
and disconnect each tapping point in turn while rotating the nozzle to get access. Exchange the nozzle
with the one required from the box provided. Ensure O rings are in place. Reconnect the tapping
points starting with no.1. Tighten all knurled unions. NO Tools are required, hand tight is sufficient
provided the connections are fitted correctly. For the purposes of BHOS students, assume that this
was done correctly.
3. Remember that the rotameter has been calibrated at standard conditions (i.e. atmospheric pressure -
101.3 kN/m 2 and 20oC giving an air density of 1.2 kg/m 3 ). Therefore use the correction factor graphs
available on the apparatus if conditions are different from above. BHOS students should note that no
further modification is needed
4. According to theory, when a gas undergoes a reduction in pressure, the temperature may drop.
However with this particular system, the heat transfer is negligible and can be considered isothermal.
The two thermometer points on the equipment will demonstrate this feature.
5. All pressure gauges are standard 0 to 500 kPa gauges with 10 major divisions at 50, 100. 150 etc.
There are 5 subdivisions between each major division.
Note: before starting any experimental work the gauges must be calibrated against the inlet air pressure
gauge which has been factory set against a master. NO tools are required to tighten/release knurled
unions, hand tight if sufficient provided the connections are fitted correctly.

The results should be plotted in the most appropriate way to compare with published trends and to
illustrate the choking of the different nozzles.

6.1 Calibration Procedure

To make sure we can correct the values for each gauge, we must first CALIBRATE each of the pressure
gauges. This is done by:
1. Closing the outlet valve and opening the inlet valve. Allow the rig to pressurise up.
2. Close the inlet valve and make sure there are no pressure losses that might indicate a leak from
the rig.
3. Record all pressure values
4. Open the outlet valve a fraction and let the pressure drop by a small valve. Close the valve and
repeat step 3.
5. Continue to repeat steps 3-4 until the pressure in the system reduces to atmospheric.
6. Construct appropriate graphs and find the trend line equations that will allow you to determine the
correct pressure value from each pressure gauge. Use the INLET gauge as a reference (meaning
assume the inlet pressure gauge is the correct value).

6.2 Nozzle Dimensions

Dimensions of each nozzle (diameter and distance to each tapping point can be found in the scans below.
Note that nozzle C is a converging nozzle only, nozzles A and B are converging/diverging.

7. SAFETY NOTE
There are no particular safety issues except:
1. You are dealing with a gas at high pressure. Make sure the connection point between the main air
feed and the regulator is secure and that the regulator is operating normally.
2. Do not open valves quickly. Turn all valves slowly so that changes are gradual.

8. References
1. Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, (chapter on compressible flow)

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2. Douglas, Gasiorek, Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics.

3. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook

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