CHAPTER 3

Conceptual Framework

Types of EET Programs

Entrepreneurship education and training (EET) programs can be classified under
two related but distinct categories: education programs and training programs.
Broadly speaking, both aim to stimulate entrepreneurship, but they are distin-
guished from one another by their variety of program objectives or outcomes.
While differing from program to program, academic entrepreneurship education
(EE) programs tend to focus on building knowledge and skills about or for the
purpose of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship training (ET) programs, by con-
trast, tend to focus on building knowledge and skills, explicitly in preparation for
starting or operating an enterprise (Volkmann et al. 2009; GEM 2010a). While
these two categories are conceptually distinct, it should be noted that in practice
there are instances where the characteristics of EE and ET overlap or are inte-
grated into a single program.
Advancing the classification of EET, programs can also be distinguished by their
target audiences. The academic nature of EE means these programs target two
groups in particular: secondary education students and higher education students,
the latter including both graduate and undergraduate students enrolled in formal
degree-granting programs. By contrast, ET programs target a range of potential and
practicing entrepreneurs who are not part of formal, degree-granting programs.
Potential entrepreneurs targeted by ET programs can include, at one end of
the range, vulnerable, unemployed, inactive individuals, or necessity-driven
potential entrepreneurs, and at the other end of the range, highly skilled,
innovation-led, or opportunistic potential entrepreneurs. Likewise, the range
of practicing entrepreneurs runs from individuals owning informal, micro- and
small enterprises all the way to high-growth potential enterprise owners.
Building on these concepts, this study proposes the following definitions for
classifying EET programs according to both program type and target audience
(see figure 3.1):

s EEfor Secondary and Higher Education Students. This category generally

refers to the building of capabilities, skills, and mindsets about or for the

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purpose of entrepreneurship. The goal is to expand the pool of potential future

entrepreneurs. Thus, it is generally integrated within formal education institu-
tions at the secondary and higher education levels (including universities, col-
leges, and vocational schools). In this context, this study examines EE programs
targeted at both secondary and higher education students enrolled in formal
secondary, undergraduate, and graduate degree-granting programs.

s ETfor Potential and Practicing Entrepreneurs. This category generally refers

to the building of knowledge and skills in preparation for starting or operating
a business. Thus, the goal of ET is to aid potential entrepreneurs to become
entrepreneurs as well as help current entrepreneurs become higher perform-
ing entrepreneurs. The broad nature of these target audience definitions means
that ET programs can target a range of potential and practicing entrepreneurs,
regardless of age, level of education, prior experience, or circumstances (e.g.,
highly skilled and educated, self-employed, underemployed, and informal
economy workers).

It should be noted that these constructs do not ignore the reality that second-
ary education students can indeed be considered potential entrepreneurs or
that many practicing entrepreneurs may be enrolled in adult education courses
at tertiary education institutions. However, these classifications do enable a more
focused analysis of the EET landscape for the purpose of providing targeted
insights about how programs generally can differ depending on where they are
being implemented and whom they are targeting.

Figure 3.1 Classifying Entrepreneurship Education and Training Programs

Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship
education training

Vulnerable, unemployed, or
inactive individuals
Secondary
Potential
education
entrepreneurs
students
Innovation-led or opportunistic
potential entrepreneurs

Informal or micro- and small

enterprise owners
Higher Undergraduate
Practicing
education
entrepreneurs
students Graduate
High-growth potential
enterprise owners

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Developing a Conceptual Framework for EET

Determining the outcomes of EET programs is a complex and multidimen-
sional challenge, regardless of whom a program targets (Fayolle, Gailly, and
Lassas-Clerc 2006; Pittaway and Cope 2007; Oosterbeek, van Praag, and
Ijsselstein 2010). The task is complicated in part because the intended out-
comes of EET programs can vary substantially from program to program.
Therefore, this study draws upon existing EET research to propose a way of
conceptualizing both the results EET programs seek and the factors that can
shape those outcomes.
This study puts forth a Conceptual Framework (see figure 3.2) that outlines
three dimensions which the research has shown to influence the range of EET
outcomes: (a) the context within which programs are implemented, (b) the
characteristics of individual participants, and (c) the functional characteristics of
the program itself. The Conceptual Framework situates these three dimensions
as independent variables in a moderating relationship to the outcomes of
EET programs (that is, their outcomes are the dependent variable). The frame-
work additionally suggests that the first two dimensionsprogram context and
participantscan influence the operational characteristics of the program itself
(e.g., duration, method of delivery). In sum, a programs outcomes are shaped by
both its own programmatic characteristics and the contextual and participant-
based moderating factors.

Figure 3.2 Conceptual Framework

Program
characteristics

Outcomes

Participants Context

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Describing the Framework by Dimension

What follows is a summary of the EET literature supporting this conceptual
framework, focusing on the program dimensions that turn entrepreneurial
knowledge into a variety of outcomes. This section focuses more on program
characteristics than on the other two dimensions, since policymakers and EET
practitioners typically have the most leverage over the program design, which is
the level that most influences outcomes and most benefits from the experience
of good practice. However, this study does recognize that programs need to be
customized addressing the specific constraints relevant for [a programs] out-
come (Cho and Honorati 2013, 32). The program design should result from an
understanding of the context constraints, participants needs, institutional frame-
work and capacity, and policy objectives. Policymakers should recognize the
lessons learned from other programs and incorporate them into design, imple-
mentation, and evaluation, although they should avoid exact replication.

Outcome Domains
While no consensus has been established on a definitive method for measuring
EET outcomes (OECD 2009), any study of EET programs must be clear about
which outcomes are being measured and how they are being measured. Drawing
upon available literature and the evaluations of a range of EET programs,
outcomes vary widely. Furthermore, intended outcomes are not limited to the
conventional entrepreneurship measures, such as the number of new start-up
ventures or their performance. They may also focus on improving skills or chang-
ing attitudes, such as encouraging participants to consider entrepreneurship as a
career option (Mwasalwiba 2010).
The Conceptual Framework categorizes EET outcomes into a series of four
domains: (a) entrepreneurial mindsets, (b) entrepreneurial capabilities, (c) entre-
preneurial status, and (d) entrepreneurial performance (figure 3.3). Each of these
outcome domains is elaborated next.

Entrepreneurial Mindsets
Entrepreneurial mindsets refers to the socio-emotional skills and overall aware-
ness of entrepreneurship associated with entrepreneurial motivation and future
success as an entrepreneur. Extensive literature documents a range of socio-
emotional skills associated with entrepreneurship, which include self-confidence,
leadership, creativity, risk propensity, motivation, resilience, and self-efficacy
(Boyd and Vozikis 1994; Luthje and Franke 2003; Rauch and Frese 2007; Cassar
and Friedman 2009; Teixeira and Forte 2009; Hytti et al. 2010; Cloete and
Ballard 2011). Other socio-emotional skills associated with entrepreneurship
pertain closely to how individuals interact with others, such as teamwork and
social networking. While some entrepreneurial socio-emotional skills are difficult
to develop in people, there is evidence that others, such as opportunity recogni-
tion, can be taught (Detienne and Chandler 2004; Henry, Hill, and Leitch 2005).
Reflecting the importance of socio-emotional skills, a number of programs

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reviewed in this study target outcomes related to such skills. As an example,

BizWorld Netherlands (Huber, Sloof and van Praag 2012), an EE program,
measures participants improvements in self-efficacy, need for achievement, and
risk-taking propensity (see box 3.1).
In addition to socio-emotional skills linked to entrepreneurship, research
indicates that entrepreneurial activity is linked to whether participants have
a positive perception of entrepreneurship (Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham
2007; Martin, McNally, and Kay 2013). Thus, programs seeking to impact entre-
preneurial mindset also seek to affect participants views of the desirability and
feasibility of starting a business as well as their intent to do so (Kolvereid and

Figure 3.3 Outcome Domains

Program
characteristics

Outcomes
Mindsets
Capabilities
Status
Performance

Participants Context

Box 3.1 Building Socio-Emotional Skills: BizWorld (the Netherlands)

BizWorld, launched in the Netherlands in 2004, is an entrepreneurship education (EE) program
that takes place in hundreds of Dutch classrooms each year. Companies each sponsor a class
of students for an intensive four-day program. In 2011, the BizWorld Netherlands program was
evaluated using a randomized field experiment. The evaluation demonstrated that students
who completed BizWorld showed much more developed noncognitive skills than the control
groupin particular, they showed greater self-efficacy, need for achievement, risk-taking
propensity, and analytical skills.
Source: Huber, Sloof, and van Praag 2012.

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Moen 1997; Peterman and Kennedy 2003; Fayolle, Gailly, and Lassas-Clerc 2006;
Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham 2007). Participation in EET has been found to
have a positive effect on individuals overall passion and motivation for entrepre-
neurship (San Tan and Ng 2006; Richardson and Hynes 2008; Gundlach and
Zivnuska 2010) as well as their entrepreneurial intentions (Pruett 2011; Martin,
McNally, and Kay 2013).

Entrepreneurial Capabilities
Entrepreneurial capabilities refers to entrepreneurs competencies, knowledge,
and associated technical skills. Some EET programs measure the extent to which
programs equip participants with general business knowledge and the basic skills
needed for opening and managing a business (Russell, Atchisona, and Brooks
2008; Bjorvatn and Tungodden 2010; Karlan and Valdivia 2011). These progams
can target a range of management skills, from accounting and marketing to
the ability to manage complex processes, assess risks, and mobilize resources
(Curran and Stanworth 1989; Detienne and Chandler 2004; Honig 2004;
Summit Consulting 2009). Additionally, some EET programs target specific
technical knowledge or skills associated with a particular occupation or sector,
such as agriculture. A number of EET program evaluations explicitly cite prog-
ress in knowledge and skill acquisition. For example, participants in the FINCA-
Peru program demonstrated an increased familiarity with separating money
between business and household, reinvesting profits in the business, maintaining
records of sales and expenses, and thinking proactively about new markets and
opportunities for profits (see box 3.2).

Entrepreneurial Status
Entrepreneurial status refers to the temporal state of a program beneficiary as
measured through entrepreneurial activities and beyond (e.g., starting a
business, becoming employed, and achieving a higher income). Status outcomes
transcend the acquisition of specific mindsets and skills associated with

Box 3.2 Improving Entrepreneurial Capabilities: FINCA (Peru)

Founded in 1993, FINCA (Peru) is a microfinance institution that trains low-income entrepre-
neurs to develop their businesses. FINCA trainings focus on improving clients capabilities in
such areas as how to treat clients, how to use profits, where to sell, how to use special dis-
counts, and how to sell credits. In 2004, a randomized control trial compared participants in
FINCAs program to a control group. While the FINCA participants did not have higher profits,
they did report significant strides in developing their entrepreneurial skills. Specifically, FINCA
participants had a greater familiarity with separating money between business and house-
hold, reinvesting profits in the business, maintaining records of sales and expenses, and think-
ing proactively about new markets and opportunities for profits.
Source: Karlan and Valdivia 2011.

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Box 3.3 Becoming Entrepreneurs: Student Training for Promoting

Entrepreneurship (Uganda)
Using a randomized control group design, Gielnik et al. (2013) found that an EE program tar-
geted at undergraduate students led to an increase in business ownership within a period
of 12 months. The program, taught on a weekly basis over a period of 12 weeks, trained
students in the last year of their undergraduate studies. The 12-month evaluation study
showed a significant impact on new business start-ups, and students in the training group
were 50percent more likely to start a new business than those in the control group.
Source: Gielnik et al. 2013.

entrepreneurshipinstead focusing on measuring how a participants individual

status has changed or life has improved because of an EET intervention. EET
programs have been shown to measure individuals decisions to seek out new
capital and start ventures (Singh and Verma 2010), become employed
(Brodmann, Grun, and Premand 2011), and increase income and savings
(Cox et al. 2012). In many respects, the prevailing purpose of EET programs is
to have participants go on to start their own enterprises, and the extent to which
programs are yielding these outcomes remains a common area of inquiry. Gielnik
et al. (2013) conducted a randomized-control experiment to investigate just this
question in a Ugandan EET program and found positive effects (see box 3.3).

Entrepreneurial Performance
Entrepreneurial performance refers explicitly to how indicators of a ventures
performance have changed as a result of an intervention (e.g., higher profits,
increased sales, greater employment of others, higher survival rates). A number
of EET studies look at whether participants perform better as entrepreneurs than
those who arent exposed to EET (Volkmann et al. 2009; Shane 2010; von
Graevenitza, Harhoffa, and Weber 2010). In certain cases, EET program partici-
pants show improvement in multiple performance outcomes, including annual
sales, number of employees, number of customers, and market expansion (Botha
2006). Additional literature suggests that EET programs also look at performance
outcomes related to improved business practices, which in the case of SMEs can
include the formalization of an enterprise. Other measured practices include
improvement in separating money between business and household, reinvesting
profits in a business, maintaining records of sales and expenses, and implementing
innovations (Karlan and Valdivia 2011). Understandably, performance outcome
indicators are typically associated with ET programs that target practicing
entrepreneurs, as is the case with the Interise program (see box 3.4), although
measuring these outcomes is not limited to this target group.
Evidence also indicates that many programs measure outcomes in multiple
domains. An example of this latter phenomenon is the Women Entrepreneurship
Program in South Africa, which measures outcomes under all four categories

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Box 3.4 Enhancing Firm Performance: Interise (United States)

Interise is a nonprofit organization that teaches small business owners, principally from under-
served populations, to sustain and grow their businesses, create jobs, and strengthen their
communities. Participants meet for three hours biweekly for 13 sessions in class sizes of1518,
and they also form peer mentoring groups to allow for further discussion. Each year, Interise
does an extensive evaluation of its program. The 2011 survey indicated that 62percent of past
participants had added jobs to their companies and had given out an average salary ofjust over
$40,000. Furthermore, over half of Interise participants also reported a growing businesswith
increased revenue and government grants averaging $325,000 per business.
Source: Interise 2011.

(Botha, Nieman, and van Vuuren 2006). Similarly, a global program, Empretec,
targets both aspiring and practicing entrepreneurs and measures outcomes under
both status and performance (Grossmann 2005). Meanwhile, Start and Improve
Your Business (SIYB), which is also in use around the globe, has tracked outcomes
under mindsets, capabilities, and performance (Goppers and Coung 2007).

Program Context
The Conceptual Framework accounts for a series of contextual influences
shown to impact the likelihood of a programs capacity to generate outcomes
(Karimi et al. 2010). Studies have looked at the series of economic, political, and
social factors that are likely to make individuals more successful at starting new
ventures (Pittaway and Cope 2007). As a fundamental example, a market that
possesses the unique contextual factors needed to foster entrepreneurship is
more likely to have the factors that enable entrepreneurial activity than a market
that lacks such contextual factors. Furthermore, EET programs are also likely
to face contextual implementation challenges due to their operating locations.
The Conceptual Framework recognizes three broad categories of such factors:
economic context, political context, and cultural context (figure 3.4).

The Economic Context

The economic context represents the multiple economic variables that have
been found to correlate with entrepreneurship outcomes. Even potentially
skilled entrepreneurs would have difficulty succeeding without access to basic
infrastructure and financial resources. In their absence, managerial capacity
alone may not be enough (World Bank 2012c, 115). Contextual economic fac-
tors include local economic conditions, such as the investment climate and
specific market opportunities. In addition, contextual economic factors can
include the local infrastructure, both financial (availability of finance) and physi-
cal (access to markets), as well as regulatory and tax structures that relate to the
ease and incentives to start a business. McKenzie and Woodruff (2012) suggest

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Figure 3.4 Contextual Factors

Program
characteristics

Outcomes

Context
Participants Economic
Political
Cultural

that spillovers (positive or negative) within the economic context from entre-
preneurship programs may correlate with entrepreneurship outcomes. The
spillovers are mainly driven by competition responses to the activities of trained
entrepreneurs. Further illustrating the importance of the relationship between
entrepreneurship and economic context, Acs and Szerb (2010) developed the
GED Index (The Global Entrepreneurship and Development Index) to mea-
sure the quality and quantity of business formation in 71 countries.

The Political Context

The political context refers to both the stability of local society and institutions
as well as the leadership and will to promote entrepreneurship through local
policies and institutions. While improvement on any economic or human devel-
opment indicators depends on a particular level of security and local stability,
the political context for entrepreneurship can manifest in more explicit and
localized ways. Government support for entrepreneurship can take the form of
an explicit entrepreneurship promotion framework, with specific policy actions
such as government support for fair practices, minimal bureaucratic barriers, and
grants and funding opportunities to subsidize programs (Freedom House 2008;
Heritage Foundation 2008; World Bank 2012a, 2012b). Additionally, political
support can include partnerships with government ministries in the financing
and implementation of EET interventions. For example, the SIYB program in
Vietnam partners with government through the Ministry of Labor (see box 3.5).
Moreover, the political contexts that influence EET can be found in more
localized institutionslike support from community-based organizations, advo-
cates, and the education systemand individuals within schools in which
programs are implemented. Pittaway and Cope (2007) highlight the importance

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Box 3.5 Political Support through Partnership: Start and Improve Your Business
(Vietnam)
The Start and Improve Your Business (SIYB) program in Vietnam trains micro- and small-
business owners in basic business management, and helps themas well as potential
entrepreneursstart up or improve the performance of their businesses. From 1998 to 2004,
the Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry (VCCI) and the International Labour
Organization (ILO) implemented the SIYB program in Vietnam. Today, however, SIYB is
partnering with the Vietnamese government through its Department for Vocational Training
(under the Ministry of Labor) to market, select participants for, and deliver the program to over
1 million farmers over the next seven years.
Source: Goppers and Coung 2007.

of creating a match between a program and its local institutional context. Several
programs underscore the linkages between EET outcomes and instruction-
specific program champions, such as teachers, principals, and organizational
administrators (Kuratko 2005).

The Cultural Context

Cultural context refers to factors associated with local perceptions of entrepre-
neurship as well as cultural attitudes toward failure, success, and the traditional
roles of certain members of society. These cultural dynamics can either enable
or constrain entrepreneurship in a society and, in turn, can moderate EET out-
comes. Hofstede (1991) defines cultural values as broad tendencies to prefer
specific behavioral patterns over others. Specific cultural dimensions (Rauch,
Frese, and Sonnentag 2000; Pinillos and Reyes 2011) and the presence of entre-
preneurial values within a society (Davidson and Wiklund 1997) have also been
associated with different levels of entrepreneurial activity.
A socially supportive culture relates positively to entrepreneurship (Stephan
and Uhlaner 2010). As an example, Russian and Chinese business owners
have more entrepreneurs in their families and among childhood friends than
otherwise similar individuals, suggesting that social environment also matters
(World Bank 2012c). In general, studies have suggested that entrepreneurship is
facilitated by cultures that exhibit both collectivism (providing community sup-
port) and individualism (valuing individual goals over group loyalty), that are low
in uncertainty avoidance (having a risk-taking propensity), and that are low in
power-distance (where movement and communication within a hierarchy are
allowed). Hayton, George, and Zahra (2002) deduce from this that the greater
the cultural distance from this ideal, the lower the levels of entrepreneurship.
Since a host of EET programs aim to promote an overall entrepreneurial culture,
one may reasonably posit that entrepreneurship promotion must sometimes
encounter significant cultural constraints.

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Participant Characteristics
Among EET programs outcomes, a key moderating factor is what individual
participants bring with them coming into a program. These individual character-
istics are a prominent subject in the EET literature, and certain personality traits
have been linked to positive entrepreneurial outcomes (Luthje and Franke 2003;
Rauch and Frese 2007). From an operational standpoint, EET programs them-
selves recognize the role of participant characteristics in moderating outcomes.
This would explain why so many EET programs employ a range of selection
processesscreening candidates for various characteristics including their
educational background, their work experience, and even their personalities
(using personality tests to screen for certain character traits). Furthermore,
program outcomes can be shaped by dynamics associated with participant
behavior, including the nature of participant uptake as well as attrition within a
particular program. The Conceptual Framework thus includes five categories
of participant characteristics1 that research indicates can moderate program
outcomes: (a) individual profile (both demographic and personality related);
(b) education; (c) experience; (d) interest and intentions; and (e) participant
behavior. Figure 3.5 illustrates these participant characteristics.

Profile
An individuals profile refers to basic demographic identifiers and factors related
to a participants personality or traits. As is the normal practice in social
research, evaluations of EET programs often segment results according to fac-
tors such as gender, age, or parental background (Wang and Wong 2004).
Evaluations have looked at differences in outcomes across each of these

Figure 3.5 Participant Characteristics

Program
characteristics

Outcomes

Participants
Profile
Education Context
Experience
Interest and Intentions
Behavior

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Box 3.6 The Gender Effect: National Rural Savings Programme (Pakistan)
Started in 1991 with a focus on reducing poverty and increasing rural development, the
National Rural Savings Programme (NRSP) is a microfinance program that works within rural
regions of Pakistan to help communities implement a variety of programs that increase pro-
ductive employment, alleviate poverty, and improve quality of life. NRSP employs a common
approach to microfinance lending, which includes a requirement that its members join
community organizations.
At the time of its evaluation in 2007, NRSP was tying a series of its microloans to entre-
preneurial training sessions that included 46 hours dedicated to business planning, mar-
keting, and financial management. The evaluation found that the inclusion of business
training increased participants business knowledge, enhanced their business practices,
and improved several participants incomes, though this was disproportionately the case
among male participants. The evaluation cited remarkably different levels of success
between males and females, and noted that this difference could in part be related to
Pakistans segregating its labor markets by gender; to womens exclusion from many occu-
pations reserved for men; and to female wage rates being lower on average. Given the
disproportionate effect by gender (favoring men), the evaluation concluded that future
interventions will have to be more intensely focused on female participants to realize simi-
lar outcomes across men and women.
Source: Gine and Mansuri 2011.

categories to discern whether a moderating relationship might exist between

components of a participants profile and the outcomes of an intervention.
A prominent example of this is the National Rural Savings Programme (NRSP)
in Pakistan. Its evaluation demonstrated disproportionate effects based on gen-
der, favoring males (see box 3.6).
Additionally, certain personality traits have been linked to positive entrepre-
neurial outcomes (Lthje and Franke 2003; Rauch and Frese 2007). These per-
sonality characteristics are often a reflection of the favorable socio-emotional
skills that many EET programs aim to build. As moderating factors, these char-
acteristics, such as self-confidence, risk propensity, resilience, and teamwork, are
in effect skills that participants have upon entering a program.

Education
Education refers explicitly to the educational background of a participant, includ-
ing both level of attainment and basic cognitive skills flowing from formal educa-
tional exposure, such as literacy and numeracy. Ruiz and Dams (2012) note that
the majority of high-impact women entrepreneurs (those who had a business
growth of 20 percent or more over the preceding three years) had an educational
attainment level of college or above. Studies point to the role of a participants
educational level in moderating EET outcomes (Oosterbeek, van Praag, and
Ijsselstein 2010). Furthermore, the setup of a number of EET programs point to

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the role of literacy and numeracy skills in influencing outcomes; these cognitive
skills are critical for the comprehension and application of entrepreneurship con-
cepts imparted through EET (Kourilsky and Esfandiari 1997) as well as the inte-
gration of knowledge into the establishment or strengthening of an enterprise
(Peterman and Kennedy 2003; Lans et al. 2008).

Experience
Experience refers to an EET participants work and employment experience
(Oosterbeek, van Praag, and Ijsselstein 2010). Start-up, management, and
industry-specific experience have all been shown to moderate the outcomes from
EET participant to participant (Unger et al. 2011). Experience brings about a
functional level of business knowledge and familiarity with certain markets or
opportunities. At the ground level, individuals with some work experience tend
to have a better understanding of both the socio-emotional skills as well as
technical skills that are requisite for developing and sustaining an enterprise. The
experience may come from their own work experience or from other sources,
such as from the entrepreneurial experience of family or acquaintances. For
example, Ruiz and Dams (2012) find that the majority of women entrepreneurs
had relatives with their own business.

Interest and Intentions

Interest and intentions refers to how EET participants intentions differ, depending
on their profiles (Pittaway and Cope 2007) as well as their particular motivations
for participating (McClelland 1958; Sengupta and Debnath 1994; Zanakis, Renko,
and Bullough, forthcoming). According to the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen
1991), which is extensively cited in the entrepreneurship literature, a persons
intentions and relative desire to become an entrepreneur (Peterman and Kennedy
2003) are the most reliable predictor of actions (Krueger, Reilly, and Carsrud 2000;
Bullough, Renko, and Myat 2013). A number of programs look at entrepreneurial
motivations and intentions through a series of indicators, including self-selection,
as was the case with the Entrepreneurship Development Centre (EDC) program
in Bosnia and Herzegovina (see box 3.7). Program attendance is also used as a
proxy to measure the seriousness of participants intentions.

Behavior
Individuals decision to participate and continue participation in a program can
influence program outcomes. This includes how participants respond to pro-
gram offerings or perceive the overall value of a program. Studies point to incen-
tives shaping program outcomes, which in turn influence program uptake, such
as when a program ties into financial access or other wrap-around services
(World Bank 2012d). Additionally, Botha (2006) finds that the perceived value
of other participants can influence the decision of individuals to participate in a
program. For example, if a small business owner sees his brother benefiting from
participating in a program, he is more likely to participate himself. Furthermore,
perceptions of what it means to become an entrepreneur may go beyond mon-
etary incentives. For instance, the women entrepreneurs studied by Ruiz and

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Box 3.7 Entrepreneurial Intentions: Entrepreneurship Development Center

(Bosnia and Herzegovina)
The Entrepreneurship Development Centre (EDC) ran a comprehensive business training pro-
gram for existing and potential entrepreneurs who had loans at Partner Microcredit Foundation
in 2009. Participants were young adults in Bosnia and Herzegovina who had small businesses
or who were developing new enterprises. The randomized control trial took place in 2009,
withthe evaluation aiming to better understand the effects of business training on emerging
entrepreneurs business success and loan repayment. The evaluation found that while the
EDCtraining program did not influence business survival, it significantly improved business
practices, investments, and loan terms for surviving businesses. However, it also noted the
important role of uptake in the program, which is only delivered to individuals interested in
participating; it is noteworthy too that the program participants had a demonstrable interest
inentrepreneurship.
Source: Bruhn and Zia 2011.

Dams (2012) listed their top three reasons for becoming entrepreneurs as fol-
lows: independence, achievement, and challenge. Interestingly, money
came in at number six out of nine reasons.
Karlan and Valdivia (2011) shed further light on how participant percep-
tions can shape program outcomes, specifically on the issue of attrition. They
found that rates of program dropout were higher for people with more educa-
tion and experience, individuals who were also likely to benefit most from the
training but were less likely to perceive its value. Supporting this point, they
also found stronger training effects among participants who expected less from
the training intervention in a baseline survey. These behavioral dynamics influ-
ence whether and who elects to participate in a program, as well as how long
they participate, which in turn can moderate the ultimate outcomes of the
program in question.

Program Characteristics
EET programs may range from full academic courses to short training courses.
Program characteristics are an important driver of EET since they are the easiest
to manipulate. The entrepreneurship program concept is broader than what can
be conveyed by a single course or by the material taught in a classroom alone;
instead it comprises a whole portfolio of complementary activities (Souitaris,
Zerbinati, and Al-Laham 2007). An appropriate design of this portfolio is impor-
tant to a programs ultimate outcomes. The portfolio can include the usual
components related to classroom activitiessuch as trainers, curriculum, deliv-
ery format, and duration or intensityas well as wrap-around services like
mentoring, networking opportunities, guest speakers, and collaboration with
other institutions.

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Conceptual Framework 47

Figure 3.6 Program Characteristics

Program characteristics
Program design
Trainers and delivery
Content and curriculum
Wrap-around services

Outcomes

Participants Context

The Conceptual Framework distinguishes among four major categories of

program characteristics: (a) program design; (b) trainers and delivery; (c) content
and curriculum; and (d) wrap-around services (see figure 3.6). These fundamen-
tal categories are included in the framework for two reasons. First, they are
grounded in the broad-based discussions found throughout the EET literature.
Second, they help meet the need to build a holistic framework for examining
common practices across EET programs and informing EET program design
or reform.

Program Design
Program design refers to a set of inputs and arrangements that help define a
programs goals, scope, financing model, and methods for determining progress.
Among the most important components of program design is how a program is
financed, in terms of both finance sources and how it costs out its units of service.
Design characteristics can also include the extent to which arrangements are
made to facilitate collaboration with institutions in the local community (Fuchs,
Werner, and Wallau 2008). This includes partnering with area organizations to
obtain buy-in from the indigenous community and to recruit participants and
trainers.

Trainers and Delivery

Trainers and delivery refers to key program inputs and implementation aspects
related to who is delivering the content of the program; that is, whether pro-
grams are led by credentialed teachers, professional trainers, or entrepreneurship

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48 Conceptual Framework

practitioners, and where these individuals are drawn from (e.g., local schools,
international training consultant organizations, or other). Programs can also
include a mix of academic and practitioner instructors, with evidence suggesting
that a mixfaculty who have the academic and theoretical knowledge combined
with practitioners who are experts in the subject areacan provide the best bal-
ance of theory and practice for participants (Porter and McKibbin 1988; Pittaway
and Cope 2007). For example, the Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship
(NFTE) found that participants were more likely to engage in a range of entre-
preneurial behaviorsincluding taking initiative and leading in business, arts, and
sports activitiesand underscores the importance of training quality instructors
and the role of variability in teacher quality in influencing program outcomes
(see box 3.8).
These characteristics also include the program setting (e.g., classroom, virtual),
the program duration, and the size of the participant class/cohort (Hynes 1996;
Shinnar, Pruett, and Toney 2009; GEM 2010a). EET programs that have been
evaluated for their impact on entrepreneurship-related outcomes are typically
delivered in face-to-face settings. While programs that incorporate experiential
learning or virtual learning exist, the prominence of face-to-face delivery is
notable.

Content and Curriculum

Content and curriculum often become the focal point of program design efforts
because other categories revolve around them. In theory, they have a strong rela-
tionship with the outcomes a program aims to deliver. These characteristics
include a programs relative thematic content areas (e.g., entrepreneurship
awareness, financial literacy, strategic planning). Common areas of focus include

Box 3.8 Training the Trainers: Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship

(United States)
The Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE) program has operated in Boston since
1991, working with 18 public schools there. NFTE targets high schools where at least half of the
student body is eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. It focuses on participants mindsets
and capabilities, ultimately aiming to help participants stay in school, recognize business
opportunities, and plan for future employment. To deliver the program, NFTE certifies instruc-
tors who are already teaching in the schools where their program will take place. Each teacher
goes through a four-day training at the beginning of the school year (a so-called NFTE
University) and NFTE provides financial incentives to certified instructors for continuous pro-
fessional development programs throughout their time teaching the NFTE course. In addition
to NFTE-certified instructors, mentors come to class a few times throughout the year to guide
their mentees and help students create their business plans, and a handful of guest lectures
are delivered during the year by volunteer local business leaders.
Source: Nakkula et al. 2004.

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Conceptual Framework 49

general business skills, socio-emotional skills, and entrepreneurial awareness and

business plan development. They also include pedagogy (e.g., whether lecture
based or experiential) and teaching techniques.
For example, some programs may link learning with real-world experiences
(Porter and McKibbin 1988; Pittaway and Cope 2007). Evidence suggests that
delivery is enhanced by including varied teaching techniques, which can range
from hands-on experiential exercises to lectures, articles, writing, simulations,
and group projects on a variety of integrated subjects. Lastly, these characteristics
include how participant learning is evaluated (e.g., tests, business plan presenta-
tions) (Henry, Hill, and Leitch 2005; Haase and Lautenschlger 2011; Karlan and
Valdivia 2011; Martin, McNally, and Kay 2013). For example, some programs
require presentations of plans, proposals, or projects.

Wrap-Around Services
Wrap-around services are aspects of a program that complement the main con-
tent and curriculum. These can include arrangements for networking and
mentoring as well as opportunities to gain access to financing or other resources
(e.g., technical assistance, administrative services, job counseling, incubators,
grants) to support participants during or upon the completion of a program
(Ibrahaim and Soufani 2002; Volkmann et al. 2009). As an example, the Business
Plan Thesis Competition program in Tunisia matches participants with entrepre-
neur coaches during the final stage of its program (see box 3.9).
An evaluation of the Womens Income Generating Support Program (WINGS)
in Uganda suggests the potential importance of wrap-around services to EET
indicating that on-going support for young, new entrepreneurs is essential to help
them succeed and address the challenges that arise with every nascent business
endeavor (Blattman et al. 2013). The tier 1 evaluation of the WINGS project also
underlines the importance of grants, which the evaluation suggested were likely
the most impactful element of the program (Blattman et al. 2013, 57).
Building upon the structure of the preceding Conceptual Framework,
figure 3.7 provides a more granular picture of EET program dimensions,
identified through this chapters summary of research. As a more detailed

Box 3.9 Coaching as Follow-Up: Business Plan Thesis Competition (Tunisia)

Introduced by Tunisias government in the 200910 school year, the Business Plan Thesis
Competition entrepreneurship program is targeted at undergraduate, engineering graduate,
and masters students. The government created the program in the countrys 12 public
universities to encourage better employment outcomes among college graduates. The
program has two parts. First, students are trained in basic entrepreneurship skills around
business creation. The second part is more personalized: each student is assigned a coach with
an entrepreneurial background who advises him or her on finalizing a business plan.
Source: World Bank 2013.

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50 Conceptual Framework

Figure 3.7 Conceptual Framework: Detailed Structure

Socio-emotional skills
Mindsets
Entrepreneurial awareness
Management skills
Capabilities
Vocational skills
Enterprise formation

Outcome domains
Employability
Status
Income and savings
Network formation
Profits and sales
Job creation
Expansion
Performance Productivity
Formalization
Reinvestment
Implementation of innovation
Products and services
Local partnerships
Design
Selection process
Program design
Source of funding
Finance
Unit cost (program and participant)
Teacher/educator
Trainers Practitioner
Consultant
Face to face
Delivery Online
Experential
10 or less
11 to 30
Class size 31 to 60
61 to 100
Trainers and delivery
More than 100
Daily
Program characteristics

Intensity Weekly/bi-weekly
Monthly
One-off
Less than 2 weeks
2 weeks to 3 months
Duration
3 to 6 months
6 months to 1 year
More than 1 year
Financial literacy/accounting
Marketing sales
General business/management
Content Vocational
Content and Leadership and teamwork
curriculum Strategic planning
Socio-emotional skills
Mixed methods
Curricula Tests/assessments
Presentations/competitions
Mentoring and coaching
Individual Networking
Wrap-around Job counseling
services Access to finance
Firm
Technical assistance
Gender
Age
Profile Personality and traits
Family background
Education level
Education
Literacy and numeracy
Participants
Moderating factors

Work experience
Experience
Entrepreneurship experience
Interest in entreprenuership
Interest and intentions
Intention to start/grow a business
Uptake
Behavior Attrition
Conditions
Economic
Infrastructure
Stability
Context Political Entreprenuership promotion
Entreprenuership enabling
Cultural
Entrepreneuership constraining

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Conceptual Framework 51

reflection of the Conceptual Framework, this figure will serve as a tool for
understanding what shapes EET program outcomes; first, by providing a means
for systematically cataloging program-specific information about a global sample
of EET programs (contained within the Program Database), and subsequently to
structure an analysis of these programs to identify common practices and trends.
The findings from this analysis are presented in chapter 4.

Note
1. These participant characteristics apply across all types of programs (Entrepreneurship
EducationHigher Education, Entrepreneurship EducationSecondary Education,
Entrepreneurship EducationPotential Entrepreneurs, and Entrepreneurship
EducationPracticing Entrepreneurs). The distinction relies more on program target-
ing, although they should not be considered mutually exclusive categories.

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CHAPTER 4

EET Program Landscape and

Analysis

The Conceptual Framework discussed in chapter 3 is based on a review of

existing entrepreneurship education and training (EET) research, and thus
helps to summarize existing research about EET programs. A secondary pur-
pose of the framework is to enable an analysis of existing EET programs to
inform a discussion about what proved to work well, what did not work, and
the lessons learned.
As described in the Methodology section in chapter 1, a set of criteria
related to the rigor of each programs evaluation generated a sample of pro-
grams. While the sample cannot be considered exhaustive, the study identified
and analyzed 60 EET programs with evaluations that met the standards of
Tier 1 (21 programs), Tier 2 (10 programs), and Tier 3 (29 programs). Of that
total, 19 programs were classified as entrepreneurship education (EE), while
41 were classified as entrepreneurship training (ET). This section presents the
findings from the Conceptual Framework applicationanalyzing this sample
of EET programs by target group. In particular, findings from the evaluations
of Tier 1 and 2 programs inform findings about program outcomes. Tables 4.2,
4.4, 4.7, and 4.10 summarize these findings for each program type. Lastly,
where relevant, additional EET literature and available meta-analysis findings
informed the study.
Given the heterogeneity of the EET landscape, the analysis is conducted
by target group to enable a more focused discussion and breaks down the
sample of programs as follows: EE secondary education students, EE higher
education students, ET for potential entrepreneurs, and ET for practicing
entrepreneurs. Programs falling under the same category were collectively
analyzed to produce a set of observations about their common dimensions,
which are then organized according to the Conceptual Framework and high-
lighted in figures 4.14.4. These figures feature the distribution of the
various outcome domains identified by the evaluations (M = Mindsets,
C = Capabilities, S = Entrepreneurial Status, P = Entrepreneurial Performance)

Entrepreneurship Education and Training Programs around the World 57

http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0202-7