Volcano

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as

Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a
magma chamber below the surface.

Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid
tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.[1]
Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic
plates are diverging or converging, and most are found underwater. For
example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has
Cleveland Volcano in the Aleutian
volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the Pacific Ring
Islands of Alaska photographed from the
of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes
International Space Station, May 2006
can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's
plates, e.g., in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater
volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of
volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism.[2]
Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as
mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are
postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core
mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not
created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate
vicinity of the eruption. One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a
threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet engines where ash particles
can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles Ash plumes reached a height of 19
then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the kilometres (12 mi) during the climactic
operation of the turbine. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash explosive eruption at Mount Pinatubo,
and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth's lower Philippines in 1991.
atmosphere (or troposphere); however, they also absorb heat radiated
from the Earth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere (or
stratosphere). Historically, volcanic winters have caused catastrophic
famines.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Plate tectonics A 2007 eruptive column atMount Etna
2.1 Divergent plate boundaries producing volcanic ash, pumice and lava
2.2 Convergent plate boundaries bombs
2.3 "Hotspots"
3 Volcanic features
3.1 Fissure vents
3.2 Shield volcanoes
3.3 Lava domes
3.4 Cryptodomes
3.5 Volcanic cones (cinder cones)
3.6 Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)
3.7 Supervolcanoes
3.8 Underwater volcanoes
3.9 Subglacial volcanoes
 3.10 Mud volcanoes
4 Erupted material
4.1 Lava composition
4.2 Lava texture
5 Volcanic activity
5.1 Popular classification of volcanoes
5.1.1 Active
5.1.2 Extinct
5.1.3 Dormant and reactivated
5.2 Technical classification of volcanoes Ubinas Volcano
5.2.1 Volcanic-alert level
5.2.2 Volcano warning schemes of the United
States
6 Decade volcanoes
7 Effects of volcanoes
7.1 Volcanic gases
7.2 Significant consequences
7.3 Acid rain
7.4 Hazards
8 Volcanoes on other celestial bodies
9 Traditional beliefs about volcanoes
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Aerial view of the Barren Island,
Andaman Islands, India, during an
eruption in 1995. It is the only active
Etymology volcano in South Asia.

The word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic

island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from
Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology.[3] The study of volcanoes
is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology.

Plate tectonics
Divergent plate boundaries
Mount Shasta
At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another
as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot
molten rock. Because the crust is very thin at these ridges due to the
pull of the tectonic plates, the release of pressure leads to adiabatic
expansion and the partial melting of the mantle, causing volcanism and
creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the
bottom of the oceans; therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine,
forming new seafloor. Black smokers (also known as deep sea vents)
are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic
ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example,
Iceland.
Santa Ana Volcano, El Salvador. A
Convergent plate boundaries close-up aerial view of the nested
summit calderas and craters, along with
the crater lake.
Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an
oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case,
the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges under the
continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just
offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released
from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature
of the overlying mantle wedge, creating magma. This
magma tends to be very viscous due to its high silica
content, so it often does not reach the surface but cools at
depth. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (OSR
formed. Typical examples of this kind of volcano are Oceanic Spreading Ridges) and recent sub-aerial
Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. volcanoes

"Hotspots"

"Hotspots" is the name given to volcanic areas believed to be formed by mantle plumes, which are
hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary in a fixed space that causes
large-volume melting. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is
eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume. The Hawaiian Islands have been
suggested to have been formed in such a manner, as well as the Snake River Plain, with the Yellowstone
Caldera being the part of the North American plate currently above the hot spot. However, this theory is
currently under criticism.[2]

Volcanic features
The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain,
spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit; however,
this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of
volcanoes are much more complicated and their structure and behavior
depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks
formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have
landscape features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic
material (including lava and ash) and gases (mainly steam and
magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on the landform and may give
rise to smaller cones such as Puu on a flank of Hawaii's Klauea.
Lakagigar fissure vent in Iceland, source
Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), of the major world climate alteration of
particularly on some moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune; and mud 178384
volcanoes, which are formations often not associated with known
magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures
much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud
volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

Fissure vents

Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which lava
emerges.
Skjaldbreiur, a shield volcano whose
Shield volcanoes
name means "broad shield"

Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are

formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great
distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically. Since low-viscosity magma is typically
low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic
chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland, as well.
Lava domes

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of
a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of Mount Saint Helens, but can also form independently, as in the
case of Lassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but their lava
generally does not flow far from the originating vent.

Cryptodomes

Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The 1980 eruption
of Mount St. Helens was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge which
slid down the north side of the mountain.

Volcanic cones (cinder cones)

Volcanic cones or cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small

pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the
name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be
relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps
30 to 400 meters high. Most cinder cones erupt only once. Cinder cones
may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own.
Parcutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are examples of
cinder cones. In New Mexico, Caja del Rio is a volcanic field of over
60 cinder cones.
Izalco (volcano), located in the
Cordillera de Apanecavolcanic range
Based on satellite images it was suggested that cinder cones might
complex in El Salvador. Only a few
occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface
generations old, Izalco is the youngest
of Mars and the Moon.[4][5][6][7] and best known cone volcano. Izalco
erupted almost continuously from 1770
Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) (when it formed) to 1958, earning it the
nickname of "Lighthouse of the Pacific".
Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountains
composed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, the strata
that gives rise to the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created
from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Strato/composite volcanoes are made of cinders,
ash, and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of each other, lava flows on top of the ash, where it cools and
hardens, and then the process repeats. Classic examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in the
Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

Throughout recorded history, ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes has posed the greatest
volcanic hazard to civilizations. Not only do stratovolcanoes have greater pressure build up from the underlying
lava flow than shield volcanoes, but their fissure vents and monogenetic volcanic fields (volcanic cones) have
more powerful eruptions, as they are many times under extension. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes,
with slopes of 3035 compared to slopes of generally 510, and their loose tephra are material for dangerous
lahars.[8] Large pieces of tephra are called volcanic bombs. Big bombs can measure more than 4 feet(1.2
meters) across and weigh several tons.[9]

Supervolcanoes

A supervolcano usually has a large caldera and can produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes
continental, scale. Such volcanoes are able to severely cool global temperatures for many years after the
eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. They are the most dangerous
type of volcano. Examples include: Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in
New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupo in New Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia; and
Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Because of the enormous
area they may cover, supervolcanoes are hard to identify
centuries after an eruption. Similarly, large igneous
provinces are also considered supervolcanoes because of
the vast amount of basalt lava erupted (even though the
lava flow is non-explosive).

Underwater volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean

floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their
presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above
the ocean's surface. In the ocean's deep, the tremendous
weight of the water above prevents the explosive release
of steam and gases; however, they can be detected by
hydrophones and discoloration of water because of
volcanic gases. Pillow lava is a common eruptive product
of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick
sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which Cross-section through a stratovolcano (vertical scale is
exaggerated):
form under water. Even large submarine eruptions may
not disturb the ocean surface due to the rapid cooling 1. Large magma 8. Flank
effect and increased buoyancy of water (as compared to chamber 9. Layers of lava
air) which often causes volcanic vents to form steep 2. Bedrock emitted by the
3. Conduit (pipe) volcano
pillars on the ocean floor. Hydrothermal vents are
4. Base 10. Throat
common near these volcanoes, and some support peculiar
5. Sill 11. Parasitic cone
ecosystems based on dissolved minerals. Over time, the
6. Dike 12. Lava flow
formations created by submarine volcanoes may become
7. Layers of ash 13. Vent
so large that they break the ocean surface as new islands emitted by the 14. Crater
or floating pumice rafts. volcano 15. Ash cloud

Subglacial volcanoes

Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps. They are made up of flat lava which flows at the top of
extensive pillow lavas and palagonite. When the icecap melts, the lava on top collapses, leaving a flat-topped
mountain. These volcanoes are also called table mountains, tuyas, or (uncommonly) mobergs. Very good
examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland, however, there are also tuyas in British Columbia. The
origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte, which is one of the several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and
Tuya Range in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such landform analyzed and so its name has
entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was
recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings
River near the boundary with the Yukon Territory.

Mud volcanoes

Mud volcanoes or mud domes are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although there are
several processes which may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach
700 meters high.

Erupted material
Lava composition

Another way of classifying volcanoes is by the composition of material erupted (lava), since this affects the
shape of the volcano. Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions (Cas & Wright, 1987):
 If the erupted magma contains a high percentage (>63%) of
silica, the lava is called felsic.
Felsic lavas (dacites or rhyolites) tend to be highly viscous
(not very fluid) and are erupted as domes or short, stubby
flows. Viscous lavas tend to form stratovolcanoes or lava
domes. Lassen Peak in California is an example of a
volcano formed from felsic lava and is actually a large lava
dome.
Because siliceous magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap
volatiles (gases) that are present, which cause the magma Phoehoe lava flow onHawaii. The
to erupt catastrophically, eventually forming picture shows overflows of a mainlava
stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows (ignimbrites) are highly channel.
hazardous products of such volcanoes, since they are
composed of molten volcanic ash too heavy to go up into
the atmosphere, so they hug the volcano's slopes and travel
far from their vents during large eruptions. Temperatures as
high as 1,200 C are known to occur in pyroclastic flows,
which will incinerate everything flammable in their path
and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be laid
down, often up to many meters thick. Alaska's Valley of
Ten Thousand Smokes, formed by the eruption of
Novarupta near Katmai in 1912, is an example of a thick
pyroclastic flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is
The Stromboli stratovolcano off the coast
light enough to be erupted high into the Earth's atmosphere
of Sicily has erupted continuously for
may travel many kilometres before it falls back to ground
thousands of years, giving rise to the
as a tuff. term strombolian eruption.
If the erupted magma contains 5263% silica, the lava is of
intermediate composition.
These "andesitic" volcanoes generally only occur above
subduction zones (e.g. Mount Merapi in Indonesia).
Andesitic lava is typically formed at convergent boundary
margins of tectonic plates, by several processes:
Hydration melting of peridotite and fractional
crystallization
Melting of subducted slab containing sediments
Magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic
basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir prior to
emplacement or lava flow. San Miguel (volcano), El Salvador. On
If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is December 29, 2013, San Miguel
called mafic (because it contains higher percentages of volcano, also known as
magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe)) or basaltic. These lavas are "Chaparrastique", erupted at 10:30 local
usually much less viscous than rhyolitic lavas, depending on their time, spewing a large column of ash and
eruption temperature; they also tend to be hotter than felsic lavas. smoke into the sky; the eruption, the first
Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings: in 11 years, was seen from space and
At mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates are pulling prompted the evacuation of thousands of
apart, basaltic lava erupts as pillows to fill the gap; people living in a 3 km radius around the
Shield volcanoes (e.g. the Hawaiian Islands, including volcano.
Mauna Loa and Kilauea), on both oceanic and continental
crust;
As continental flood basalts.
Some erupted magmas contain <=45% silica and produce ultramafic lava. Ultramafic flows, also known
as komatiites, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at the Earth's surface since the
Proterozoic, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and probably
more fluid than common mafic lavas.

Lava texture
Two types of lava are named according to the surface texture: Aa
(pronounced [aa]) and phoehoe ([paho.eho.e]), both Hawaiian
words. Aa is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the
typical texture of viscous lava flows. However, even basaltic or mafic
flows can be erupted as aa flows, particularly if the eruption rate is
high and the slope is steep.

Phoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly

surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Usually,
only mafic flows will erupt as phoehoe, since they often erupt at
higher temperatures or have the proper chemical make-up to allow them Ash plume from San Miguel (volcano)
to flow with greater fluidity. "Chaparrastique", seen from a satellite,
as it heads towards the Pacific Ocean
from the El Salvador Central America
Volcanic activity coast, December 29, 2013

Popular classification of
volcanoes

A popular way of classifying magmatic

Fresco with Mount Vesuvius
behind Bacchus and
Agathodaemon, as seen in
Pompeii's House of the
Centenary
volcanoes is by their frequency of
eruption, with those that erupt regularly
called active, those that have erupted in
historical times but are now quiet called
dormant or inactive, and those that
have not erupted in historical times
called extinct. However, these popular
classificationsextinct in particular
are practically meaningless to scientists.
Play media
They use classifications which refer to a
Sarychev Peak eruption, Matua Island,
particular volcano's formative and
oblique satellite view
eruptive processes and resulting shapes,
which was explained above.
Active

There is no consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active" volcano. The lifespan of a volcano
can vary from months to several million years, making such a distinction sometimes meaningless when
compared to the lifespans of humans or even civilizations. For example, many of Earth's volcanoes have
erupted dozens of times in the past few thousand years but are not currently showing signs of eruption. Given
the long lifespan of such volcanoes, they are very active. By human lifespans, however, they are not.

Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt if it is currently erupting, or showing signs
of unrest such as unusual earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions. Most scientists consider a
volcano active if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years (Holocene times) the Smithsonian Global Volcanism
Program uses this definition of active. Most volcanoes are situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire.[10] An estimated
500 million people live near active volcanoes.[10]

Historical time (or recorded history) is another timeframe for active.[11][12] The Catalogue of the Active
Volcanoes of the World, published by the International Association of Volcanology, uses this definition, by
which there are more than 500 active volcanoes.[11] However, the span of recorded history differs from region
to region. In China and the Mediterranean, it reaches back nearly 3,000 years, but in the Pacific Northwest of
the United States and Canada, it reaches back less than 300 years, and in Hawaii and New Zealand, only around
200 years.[11]
As of 2013, the following are considered Earth's most active
volcanoes:[13]

Klauea, the famous Hawaiian volcano, has been in continuous,

effusive eruption since 1983, and has the longest-observed lava
lake.
Mount Etna and nearby Stromboli, two Mediterranean volcanoes
in "almost continuous eruption" since antiquity.
Klauea lava entering the sea.
Mount Yasur, in Vanuatu, has been erupting "nearly
continuously" for over 800 years.

The longest currently ongoing (but not necessarily continuous) volcanic

eruptive phases are:[14]

Mount Yasur, 111 years

Mount Etna, 109 years
Stromboli, 108 years
Santa Mara, 101 years
Sangay, 94 years
Lava flows at Holuhraun, Iceland,
Other very active volcanoes include: September 2014

Mount Nyiragongo and its neighbor, Nyamuragira, are Africa's

most active volcanoes .
Piton de la Fournaise, in Runion, erupts frequently enough to be
a tourist attraction.
Erta Ale, in the Afar Triangle, has maintained a lava lake since at
least 1906.
Mount Erebus, in Antarctica, has maintained a lava lake since at
least 1972.
Mount Merapi
Whakaari / White Island, has been in continuous state of smoking
since its discovery in 1769. Nyiragongo's lava lake
Ol Doinyo Lengai
Ambrym
Arenal Volcano
Pacaya
Klyuchevskaya Sopka
Sheveluch

Extinct

Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt

again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of
extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian Emperor
seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean, Hohentwiel, Shiprock and the
Zuidwal volcano in the Netherlands. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is
famously located atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano
is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano"
calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of
years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands
Fourpeaked volcano, Alaska, in
of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct. Some September 2006 after being thought
volcanologists refer to extinct volcanoes as inactive, though the term is extinct for over 10,000 years
now more commonly used for dormant volcanoes once thought to be
extinct.

Dormant and reactivated

It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant (inactive)
one. Volcanoes are often considered to be extinct if there are no written
records of its activity. Nevertheless, volcanoes may remain dormant for
a long period of time. For example, Yellowstone has a repose/recharge
period of around 700,000 years, and Toba of around 380,000 years.[15]
Vesuvius was described by Roman writers as having been covered with
gardens and vineyards before its eruption of 79 CE, which destroyed
the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Before its catastrophic
eruption of 1991, Pinatubo was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to Mount Rinjani eruption in 1994, in
most people in the surrounding areas. Two other examples are the long- Lombok, Indonesia
dormant Soufrire Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat, thought to
be extinct before activity resumed in 1995, and Fourpeaked Mountain
in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted
since before 8000 BCE and had long been thought to be extinct.
Climate change can reportedly trigger volcanic activity in sensitive
areas by changing pressure of ice or seawater and extreme weather.[16]

Technical classification of volcan oes

Volcanic-alert level
Narcondam Island, India, is classified as
The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be a dormant volcano by theGeological
subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have Survey of India
erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they are
not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted
new classifications to describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity.[17] Some alert systems use
different numbers or colors to designate the different stages. Other systems use colors and words. Some
systems use a combination of both.

Volcano warning schemes of the United States

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has adopted a common system nationwide for characterizing the
level of unrest and eruptive activity at volcanoes. The new volcano alert-level system classifies volcanoes now
as being in a normal, advisory, watch or warning stage. Additionally, colors are used to denote the amount of
ash produced. Details of the U.S. system can be found at Volcano warning schemes of the United States.

Decade volcanoes
The Decade Volcanoes are 17 volcanoes identified by the International
Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior
(IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of
large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. They are
named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of
the United Nations-sponsored International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction. The 17 current Decade Volcanoes are

Avachinsky-Koryaksky Sakurajima, Kagoshima

(grouped together),
Kamchatka, Russia
Nevado de Colima,
Jalisco and Colima,
Mexico
Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy
Prefecture, Japan
Santa Maria/Santiaguito,
Guatemala
Santorini, Cyclades,
Greece
Koryaksky volcano towering over
Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskyon
Kamchatka Peninsula, Far Eastern
Russia
 Galeras, Nario, Taal Volcano, Luzon,
Colombia Philippines
Mauna Loa, Hawaii, Teide, Canary Islands,
USA Spain
Mount Merapi, Central Ulawun, New Britain,
Java, Indonesia Papua New Guinea
Mount Nyiragongo, Mount Unzen, Nagasaki
Democratic Republic of Prefecture, Japan
the Congo Vesuvius, Naples, Italy
Mount Rainier,
Washington, USA

The Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project, an initiative of the Deep Carbon Observatory, monitors nine
volcanoes, two of which are Decade volcanoes. The focus of the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project is to use
Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System instruments to measure CO2/SO2 ratios in real-time and in high-
resolution to allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving prediction of volcanic
activity.[18]

Effects of volcanoes
There are many different types
of volcanic eruptions and
associated activity: phreatic
eruptions (steam-generated
eruptions), explosive eruption
of high-silica lava (e.g.,
rhyolite), effusive eruption of
low-silica lava (e.g., basalt),
pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris
flow) and carbon dioxide
Schematic of volcano injection of Solar radiation graph 19582008,
emission. All of these activities showing how the radiation is reduced
aerosols and gases
can pose a hazard to humans. after major volcanic eruptions
Earthquakes, hot springs,
fumaroles, mud pots and
geysers often accompany volcanic activity.

Volcanic gases

The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably

from one volcano to the next. Water vapor is typically the most
abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide[19] and sulfur
dioxide. Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. A large number of minor and
trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, halocarbons, organic compounds, and volatile metal
chlorides.
Sulfur dioxide concentration over the
Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon Sierra Negra Volcano, Galapagos
Islands, during an eruption in October
dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl),
2005
hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into the
stratosphere to heights of 1632 kilometres (1020 mi) above the
Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections
come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which condenses rapidly in the
stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The SO2 emissions alone of two different eruptions are sufficient to
compare their potential climatic impact.[20] The aerosols increase the Earth's albedoits reflection of radiation
from the Sun back into spaceand thus cool the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also
absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming the stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past
century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree
(Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years; sulfur dioxide from the eruption of Huaynaputina probably
caused the Russian famine of 16011603.[21]

Significant consequences

One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the supereruption of Lake Toba on
Sumatra island in Indonesia.[22] According to the Toba catastrophe theory to which some anthropologists and
archeologists subscribe, it had global consequences,[23] killing most humans then alive and creating a
population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.[24] The 1815 eruption of Mount
Tambora created global climate anomalies that became known as the "Year Without a Summer" because of the
effect on North American and European weather.[25] Agricultural crops failed and livestock died in much of the
Northern Hemisphere, resulting in one of the worst famines of the 19th century.[26] The freezing winter of
174041, which led to widespread famine in northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a volcanic
eruption.[27]

It has been suggested that volcanic activity caused or contributed to the End-Ordovician, Permian-Triassic, Late
Devonian mass extinctions, and possibly others. The massive eruptive event which formed the Siberian Traps,
one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth's geological history, continued
for a million years and is considered to be the likely cause of the "Great Dying" about 250 million years
ago,[28] which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time.[29]

Acid rain

Sulfate aerosols promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces

that alter chlorine and nitrogen chemical species in the stratosphere.
This effect, together with increased stratospheric chlorine levels from
chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO),
which destroys ozone (O3). As the aerosols grow and coagulate, they
settle down into the upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei for
cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's radiation balance. Most of
the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved
in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground as
acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most Ash plume rising fromEyjafjallajkull
of it is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive on April 17, 2010
volcanic eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus
provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.[30]

Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic activity releases about 130 to 230
teragrams (145 million to 255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year.[31] Volcanic eruptions may inject
aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere. Large injections may cause visual effects such as unusually colorful
sunsets and affect global climate mainly by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide the benefit of adding
nutrients to soil through the weathering process of volcanic rocks. These fertile soils assist the growth of plants
and various crops. Volcanic eruptions can also create new islands, as the magma cools and solidifies upon
contact with the water.

Hazards
Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the particles
can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter
their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Dangerous encounters in 1982 after the eruption of
Galunggung in Indonesia, and 1989 after the eruption of Mount Redoubt in Alaska raised awareness of this
phenomenon. Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers were established by the International Civil Aviation
Organization to monitor ash clouds and advise pilots accordingly. The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajkull caused
major disruptions to air travel in Europe.

Volcanoes on other celestial bodies

The Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic
activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a
partially molten core.[32] However, the Moon does have many volcanic
features such as maria (the darker patches seen on the moon), rilles and
domes.

The Tvashtar volcano erupts a plume
330 km (205 mi) above the surface of
Jupiter's moon Io.
summit and on the northern flank.
The planet Venus has a surface that is 90% basalt, indicating that
volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may
have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years
ago,[33] from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters
on the surface. Lava flows are widespread and forms of volcanism not
present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and
observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic
eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is
still volcanically active. However, radar sounding by the Magellan
probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at
Venus's highest volcano Maat Mons, in the form of ash flows near the

There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on
Earth. They include Arsia Mons, Ascraeus Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and Pavonis Mons. These
volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years,[34] but the European Mars Express spacecraft has
found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.[34]

Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar system because of tidal interaction with
Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt sulfur, sulfur dioxide and silicate rock, and as a result, Io is
constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the solar system, with temperatures
exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the solar system
occurred on Io.[35] Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's Galilean moons, also appears to have an active volcanic
system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into ice on the frigid
surface. This process is known as cryovolcanism, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer
planets of the solar system.

In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed cryovolcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton, a moon of Neptune, and in
2005 the CassiniHuygens probe photographed fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus, a moon
of Saturn.[36][37] The ejecta may be composed of water, liquid nitrogen, ammonia, dust, or methane
compounds. CassiniHuygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the Saturnian moon
Titan, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere.[38] It is theorized that
cryovolcanism may also be present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.

A 2010 study of the exoplanet COROT-7b, which was detected by transit in 2009, suggested that tidal heating
from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity
similar to that found on Io.[39]
Traditional beliefs about volcanoes
Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to supernatural causes, such
as the actions of gods or demigods. To the ancient Greeks, volcanoes'
capricious power could only be explained as acts of the gods, while 16th/17th-
century German astronomer Johannes Kepler believed they were ducts for the
Earth's tears.[40] One early idea counter to this was proposed by Jesuit
Athanasius Kircher (16021680), who witnessed eruptions of Mount Etna and
Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his view of an
Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by the burning of
sulfur, bitumen and coal.

Various explanations were proposed for volcano behavior before the modern
understanding of the Earth's mantle structure as a semisolid material was
developed. For decades after awareness that compression and radioactive
materials may be heat sources, their contributions were specifically discounted.
Volcanic action was often attributed to chemical reactions and a thin layer of
molten rock near the surface.

See also Olympus Mons (Latin, "Mount

Olympus"), located on the
planet Mars, is the tallest
Global Volcanism Program
known mountain in theSolar
List of extraterrestrial volcanoes
System.
Maritime impacts of volcanic eruptions
Prediction of volcanic activity
Timeline of volcanism on Earth
Volcanic Explosivity Index
Volcano Number
Volcano observatory

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Further reading
Cas, R.A.F. and J.V. Wright, 1987. Volcanic Successions. Unwin Hyman Inc. 528p. ISBN 0-04-552022-4
Macdonald, Gordon and Agatin T. Abbott. (1970). Volcanoes in the Sea. University of Hawaii Press,
Honolulu. 441 p.
Marti, Joan & Ernst, Gerald. (2005). Volcanoes and the Environment. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-59254-2.
Ollier, Cliff. (1988). Volcanoes. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, UK, ISBN 0-631-15664-X (hardback), ISBN 0-
631-15977-0 (paperback).
Sigursson, Haraldur, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-643140-X.
This is a reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.

External links
Volcanoes at DMOZ
Volcano, U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA
Volcano World
Volcanos (Worsley School)

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