MIGRATION

PRIMARY MIGRATION (EXPULSION)

SECONDARY MIGRATION
MIGRATION
Primary migration is understood as the emigration of
hydrocarbons from the source rock (clay or shale) into
permeable carrier beds (generally sands or limestones).
Secondary migration refers to subsequent movement of oil and
gas within permeable carrier beds and reservoirs (Showalter,
1979; England, 1994).
There is consensus that secondary migration occurs when
petroleum is clearly identifiable as crude oil and gas, and,
although gas may be dissolved in oil, their solubility in connate
water is negligible.
Secondary migration occurs by buoyancy due to the different
densities of the respective fluids and in response to differential
pressures.
MIGRATION
MIGRATION
PRIMARY MIGRATION
The study of primary migration contains a major paradox as follows :
o Oil and gas are trapped in porous, permeable reservoirs. Yet, these source
rocks (that have been identified) are impermeable shales. How then did
the fluids emigrate?
o It would be nice to believe that oil and gas were squeezed from the source
clay during early burial before compaction destroyed permeability. This
process cannot be so, however, because the temperatures necessary for
hydrocarbon generation are not reached until compaction has greatly
diminished permeability and water saturation.
o At this point, a review of the relationship between clay porosity,
permeability, compaction, water loss, and hydrocarbon migration is
appropriate.
o Published compaction curves for argillaceous show that most water
expulsion by compaction occurs in the upper 2 km of burial. Pore water
expelled by compaction is minimal below this depth.
(Selley, 1998)
* )Selley, RC., 1998, Elements of Petroleum Geology 2nd Ed., Academic Press, 471 pp.
 PRIMARY MIGRATION

Note that for an average

geothermal gradient (25 C/km), oil
generation begins below the depth
at which most of the compactional
pore water has been expelled. The
migration of oil by the
straightforward flushing of pore
water is not therefore aviable
proposition.

(Selley, 1998)

* )Selley, RC., 1998, Elements of Petroleum Geology 2nd Ed.,

Academic Press, 471 pp.
PRIMARY MIGRATION

Powers (1967) pointed out that there are two types of water in clays:
normal pore water and structured water that is bonded to the layers of
montmorillonitic clays (smectites).
When illitic or kaolinitic clays are buried, a single phase of water emission
occurs because of compaction in the first 2 km of burial. When
montmorillonitic-rich muds are buried, however, two periods of water
emission occur: an early phase and a second, quite distinct phase when
the structured water is expelled during the collapse of the
montmorillonite lattice as it changes to illite.
Further work by Burst (1969) detailed the transformation of
montmorillonite to illite and showed that this change occurred at an
average temperature of some 100 -110 C, right in the middle of the oil
generation window .
PRIMARY MIGRATION
PRIMARY MIGRATION

The two-stage dewatering of montmorillonitic clay. From Powers (1967)

PRIMARY MIGRATION
The actual depth at which
this point is reached varies
with the geothermal
gradient, but Burst (1969)
was able to show a normal
distribution of productive
depth at some 600 m
above the clay dehydration
level . By integrating
geothermal gradient,
depth, and the clay change
point, it was possible to
produce a fluid
redistribution model for
some area. (Foscolos and
Powell, 1978).
 PRIMARY MIGRATION
B
Barker (1980) has pursued this
idea, showing that not only
water but also hydrocarbons
may be attached to the clay
lattice.
Obviously, the hydrocarbons
will be detached from the clay
surface when dehydration
occurs. The exact physical and
chemical process whereby oil
is expelled from the source
rock is still not clear, but Fig. B
demonstrates an empirical Sketch showing how hydrocarbon molecules (in this case an
relationship between clay R-C-C-COH alcohol) may be attached to a clay mineral lattice
dehydration and hydrocarbon together with water molecules. Modified from Barker (1978),
(Selley, 1998)
accumulation. reprinted by permission of the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists.
PRIMARY MIGRATION
Regional mapping of the surface at which this change occurs is
thus a valid exploration tool, although the processes responsible
for the relationship may not be fully understood.
In many other hydrocarbon provinces in the world, smectitic clays
are largely absent. The dewatering of clay cannot therefore be
advocated as the dominant process of emigrating hydrocarbons
from source rocks.

Overpressure is obviously a factor that may aid petroleum

generation by maintaining porosity and permeability and inhibiting
the formation of a rigid framework to the rock. Several geologists
have suggested that fluid emigration from clays is aided by the
development of microfractures (e.g., Palciauskus and Domenico,
1980).
 These microfractures would cause a marked increase in permeability
and thus allow fluid to escape.
The microfractures would then close as pore pressure dropped. It
has been suggested that petroleum globules could migrate by
shouldering aside the unfixed clay grains.
This process was proved by the fact that overpressured basins bleed
of excess fluid, not in a slow steady discharge, but in episodic hot
flushes (Capuano, 1993; Cartwright, 1994; Miller, 1995; Roberts and
Nunn, 1995).
PRIMARY MIGRATION

The various theories for primary hydrocarbon migration can be

grouped as follows:
1. 1. Expulsion as protopetroleum
2. 2. Expulsion as petroleum
a) a. In solution
Dissolved in water (derived from compaction, expelled from
clays, or dissolved from meteoric flushing)
Within micelles
Solution of oil in gas
b) b. Globules of oil in water
c) c. Continuous phase
PRIMARY MIGRATION
Expulsion of Hydrocarbons as
Protopetroleum

One of the major problems in understanding hydrocarbon migration is

their low solubility in water. Hunt (1968) suggested that emigration
occurs before the hydrocarbons are recognizable crude oil, that is, while
they are in the form of ketones, acids, and esters, which are soluble in
water. This transitional phase is termed protopetroleum.

This mechanism contains several problems (Cordell, 1972). The observed

concentrations of ketones, acids, and esters in source rocks are low, and it is
difficult to see how they can actually migrate to the carrier bed and, once there,
separate from the water. These compounds are likely to be adsorbed on the
surface of clay minerals and to resist expulsion from the source rock. If, however,
they do emigrate to a carrier bed, it is difficult to envisage how they evolve into
immiscible crude oil, since they are soluble in water.
PRIMARY MIGRATION
Expulsion of Hydrocarbons in
Aqueous Solution

One obvious possibility to consider is that the hydrocarbons emigrate

from the source bed fully formed, yet dissolved in water.
The solubility of hydrocarbons is negligible at the earths surface, but
may be enhanced by temperature or the presence of micelles.
Expulsion of Hydrocarbons in Aqueous Solution : Hot Water Theory

This Figure shows the solubility

of hydrocarbons plotted
according to hydrocarbon
numbers. This graph shows that
hydrocarbon solubility increases
with decreasing carbon number
for both the normal alkanes
(paraffins) and the aromatic
series.

This Graph show the solubility of various

crude oils plotted against temperature. This
graph shows that solubilities are negligible
below about 150 0C and do not become
significant until about 1500C. It is worth
remembering that paleotemperature analysis
shows that optimum oil generation occurs at
about 120 0C; at this temperature
experimental data suggest solubilities of the
order of 10- 20 ppm.
 Expulsion of Hydrocarbons in Aqueous Solution : Micelles Theory

Another way in which the solubility of hydrocarbons in water may be

enhanced is by the presence of micelles (Baker, 1962; Cordell, 1973).
Micelles are colloidal organic acid soaps whose molecules have
hydrophobic (water-insoluble) and hydrophylic (water-soluble) ends. Their
presence may thus enhance the solubility of hydrocarbons in water by
acting as a link between OH radicals on their hydrophylic ends and
hydrocarbon molecules on their hydrophobic ends.
Baker (1962) showed that the particle sizes of micelles in crude oils have
a bimodal log-normal distribution. This distribution is related to two basic
micelle typesdthe small ionic and large neutral micelles.
The principles by which soaps may be used to enhance the solubility of
hydrocarbons are familiar to petroleum production engineers. The
process of micellar flooding of a reservoir is frequently used to enhance
recovery.
If this micelle theory is correct, then the proportions of different
hydrocarbons in a crude oil should be related to their micellar solubility.
Experimental data show this to be the case.
EXPULSION
EFFICIENCY
PROCEDURE ON ESTIMATING EXPELLED HC (EE)
In migration volumetrics, it is important to estimate the original petroleum potential of the source
rocknot just its present measured potential (with increasing maturation, a portion of the
original potential will have been realized and is therefore unmeasurable).
Estimates of expelled hydrocarbons may be derived by measuring the amount remaining in a
source and subtracting that value from the amount that should have been generated from the
original assumed kerogen content.
Below is a procedure for estimating expulsion efficiency.
1. Estimate the original kerogen content of the rock using TOC values measured from source
rock samples.
2. Model the original hydrocarbon generation potential of the source rock using the estimated
original kerogen content.
3. Measure the volume of hydrocarbons expelled during pyrolosis (S2).
4. Estimate the actual expelled hydrocarbon volume by subtracting the S2 value from the
original hydrocarbon generation potential of the source rock.
5. Calculate efficiency by dividing the expected volume of expelled hydrocarbons from the
actual volume of hydrocarbons generated.
EXPULSION PERCENTAGE RANGES
Typical oil expulsion efficiencies are estimated to be in the 5-10%
range, with values in the 15% range uncommon and 30% rarely
demonstrated. This efficiency is low because most of the source rock
section contains too low a concentration of organic material to
participate in the expulsion process.
Efficiencies of gas expulsion are estimated to be 50-90%, with values
of 75% common. Unfortunately, much of this is gas lost due to solution
and does not participate in reservoir charging.
For both oil and gas, expulsion efficiencies tend to increase with
increasing total organic carbon (TOC). Expulsion efficiencies for oil
and gas can be as high as 70-80% for very rich, effective source
rocks near preferential migration pathways.
EXPULSION EFFICIENCY
Lean source rocks Rich source rocks

(Cooles, Mackenzie and Qiugley 1986)

EXPULSION EFFICIENCY

Lean Initial Condition

rich

T=120-150 C
Oil window

T >150 C
Gas window
EXPULSION EFFICIENCY
 EXPULSION EFFICIENCY

RICH SOURCE ROCKS

CONTAINING MAINLY
LABILE KEROGEN

PGI= PETROLEUM GENERATION

INDEX
IS THE FRACTION OF PETROLEUM
PRONE ORGANIC MATER THAT HAS
BEEN TRANSFORM INTO PETROLEUM LEAN SOURCE ROCKS
COMPRISING LABILE
KEROGEN
PEE = PETROLEUM EXPULSION
EFFICIENCY
IS THE FRACTION OF PETROLEUM
FLUIDS GENERATED IN THE SOURCE
ROCKS THAT HAVE BEEN EXPELLED

SOURCE ROCKS CONTAIN

MOSTLY REFRACTORY
KEROGEN

(Mackenzie and Qiugley 1988)

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
SECONDARY MIGRATION CONCENTRATES SUBSURFACE PETROLEUM
INTO SPECIFIC SITES (TRAPS) WHERE IT MAY BE COMMERCIALLY
EXTRATED.

THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY MIGRATION (OUT OF THE

SORCE ROCK) AND SECONDARY MIGRATION (TROUGH CARRIER BED)
IS THE POROSITY, PERMEABILITY, PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION TROUGH
WHICH MIGRATION TAKE PLACE.

END POINT OF SECONDARY MIGRATION

TRAPS
SEEPAGES
Effective hydrocarbon migration occurs along discrete pathways, not
along broad, uniform fronts. These pathways are determined by the
pore networks, the interaction of these networks between formations,
and the stratigraphic variation within the basin. Within the
carrier/reservoir bed, the migration pathway is controlled by the
structural configuration of the contact with the overlying seal and the
continuity of both the carrier permeability network and the overlying
seal.
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

KNOWLEDGE OF THE MECHANIC OF SECONDARY MIGRATION IS IMPORTANT IN

THE GENERAL UNDERSTANDING OF ACTIVE CHARGE SYSTEM, SPECIALLY IN:
TRACING AND PREDICTING MIGRATION PATHWAYS
AREA RECEIVING PETROLEUM CHARGE
INTERPERETING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SUBSURFACE PETROLEUM
SHOWS AND SURFACE SEEPAGES.
ESTIMATING SEAL CAPACITY IN BOTH STRUCTURAL AND
STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
SECONDARY MIGRATION
The general flow of petroleum from a mature source rock to a trap can be
estimated using a few simple assumptions:
1. The driving force causing petroleum to move is buoyancy.
PORE PRESSURE GRADIENT: High P at bottom , Low P at top

2. Main restricting force to move is the capillary pressure

WHICH INCREASE AS PORE SIZE BECOME SMALLER

3. Petroleum is deflected laterally through sand-rich sections by overlying shale-

rich sections.
4. Where there are closed traps along this pathway, petroleum will accumulate
until the trap is full and spills, or leaks, any additional migrating petroleum.
ENTRAPMENT, WHEN CAPILLARY PRESSURE EXCEEDS THE DRIVING FORCES.

The exact flow paths generally require more detailed information about
stratigraphic variability, distribution of fractures, and permeability of faults than is
generally available to geologists.
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
BUYANCY AS DRIVING FORCE IN
SCONDARY MIGRATION .
BUOYANCY IS THE PRESSURE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A POINT IN
THE PETROLEUM COLOUMN AND
THE SURROUNDING PORE WATER.
IT IS A FUNCTION OF A PETROLEUM-
WATER DENSITY DIFFERENCE AND
THE HEIGHT OF THE PETROLEUM
COLOUMN.
A LARGE BUOYANCY PRESSURE
MAY DEVELOP AT THE TOPS OF
LARGE, LOW DENSITY (GAS)
PETROLEUM COLOUMNS.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS AT
POINT TROUGHOUT THE ETROLEUM
COLOUMN DEFINE A PETROLEUM
PRESSURE GRADIENT
THIS INTERSECT THE HYDROSTATIC
GRADIENT AT THE PETROLEUM-
WATER CONTACT.
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
HYDROSTATIC CONDITION
BUOYANCY IS THE ONLY DRIVING FORCE

HYDRODYNAMIC CONDITION
1. COULD INHIBIT OR ASSIST SECONDARY MIGRATION
2. AFFECTING THE DIRECTION AND RATE OF MIGRATION
3. INCREASING OR DECREASING THE DRIVING PRESSURES AGAINST
VERTICAL OR LATERAL SEALS
4. TILTING PETROLEUM WATER CONTACTS AND DISPLACING PETROLEUM
ACCUMULATION (OFF THE CREST OF STRUCTURAL CLOSURE
 BUOYANCY
FORCE

POTENSIAL PLANE

HYDRODYNAMIC
FORCE

HYDRODINAMIC
FLOW

HYDRODINAMIC TRAP
TILTING HC CONTACT
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
RESTRICTING FORCE IN SECONDARY MIGRATION
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE
INJECTION PRESSURE
FUNCTION OF THE SIZE (RADIUS) OF PORE THROAT
INTERFACIAL SURFACE TENSION BETWEEN THE WATER AND PETROLEUM AND
WETTABILITY OF THE PETROLEUM-WATER-ROCK SYSTEM
Capillary pressure is defined as:
p c = p non-wetting phase p wetting phase {\displaystyle
p_{c}=p_{\text{non-wetting phase}}-p_{\text{wetting phase}}}

where:
p c {\displaystyle p_{\text{c}}}
is the capillary pressure
p non-wetting phase {\displaystyle p_{\text{non-wetting phase}}}
is the pressure of the non-wetting phase
p wetting phase {\displaystyle p_{\text{wetting phase}}}
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
RESISTANT FORCE IN
SECONDARY HYDROCARBON
MIGRATION.
HIGHER PRESSURE ARE
NEEDED TO FORCE
PETROLEUM GLOBULES
TROUGH SMALLER PORES
(AFTER PURCELL 1949 IN
SCHOWALTER 1976)
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
PORE SIZES ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT
ON SECONDARY MIGRATION AND
ENTRAPMENT
PORE SIZES CAN BE ESTIMATED
THIN SECTION
SEM
DISPLACEMENT PRESSUREMICP
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
CAPILLARY PRESSURE =2g (1/Rt-1/Rb)
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
Critical petroleum height = Ypc
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

MIGRATION PATHWAYS
DRIVING FORCE BUOYANCY
PETROLEUM MIGRATION DIRECTION STEEPEST SLOPE
PEPENDICULAR TO STRUCTURAL CONTOURS OR TRUE DIP DIRECTION
LINE DRAWN AT RIGHT ANGLES TO STRUCTURAL CONTOURS OF THE
TOP CARRIER BED/BASE SEAL HORIZON ORTHO CONTOURS
ORTHOCONTOUR MAP ILLUSTRATE HYDROCARBONS MIGRATION
PATHWAYS FROM ITS KITCHEN AREA
ILLUSTRATE FOCUSING AND DE-FOCUSING EFFECTS OF STRUCTURAL
FEATURES IN PROSPECT DRAINAGE AREA
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

MIGRATION PATHWAYS
LATERAL MIGRATION
SHORT DISTANCE
LONG DISTANCE
LONG DISTANCE MIGRATION PROSPECT S REMOTE FROM
AREA OF MATURE SOURCE ROCKS (KITCHENS AREA )
THE STRUCTURAL EFFECTS MAY STRONGLY INFLUENCE THE
PATTERN OF HYDROCARBON CHARGE
PETROLEUM FLOW CAN BE SPLIT WHEN ENCOUNTERING A LOW
AND CONCENTRATED ALONG REGIONAL HIGH
GEOMETRY OF THE KITCHEN EFFECT PETROLEUM CHARGE
VOLUMES
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

MIGRATION PATHWAYS
ORTHOCONTOURS ARE CONSTRUCTED FOR THE ACTUAL
TIME OF SECONDARY MIGRATION.

PRESENT DAY STRUCTURE MAPS MAY BE USED TO

MODEL PRESENT DAY MIGRATION.

ISOPACHING (3-D DECOMPACTION) CAN BE USED TO

PRODUCE PALEOSTRUCTURE MAP AND USED TO
MODEL PALEO MIGRATION
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
OTHER FACTORS:
SEALING FAULT ; MAY DEFLECT PETROLEUM FLOW LATERALLY.

NON SEALING FAULTS; ALLOWS PETROLEUM TO FLOW ACROSS THE

FAULT INTO JUXTAPOSE PERMEABLE BED AT DIFFERENT
STRATIGRAPHIC LEVEL.
NEEDS A DIFFERENT STRUCTURE MAP FOR SECONDARY
MIGRATION MODELLING.

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CARRIER BEDS CAUSED BY LATERAL

STRATIGRAPHIC CHANGES BY SANDING OUT OF SHALE SEAL.

THE ORTHOCONTOUR MAP SHOULD BE CONSTRUCTED ONLY AS

FAR AS ASEAL PERSIST
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

SECONDARY MIGRATION LOSSES

TWO DISTINCT HABITATS:
MINIATUR TRAPSDEAD ENDS ALONG THE MIGRATION
ROUTE PRODUCED BY FAULTED AND DIP CLOSED
GEOMETRIES AND STRATIGRAPHIC CHANGES. TRAP COULD
BE OBSERVABLE BUT NO COMMERCIAL

RESIDUAL PETROLEUM SATURATION IN THE PORE OF

CARRIER BED, TRAPPED BY CAPILLARY FORCES 30% OF
THE PORE VOLUME.
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
 SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
 HYDROCARBON TRAP

TRAP
FINAL REQUIREMENT FOR THE OPERATION OF ANN EFFECTIVE
PETROLEUM PLAY IS ATRAPS

REPRESENT THE LOCATION OF A SUBSURFACE OBSTACLE TO

THE MIGRATION OF PETROLEUM TOWARDS THE EARTHS
SURFACE

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION INDUSTRY IS PRIMARILY

CONCERNED WITH THE RECOGNITION OF THESE SITES
PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION
 HYDROCARBON TRAP

HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS ARE THOSE FORMED BY THE

MOVEMENT OF INTERSTIAL FLUIDS TROUGH THE BASIN.

THE MAJORITY WORLD,S GIANT OIL FIELDS FOUND IN

ANTICLINAL TRAP

A TRAP EXIST WHERE SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS CAUSE

THE CONCENTRATION AND ACCUMULATION OF PETROLEUM
AFTER MATURATION AND EXPULSION

THE HC WILL MOVE FROM SITES OF HIGH POTENTIAL

ENERGY TO SITES OF LOW POTENTIAL ENERGY
HYDROCARBON TRAP
 HYDROCARBON TRAP

A TRAP IS FORMED WHERE THE CAPILLARY

DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE OF A SEAL EXCEEDS THE
UPWARD-DIRECTED BUOYANCY OF PETROLEUM IN THE
ADJOINING POROUS AND PERMEABLE RESERVOIR ROCK
TRAP CLASSIFICATION
ALLOW COMPARISON BETWEEN PROSPECT OR PLAY

ALLOW THE DRAWING OF GEOLOGICAL ANALOGIES

TO ESTIMATE HC VOLUME

TO ASSES THE RISK

HYDROCARBON TRAP
 HYDROCARBON TRAP
TRAP CLASSIFICATION
STRUCTURAL TRAPS
THOSE CAUSED BY TECTONIC, DIAPIRIC, GRAVITATIONAL AND
COMPACTION PROCESSES

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS:
DIVERSE GROUP, TRAP GEOMETRY INHERITAGEFROM THE ORIGINAL
MORPHOLOGY
DISCONTINUITIES IN THE BASIN FILL
DIAGENETIC EFFECTS.

COMBINATION TRAPS
COMBINATION OF STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
 HYDROCARBON TRAP

STRUCTURAL FOLDS OCCUR IN AREAS

UNDERGOING TECTONIC COMPRESSION.
1. GENERALLY ASSOCIATE WITH PLATE
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES

2. TRANSPRESSION ALONG STRIKE-SLIP

BOUNDARIES
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
HYDROCARBON TRAP
THE EVENTS CHART SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES AS
WELL AS THE PRESERVATION TIME AND CRITICAL MOMENT FOR THE FICTITIOUS DEER-BOAR (.) PETROLEUM
SYSTEM. NEOGENE (N) INCLUDES THE QUATERNARY HERE. (TIME SCALE FROM PALMER, 1983.)