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Abstract
The mechanical properties of three cohesive sandstones of different porosities (f) and average grain diameters (R) have been
investigated. These were Tennessee sandstone (f 0:07), Darley Dale sandstone (f 0:12), and Penrith sandstone (f 0:25).
Unconned uniaxial compression, constant displacement rate triaxial, and hydrostatic experiments were conducted. Yield stress
data produced approximately circular envelopes that decreased in size with increasing porosity or grain size when plotted in the
differential stress versus effective mean stress (Q P) space. Normalization of these data with respect to the hydrostatic grain
crushing pressure (P ) resulted in a unique yield envelope for sandstone. Extending these data into the Q2P2fR space allows the
principles of critical state soil mechanics to be applied. The critical state line for porous sandstone (the crestal line of the yield
surface) appears to correspond to the transition from dilatant behaviour with localized faulting at low effective mean pressures
(P=P o0:5), to pervasive cataclastic ow at high effective mean pressures (P=P > 0:5). Post-yield, deformation progresses towards
the critical state as observed by constant volume deformation. The critical state model developed for soil mechanics can be applied
to make generalizations about the deformation of cohesive, porous sandstones. The expected behaviour of any porous sand appears
to be predictable to a useful degree from a knowledge of P ; which can be estimated from the simple parameters of porosity and
mean grain size.
Sensitivity to the presence of water, attributed to sub-critical crack growth, was observed in hydrostatic and uniaxial compression
tests in all rock types tested. Considerable strength and elastic anisotropy was also observed.
r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1365-1609/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S1365-1609(03)00053-4
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stress state rather than the route by which stress state is techniques; uniaxial compression, hydrostatic compres-
attained. Normalizing yield envelopes with respect to sion (constant pore-pressure volumometry, CPV, and
their grain crushing pressure (P ), which represents the hydrostatic volumetric strain, HVS, methods) and
onset of yield under purely hydrostatic conditions, gives constant strain-rate triaxial compression. Three experi-
rise to the unifying concept of a unique yield envelope mental set-ups were utilized; an unconned compression
for porous materials [4]. rig for uniaxial compression, a large specimen rig for
In soil mechanics the yield surface concept can be hydrostatic compression and a Heard-type triaxial
generalized further by plotting porosity or void ratio on compression rig. Each experimental set-up and test
a third axis of the Q P diagram. This provides a procedure is described in Appendix A.
unied model to describe complex deformation histories
and predict the condition corresponding to critical state
deformation (deformation at constant volume). Pre- 2.1. Test material
vious studies have shown a consistent deformation style
irrespective of sediment type and strength [5]. Critical Deformation was studied within three homogeneous
state soil mechanics has been used to describe deforma- sandstone types that have been used for a number of
tion in a variety of weak rocks including chalk, bonded rock mechanics investigations in the past. They have
mudrocks, carbonates, sandstones and sand [5,6]. similar mineralogy, but vary in porosity (f), grain size
Several studies have described the mechanical beha- (R), and proportions of different mineral constituents.
viour of various sandstone-types [4,7]. In this study, we These were Tennessee sandstone (Crab Orchard
describe the mechanical behaviour of three sandstones quarry, Tennessee, USA), Darley Dale sandstone
of widely varying initial porosities under uniaxial, (Darley Dale, Derbyshire, England), and Penrith
hydrostatic and triaxial conditions. These data are sandstone (Penrith, Cumbria, England). The rocks have
viewed in terms of critical state soil mechanics to porosities (percentage) of 7.570.3, 13.570.5 and
validate the approach and the ndings of Zhang et al. [8] 2870.5 and average grain diameters (microns) of
and Wong et al. [4]. The observed mechanical behaviour 75730, 170 750, and 130720, respectively. Initial
can aid the description of borehole stability [1] and porosity was measured using three methods: (a)
predict the effect of stress changes on reservoir stability. comparing dry and saturated densities (giving effective
Additional tests were conducted to investigate elastic f), (b) comparing volume of intact sample with the
anisotropy and water weakening. volume of crushed material determined using a specic
gravity bottle (giving total f), and (c) determining void
proportion using scanning electron microscopy (giving
2. Experimental procedure total f). Average grain diameter (D) was determined
using the linear intercept method with optical micro-
The mechanical behaviour of the three sandstone scopy. Table 1 summarizes the main features of each
varieties was investigated using several experimental starting material.
Table 1
Full description of the test materials
Cal = calcite, Chl = chlorite, Fsp = feldspar, Hem = Hematite, Kln = kaolinite, Lm = liminite, Qtz = quartz.
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3. Experimental results Fig. 1a shows the uniaxial response, these results are
consistent with previous studies [9]. Initially there is a
3.1. Unconfined uniaxial compression signicant difference between axial and diametral strain
as axial load is translated into the closure of pre-existing
A total of 17 tests were conducted on the three microcracks and simple poroelastic compaction. Dom-
sandstone materials in oven-dry, water saturated and inantly linear-elastic deformation of the granular frame-
alcohol-saturated states. Additional tests were conducted work follows. This region is rapidly superseded by the
in the three orthogonal directions for Tennessee sand- formation of new fractures above about one-third of
stone. Results are summarized in Fig. 1 and Table 2. the uniaxial strength (qu ), signied by the deviation of the
line and representing progressive elastic volume reduc-
tion with load in the direction of inelastic volume
increase. At stresses approximately 0.5qu the growth rate
100
Tennessee Sst C17 of dilatant microcracks dominates over elastic volume
90
reduction, resulting in progressive sample volume in-
80
Axial stress (MPa)
Table 2
Results from uniaxial compression tests
Rock type Test No. Dir. Pore uid Uniaxial strength (MPa) Youngs modulus E (GPa) Poissons ratio n Bulk modulus K (GPa)
Penrith A12u Oven dry 28.3 7 0.4 7.18 7 0.08 0.34 7 0.06 7.71 7 0.31
Sandstone A16u Oven dry 28.4 7 0.4 7.21 7 0.07 0.34 7 0.06 7.55 7 0.29
A36u Water 9.3770.1 0.2970.05
A37u Ethanol 9.09 7 0.1 0.28 7 0.05
N Oven dry 28.4 7 0.4 7.2 7 0.08 0.34 7 0.06 7.63 7 0.29
N Water 9.37 7 0.1 0.29 7 0.05
N Ethanol 9.09 7 0.1 0.28 7 0.05
Darley B14u Oven dry 48.1 7 0.7 14.2 7 0.1 0.27 7 0.05 10.2 7 0.4
Dale B15u Oven dry 47.9 7 0.7 14.2 7 0.1 0.28 7 0.05 10.8 7 0.4
Sandstone B28u Water 37.6 7 0.6 12 7 0.1 0.34 7 0.06 12.8 7 0.5
B29u Ethanol 38.7 7 0.6 11.67 0.6 0.32 7 0.06 10.9 7 0.9
N Oven dry 44.4 7 0.3 14.2 7 0.1 0.27 7 0.05 10.5 7 0.4
N Water 37.7 7 0.6 12 7 0.1 0.34 7 0.06 12.8 7 0.5
N Ethanol 38.7 7 0.6 11.6 7 0.6 0.32 7 0.06 10.9 7 0.9
Tennessee C17u N Oven dry 89.9 7 1.3 11.1 7 0.1 0.26 7 0.05 7.86 7 0.31
Sandstone C18u N Oven dry 88.4 7 1.3 10.9 7 0.2 0.28 7 0.05 8.35 7 0.4
C40u N Oven dry 91.2 7 1.4 10.4 7 0.2 0.21 7 0.04 5.93 7 0.26
C41u P Oven dry 106 7 1.6 15.6 7 0.3 0.25 7 0.04 10.5 7 0.5
C42u P Oven dry 107 7 1.6 14.4 7 0.2 0.23 7 0.04 8.87 7 0.41
C44u P Oven dry 98.6 7 1.5 15.6 7 0.4 0.25 7 0.04 10.3 7 0.5
C43u R Oven dry 86 7 1.3 14.6 7 0.3 0.26 7 0.05 10.2 7 0.5
C46u N Water 69.4 7 1 8.89 70.16 0.27 7 0.05 6.51 7 0.31
C45u N Ethanol 83.9 7 1.3 10.3 7 0.2 0.2 7 0.04 5.75 7 0.29
N Oven dry 89.9 7 1.4 10.8 7 0.2 0.25 7 0.04 7.38 7 0.32
N Water 69.4 7 1 8.89 7 0.16 0.27 7 0.05 6.51 7 0.31
N Ethanol 83.9 7 1.3 10.3 7 0.2 0.2 7 0.04 5.75 7 0.29
R Oven dry 92.3 7 8.1 14.6 7 0.3 0.26 7 0.05 10.2 7 0.5
R Water
R Ethanol
P Oven dry 107 7 0.7 15.2 7 0.3 0.24 7 0.04 9.91 7 0.48
P Water
P Ethanol
Italicized results are from averaged repeat experiments. Core orientation descriptors N, R and P are dened in the text.
Table 3
Results from hydrostatic constant pore-pressure volumometry tests
Rock type Test No. ev @ (MPa) P (MPa) K (GPa) Pore uid Repeat cycles
Penrith P01 a
0.027 133 7 2.8 6.64 7 0.15 Ethanol 4
Sandstone P04a 0.022 0.034 165 7 5.5 7.65 7 0.16 Ethanol 4
P05a 0.041 0.058 170 7 5.1 7.86 7 0.16 Ethanol 5
P07 0.024 121 7 2.1 5.39 7 0.11 Water 1
P08 0.020 0.043 175 7 10 6.99 7 0.13 Ethanol 1
P09 0.019 0.039 136 7 6.3 7.05 7 0.15 Ethanol 1
P11 0.028 0.077 167 7 5.8 7.76 7 0.15 Ethanol 4
P16 0.034 0.094 0.119 0.129 0.137 139 7 3.5 7.19 7 0.15 Ethanol 4
IV B
Experimental artifacts
progressive stiffening of the rock as further compaction
12
takes place. The extreme sensitivity of grain crushing
10 Secondary linear pressure to porosity means that Stage IV effectively
compaction represents the elastic response of a rock with a porosity
8 of about 15% and reducing, rather than the original
Significant
25%. This material is now twice as stiff as the original
III
compaction
6 P material, indicated by the near-linear hydrostat slope.
ction The slope of the linear stage II region gives the bulk
4 co mpa
II A Linear modulus of pore compressibility (KCPV ). Fig. 3a shows
2 that Tennessee sandstone is the stiffest of the test
I Non-linear compaction materials [KTen > KDyD > KPen ].
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Fig. 3b shows the hydrostat for Penrith sandstone
Effectiv epressure(MPa) with three different pore uids. The CPV method gives
Fig. 2. Complete hydrostat for Penrith sandstone to pressures greatly the results for water and ethanol-saturated states. The
in excess of the grain crushing pressure (P ), showing four distinct HVS method used in the triaxial testing rig gives the
regions (experiment P16, ethanol saturated). The labelled experimental oven-dry state but with a substantially lower number of
artifacts derive from leakages of the pore-pressure system of the testing data points. Dissimilar linear slopes are seen in region II
rig. Labels A and B show the position along the hydrostat of the
for the different test methods, in both of which we
photomicrographs shown in Fig. 6.
observed pore matrix compaction. However, the HVS
method also detects the deformation of the granular
constituents of the sample.
Behaviour differs according to the chemical nature of
compaction-rate reduces with time at a given effective the wetting uid. Ethanol-saturated samples displayed
pressure as the new granular material stabilizes and the strongest behaviour. Data for both air at room
packs. The grain crushing pressure (P ) is determined as relative humidity and complete water saturation dis-
the intercept between best-t linear stage II slope and played a similar P that is lower than for ethanol
the polynomial describing stage III. The grain crushing saturation. Time-dependent deformation is more pro-
pressure increases rapidly when initial porosity is nounced for water-saturated and air-dry samples, but is
smaller, and only Penrith sandstone unequivocally also present in ethanol-saturated samples. Volumetric
reached the grain crushing pressure within the strain was accelerated by the presence of water.
500 MPa limit of the testing machine in this series of Approximately 2% volumetric strain had developed by
experiments. 10 MPa above P compared to only 0.2% for ethanol
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852 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
ne
5 to
2
T01
1.5 T10
ndstone
Tennessee sa
1 Water saturated
0.5 No change in Ethanol saturated
stage I deformation
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(A) Effective pressure (MPa)
8
Volumetric strain: Porosity reduction (%)
A15
7
More pronounced
6 time dependent
deformation
5
n dry Different
ove bulk modulii P16
id -
4
f lu P07
pore
3
No fluid
ore
rat ed p
2
t e r satu fluid P
Wa
t e d pore ethanol
1 atura P air/water
nol s
Etha
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
(B) Effective pressure (MPa)
Fig. 3. Hydrostatic deformation with different saturating pore uids. Experiment numbers are shown beside each curve. (A) Hydrostats for all three
rocks under water and ethanol saturated states determined from the constant pore pressure volumometry tests. (B) Results for Penrith sandstone
using three pore uids.
saturation. These observations show that pore uid Penrith sandstone is the weakest and most ductile of
chemistry affects the strength of the test material, with the test materials, accumulating up to 50% permanent
all test materials showing degrees of water-weakening, axial strain at high conning pressures. Penrith and
presumably according to the local concentration of Darley Dale sandstone in hand specimens show failure
OH ions at grain surfaces. by brittle faulting at low pressures, progressing to
ductile ow with barrelling at elevated pressures.
Tennessee sandstone is the strongest of the test materials
3.3. Constant displacement-rate experiments with 5% maximum axial strain at failure and fault
development at all test pressures.
A total of 39 constant displacement-rate tests were The strength parameters of yield, peak and residual
carried out on oven-dry samples at 25300 MPa conn- strength were determined, where applicable, for all tests
ing pressure at room temperature, with a nominal strain (Table 4). Peak strength is dened as the maximum
rate of 3 104 s1. An additional 15 tests were stress observed during the test. Residual strength only
conducted to progressively increasing strains to study occurs during brittle deformation and is dened as the
microstructure development. The results in terms of true lowest stress post-peak-strength, corresponding to fric-
stress versus conventional strain are summarized tional sliding on the fault plane produced. Yield strength
in Fig. 4. is more difcult to dene, as sandstones tend not to
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Stress (MPa)
400
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
142MPa
173MPa 500
300
141MPa 173MPa
107MPa
300 400
109MPa 106MPa
200 79MPa 76MPa
300
71MPa 200
41MPa 70MPa
39MPa 200
44MPa
100 23MPa
100
100
Penrith Sandstone Darley Dale Sandstone Tennessee Sandstone
0 0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Strain Strain Strain
Fig. 4. Stressstrain results for three oven-dry sandstones at different conning pressures indicated, determined from constant displacement rate
triaxial experiments.
Table 4
Strength parameters determined from oven-dry triaxial constant displacement experiments
Sandstone type Test number Effective Peak strength Residual Yield strength (MPa)
conning (MPa) strength (MPa)
pressure (MPa)
Y1 or Y2 Y3 Y4
Penrith A08 23.475.5 78.8 7 0.8 54.6 7 2.7 78.6 7 5.1 78.6 7 3.9
A09 28170.4 495 7 3.5 6.71 7 0.33 14.0 7 0.9 10.8 7 0.5
A10 213 7 0.3 418 7 3.3 33.8 7 1.7 54.3 7 3.5 44.4 7 2.2
A17 173 7 1.3 371 7 3.0 10.4 7 0.5 41.2 7 2.7 23.9 7 1.2
A18 142 7 0.4 319 7 2.8 24.3 7 1.2 66.6 7 4.3 40 7 2.1
A19 109 7 0.2 217 7 1.8 13.2 7 0.7 54.1 7 3.5 37.7 7 1.9
A20 71.1 7 0.2 184 7 1.6 26.0 7 1.3 79.5 7 5.2 67.7 7 3.4
A21 41.5 7 0.3 83.5 7 0.7 59.3 7 3.0 83.8 7 5.4 83.8 7 4.2
A22 241 7 0.6 445 7 3.1 21.1 7 1.1 92.3 7 6.0 48.7 7 2.4
PS7 94 7 1 121 7 1.3 43.5 7 1.2
PS8 146 7 1 218 7 1.9 22.3 7 1.3
Tennessee C05 132 7 0.7 514 7 5.0 417 7 8.1 359 7 14 512 7 5.0 500 7 20
C06 213 7 0.7 711 7 7.1 574 7 12 565 7 23 705 7 7.1 700 7 28
C08 261 7 1.0 751 7 7.5 625 7 13 523 7 21 737 7 7.5 740 7 30
C09 240 7 0.7 707 7 7.2 563 7 12 546 7 22 700 7 7.2 700 7 28
C10 173 7 1.1 606 7 6.1 434 7 9.1 389 7 16 600 7 6.1 600 7 24
C13 107 7 0.7 551 7 5.7 437 7 8.9 409 7 16 533 7 5.7 500 7 20
C14 44.5 7 0.6 317 7 2.9 185 7 3.7 250 7 10
C15 75.8 7 0.6 426 7 4.3 297 7 6.1 279 7 11
Yield strengths Y1 through Y4 are dened in the text. Y1 or Y2 is used as the best approximation of yield strength. Test PS7 and PS8 used oil as pore
uid, this should correspond with the oven-dry behaviour.
behave as perfectly elastic materials. Four methods were deviates from the linear by a dened amount. For strain
devised to describe yield strength (Y ). The elastic limit hardening and plastic tests Y3 is the stress at the
describes Y1 : If this is not obvious then Y2 describes resumption of linear compaction and Y4 is the intersec-
yield as the point at which the stressstrain curve tion of the linear elastic and strain hardening/plastic
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4. Microstructural observations
heterogeneous distribution to being homogeneous population signicantly increased at the grain crushing
throughout the bulk sample. Increased strain was pressure (P ). Hertzian impingement fractures initiated
accommodated by more localized shear fractures once in random orientations between critically stressed grain
strain could no longer be absorbed by pore closure. point-contacts. Damage tended initially to be locally
Spalled grain fragments began to ll the remaining pore clustered, but clusters were homogeneously distributed
space. A cataclasite was formed, with grain fragments on the bulk-sample scale. Fracture population contin-
oating and owing within a ne-grained matrix of ued to grow with increased pressure (PbP ), until a
damaged material. Cataclasite development increased cataclasite was formed by stage IV of hydrostatic
with conning pressure. deformation and the rock was effectively reduced to
incohesive sand (Fig. 6b). Deformation to produce
4.3. Hydrostatic deformation poorly sorted angular grains was homogeneous on the
bulk scale, but consisted of large grains or fragments
Only Penrith sandstone clearly surpassed the grain thereof within a owing matrix of very ne-grained,
crushing pressure (P ) within the pressure range of the shattered host-material. All subsequent deformation
apparatus and this was conrmed by microstructural was concentrated within the ne-grained matrix. No
analysis. Only slight permanent damage was observed substantial differences were noted between samples
within the elastic region II of hydrostatic deformation, deformed with the different saturating pore uids.
as shown in Fig. 6a. The transgranular fracture
5. Discussion
Some new
(A)
fractures 5.1. Scale effects
that reported for 5 other porous sandstones by Wong failure envelope for peak strength [4] of the form
et al. [4], supports the notion of a unique yield envelope
Q P
for such rocks (Fig. 9), insofar as porosity and mean q0 m p0 2
P P
grain size can be considered to be adequate parameters
to dene the microstructural features that describe Yield strength data from [5] and from the present study
mechanical behaviour. Thus foreknowledge of only also adequately t the form of Eq. (2) with a peak at
porosity, grain size and P provides a basis for at least (p0 ; q0 ) = (0.49, 0.62).
a rule of thumb prediction of the strength and mode of At normalized effective stresses greater than P=P
failure of porous rocks. Data within the brittle faulting >0:45; shear-enhanced compaction occurs, with spread
regime (P=P o 0.45) can be described by an empirical of data tending to be greater. Two elliptical arcs (dashed
curves in Fig. 9), described by Eq. (3), enclose the
available data in this region:
10000 Consolidated rock P=P g2 Q=P
Porosity () grain radius (R) (mm)
1 3
Unconsolidated sand 1 g2 d2
Spheres
with peaks at (g; d) = (0.5, 0.5) and (0.5, 0.7).
This study
1000 Plotting the yield envelopes for rocks initially of
Slope of -2/3 different porosity and/or grain size in the Q P fR
space gives the yield-surface for porous materials (Fig.
10). The third axis is chosen as fR; rather than simply
100
porosity alone or void ratio, because P scales with this
product. The results of the present experiments on rocks
of different grain sizes and porosities map fairly well
10 onto a yield surface of this shape (Fig. 10). Only Penrith
sandstone shows the complete yield curve, delimited by
the observed value of P : Darley Dale and Tennessee
sandstones show only partial yield curves, and P values
1 have, respectively, been assumed to be 500 MPa
1 10 100 1000 10000 (although the form of the incomplete yield envelope
Critical effective pressure P (MPa) suggests P is 450 MPa) and 1 GPa, respectively. Thus,
Fig. 8. Grain crushing pressure versus the product of porosity and
the critical state unied model can predict usefully the
grain radius. Data approximate a slope of 23: Data from this study complex yield behaviour of porous sedimentary rocks.
(open symbols) t well with the previously reported results of Zhang We observe from mechanical stressstrain data, from
et al. [8]. mode of failure of deformed samples, and from
Normalized differentia mean stress Q/P (MPa)
0.8
Tension Compression Arcs delimiting
0.7 ductile deformation
e
0.6
n lin
nsio
0.5
o te
0.4
Zer
0.3
Sandstone types
Berea Boise II
Darley Dale Penrith
0.2 Kayenta Darley Dale
Brittle Rothbach Tennessee
0.1 parabolic Adamswiller Yield
envelope envelope
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Normalized effective mean stress P/P (MPa)
Fig. 9. Yield data plotted in the normalized differential versus effective mean stress space. Data from this study (open symbols) are displayed with
previously published results of Wong et al. [4]. Data approximate to a unique arcuate envelope, which can be described in the brittle eld
(P=P o0:45) by a parabolic envelope, and are delimited in the ductile region (P=P > 0:5) by a pair of elliptical curves.
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858 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
250
200
Stress (MPa)
150 Steady state flow
100
50
Yield Strain
0
reduction (%)
0.5 0.1 1.5 0.2 2.5 0.3 3.5 0.4 4.5
Porosity
5
10
15
Isovolumetric strain =
critical state deformation
minerals causes substantial strengthening (Rutter, un- plc) for a graduate studentship, during the course of
published data). which this work was carried out.
Time-dependent strain was also observed in Penrith
sandstone after the onset of grain crushing (stage III
Fig. 2). This feature might be interpreted to derive from Appendix A. Experimental procedure
the time required to re-equilibrate pore pressure in
response to a load change, according to the rock A.1. Uniaxial compression testing
permeability. However, Penrith sandstone has a high
porosity and high permeability and shows no time- Strain-gauged cylindrical samples were loaded in
dependency during elastic deformation, yet strong uniaxial compression between two steel platens. Load
time-dependency post-yield. Thus, observed time-depen- was directed down the centre of the specimen by means
dency in response to load increments is most likely of a spherical seat and was measured using a 250 kN
attributable to the effects of brittle creep. A similar load-cell. Strain was measured on samples in both the
micromechanical origin of creep has been reported for axial and circumferential directions by means of bonded
hydrostatic compaction of loose sands [26]. Several strain gauges, wired into a Wheatstone bridge cong-
workers have reported hydrostatic deformation for a uration with passive strain gauges to remove any
range of sandstones using similar experimental temperature effects.
methods to those of this investigation [4,8,22,27]. One Strain gauge and load cell data from uniaxial
previous study reported time dependency [8], although compression tests were reduced to stress, axial strain,
the 2 min to 2 h stabilization time was attributed to diametral strain and volumetric strain, allowing
permeability effects. Youngs modulus (E), Poissons ratio (n), and bulk
modulus of compressibility (K) to be calculated. As non-
linearity is often observed in uniaxial compression, the
6. Conclusions fundamental elastic constants were taken from the
steepest portion of the stress-axial strain curve, which
Yield data in the Q2P parametric space approximate tended to occur at approximately half the uniaxial
arcuate envelopes that decrease in size with increasing strength.
porosity. The normalization of the yield data with
respect to the grain crushing pressure (P ; which is the A.2. Large specimen rig
intercept of the yield data on the abscissa) suggest a
unied model of yield applies to porous sandstones. The large specimen rig was used to load specimens
Both yield and post-yield data can also be represented under a hydrostatic conning pressure (P) of up to
using the principles of critical state soil mechanics in the 500 MPa through the compression of low-viscosity oil
Q2P2fR space. The critical state line for porous (Reolube-DOSt). This allowed cylindrical samples of
sandstones (the crestal line of the yield surface) appears 25 mm diameter and 75 mm length to be tested, within
to correspond to the transition from dilatant behaviour 3 mm wall-thickness PVC jackets. Pore pressures (Pp ) of
with localized faulting at low effective mean pressures up to 200 MPa (providing P > Pp ) could be applied to
(P=P o0:5), to pervasive cataclastic ow, requiring the samples, which were saturated with either water or
collapse of porosity, at high effective mean pressures ethanol. The principal use of the pore pressure system
(P=P > 0:5). The expected behaviour of any porous was to enable measurement of pore volume changes at a
sand therefore appears to be predictable to a useful constant but low pore pressure (3.5 MPa). As a sample
degree simply from a knowledge of P ; porosity and compacts by elastic or permanent pore collapse under
mean grain size. the inuence of effective conning pressure, Pp in-
Water sensitivity, attributed to sub-critical crack creases. Pore pressure was maintained constant by a
growth, was observed in hydrostatic and uniaxial servo-controlled pore pressure regulator so that pore
compression tests in all rock types tested. Considerable volume changes could be measured to a resolution of
strength and elastic anisotropy was also noted in 0.2 mm3 or about 0.01% of the initial pore volume of a
Tennessee sandstone. sample of 10% porosity. The constant pore pressure
volumometry (CPV) experiments permitted investiga-
tion of hydrostatic volumetric strain as conning
Acknowledgements pressure was steadily and slowly increased from 5 to
500 MPa. To protect the pore pressure transducer in
The authors very much appreciate helpful and case of catastrophic sample jacket failure that would
constructive reviews by two anonymous referees and result in rapid and excessive pore pressure rise, a rupture
the editor, which helped signicantly to improve the disc rated at 770.5 MPa was used. Exposed pipe-work
paper. Robert Cuss thanks BG plc (formerly British Gas and valves were wrapped with thermal insulation to
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862 861
minimize the effect of laboratory temperature uctua- [4] Wong Tf, David C, Zhu W. The transition from brittle faulting to
tions on pore pressure. cataclastic ow in porous sandstones mechanical deformation.
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