FLUID MECHANICS

9. FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics is important in the study and understanding of radiant heat

transfer for hydronic systems. Fluid mechanics describes the relationship
between pressure drops and flow rates through the water conduits of a hydronic
system. These same principles can also be applied to airflow through ventilation
ducts. This relationship is important to determine pipe diameters, the effect of
different tubing materials, and the size of the required pump.

The focus of this chapter is to investigate the background information that is

necessary to predict the pressure drop, flow rate, and pumping power required
for a given piping system. To accomplish this task, we will introduce Bernoullis
equation, major and minor head loss terms, and the friction factor.

9.1. BERNOULLIS EQUATION

One of the better known relationships in the field of fluid dynamics is Bernoullis
equation. This equation is derived from the conservation of energy equation and
relates fluid velocity and pressure. Bernoullis equation is expressed as:

(6.1)

The conditions for using this equation are steady, incompressible flow along a
streamline without the effects of friction. After studying Eq. (6.1), the effects of
friction and pipe losses will be introduced.

The best application of Bernoullis equation is to calculate the effect of elevation

change. For example, if water is raised from a low level to a high level in a
constant-diameter pipe, Bernoullis equation relates the pressure change to the
elevation change. Applying Bernoullis equation between two points in a pipe is:

(6.2)

This procedure is illustrated in the following example.

EXAMPLE 6.1 Water flowing at the rate of 20 gpm in a 1-in-diameter pipe is

raised from an elevation of 0 to 30 ft. If the pressure at the lower elevation is 20
psig, calculate the pressure at the higher elevation.

Known:

Solution:

Answer: P 2 = 11.338 psi

EXAMPLE 6.2 Water flowing at the rate of 20 gpm in a 1-in pipe at 30 psig
enters a 0.50-in section of pipe. If the elevation change is zero, calculate the
velocity and pressure in the smaller-diameter pipe.

Known:
Solution: Continuity:

Answers:

9.2. PIPE FLOW CALCULATIONS

Pipe flow calculations build on Bernoullis equation, but they remove the
restriction of frictionless flow. The introduced term is the head loss that takes into
consideration viscous pipe losses, losses due to valves and bends in the pipe, and
other effects. Bernoullis equation is modified as:

(6.3)

The parameter is the head loss term. The terms are velocity profile
corrections. These can be assumed to be one with little loss in accuracy. The only
other difference between Eqs. (6.3) and (6.4) is that the velocity terms have lines
over them. These lines designate that the velocities are average velocities over
the cross section of the pipe. The average velocity is defined as:

(6.4)

9.2.1. Major Head Losses

The total head loss term is separated into two components: (1) the major-friction
loss term and (2) the minor loss term. By definition, the major head loss is the
pressure loss through a horizontal constant-area pipe at steady flow. This
condition is illustrated in Fig. 6.1. In equation form, this definition is:

(6.5)

Figure 6.1. Pressure loss in a horizontal constant area pipe with steady
flow.

Experimental studies show that the major-frictional head loss in a pipe is a

function of the pipe roughness, the Reynolds number (Re), and the length-to-
diameter ratio of the pipe. In equation form, this relationship is:

(6.6)

The parameter e is the pipe roughness. Figure 6.2 illustrates the roughness of
various pipe materials. For example, drawn tubing is 0.000005 ft and the relative
roughness of 10-in drawn tubing is 0.000006. The parameter f is called the
friction factor and is a function of Re and the relative roughness e/D.
Figure 6.2. Relative roughness of various pipe materials.

The friction factor has been the subject of numerous studies. Arguably the best
set of experimental data was collected and analyzed by Moody (1944). Figure 6.3
demonstrates the results of his experiments in the form of a Moody chart. This
chart shows the relationship between Re on the x axis, the friction factor on the y
axis, and the relative roughness shown as lines on the chart.

EXAMPLE 6.3 Determine the friction factor for a 2-gpm flow rate through 0.50-
in-diameter drawn tubing. The water flowing through the pipe is 70F. If the pipe
is horizontal, calculate the pressure drop along a 500-ft section of pipe. Compare
this pressure drop with the pressure drop that would occur in typical hydronic
conduit.
Figure 6.3. Moody friction factor diagram.

Known:

Solution:

From Moody chart:

Answers:
EXAMPLE 6.4 Calculate the pressure loss in a pipe that has a 20-ft vertical rise
over 100 ft. The pipe flow rate is 30 gpm, the diameter is 0.50 in, and the water
temperature is 90F.

Known:

Solution: Because V 1 = V 2 and Z 1 = 0, Bernoullis equation reduces to:

Answers:

9.2.2. Minor Losses

Minor losses, which can sometimes be quite large, are due to anything other than
straight sections of pipe. Examples are valves, entrances and exits, pipe elbows,
expansions and contractions, and fittings. There are two ways to calculate the
effect of minor losses. The first is to introduce a K value and the second is to
designate an equivalent length of pipe, which is then used in Eq. (6.6). Each of
these methods is related to the minor head loss term by:

(6.7)

Both methods are frequently used and are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Table 6.1 illustrates three common inlets and exits from a piping system and
their associated loss coefficients. These become important in the case of a surge
tank or pressure volume in a piping system. As shown in the table, the well-
rounded entrance exhibits the lowest loss coefficient, whereas the loss term at an
exit is independent of the configuration. Figures 6.4 and 6.5 illustrate the effect of
pipe elbows and miter pipe bends. Table 6.2 provides several loss terms for
valves and fittings. All these data are from the Crane Industrial Products Group
Technical Paper No. 410.

9.2.3. Pipe Solution Techniques

There are four separate cases of pipe system problems that may be encountered.

These cases are all functions of the pressure loss equation:

(6.8)

Table 6.1. Inlet and Exit Head Loss Terms

Entrance type Minor loss coefficient, K*

Reentrant 0.78

Square-edged 0.5

Rounded

* Based on is the mean velocity in the pipe.

Figure 6.4. Head loss due to pipe elbows.

Of the four variable groups in Eq. (6.8), three need to be specified with the fourth
calculated. Each situation requires a slightly different solution procedure. Each
case is illustrated in the following examples. Each example uses water at 90F
and smooth drawn pipes.

EXAMPLE 6.5 Flow = 20 gpm, D = 1.5 in, L = 100 ft. For the case in which the
pressure loss is the unknown, one first obtains the friction factor from the Moody
chart

Figure 6.5. Head loss due to mitered pipe bends.

Table 6.2. Loss Terms for Valves and Fittings

Fitting type Equivalent length,* L e/D

Valves (fully open)

Gate valve 8

Globe valve 340

Angle valve 150

Ball valve 3

Lift check valve

Globe lift 600

Angle lift 55

Foot valve with strainer

Poppet disk 420

Hinged disk 75

Standard elbow

90 30

45 16

Return bend, close pattern 50

Standard tee

Flow through run 20

Flow through branch 60

*Based on

using Re and the relative roughness. The head loss is then calculated. The
pressure loss is calculated by using Eq. (6.5).

Known:
Solution:

From Moody chart:

Answers:

EXAMPLE 6.6 p = 10 psi, Q = 30 gpm, D = 1 in, L = ? Calculate the total head

loss from main equation. Get f from the Moody chart by using Re and e/D.
Calculate L from head loss.

Known:

Solution:
From Moody chart:

Answers:

EXAMPLE 6.7 p = 10 psi, L = 20 ft, D = 1 in, Q = ? This situation requires an

itera-tive method, because the calculation of f requires knowledge of the flow
rate. Calculate head loss from the basic equation, guess a high Re number, and
then get f from the Moody chart for the appropriate e/D. Then calculate the
velocity and a new head loss from these estimated values. Correct Re until the
two head losses are within 1 percent of each other. Finally, calculate the flow
rate.

Known:

Solution:

Guess:

From Moody chart:

Guess:

From Moody chart:

Guess:

From Moody chart:

Answer:

EXAMPLE 6.8 p = 10 psi, L = 20 ft, Q = 40 gpm, D = ? Obviously, if the flow

rate is known, along with the maximum allowable pressure loss and pipe length,
the designer wishes to determine the smallest diameter to keep costs low. This
situation requires an iterative solution that starts with a guessed D. From this
diameter, e/D can be calculated, and then velocity can be found from the area
and flow. Next, f can be found from the Moody diagram after calculating Re. With
this f, the head loss can be calculated. Use the main equation to calculate the
pressure loss and compare with the maximum allowable pressure drop.
Known:

Solution: Guess:

From Moody chart:

Guess:

From Moody chart:

Guess:

From Moody chart:

9.2.4. Pump Power Calculations

The head loss equation can be modified to include the power necessary to
operate a pump. This modification is derived from the fundamental energy
conservation equation and is expressed as:

Figure 6.6. Hydronic piping system using a manifold of four pipes.

(6.9)

The pump head term h P is negative because the power is into the pump. Use of
Eq. (6.9) is demonstrated in the following example.

EXAMPLE 6.9 The level of a surge tank is 20 ft above the suction of a pump. The
pump discharges 20 gpm of water into a single-path pipe system that comprises
200 ft of drawn tubing. The water is 80F. The pipe system includes one gate
valve, and the pipe is 0.50 in in diameter. The pipe system discharges into a
second surge tank that is 40 ft above the pump discharge and is sealed at a
pressure of 10 psig. Calculate the pump head and pump power necessary to
accomplish this task. Figure 6.6 shows this schematically.

Known:

Solution:

Citation
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Richard D. Watson: Radiant Heating and Cooling Handbook. FLUID MECHANICS,
Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002), AccessEngineering
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