COAL-SEAMS AS A

NATURAL GAS RESERVOIR

 Penambangan Terbuka Batubara

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 Coal Seams (Cleats)

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 Coal Seams (Cleats)

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 Coal Seams (Cleats)

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 Coal Seams (Cleats)

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 Coal Formation

Two theories have been proposed for the formation of

coal

Autochthonous Theory: Plants which compose the coal were

accumulated in large freshwater swamps or peat bogs during
many thousands of years (Growth in-situ theory) coal was
fossilized on the site of growth due to tectonic or some other
reasons.
Allochthonous Theory: coal strata accumulated from plants which
had been rapidly transported and deposited under flood
conditions (Drift theory) coal seams have been formed as a result
of drifting and subsequent accumulation of plant bodies away
from the place of growth.

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 Autochthonous/ Growth in-
situ Theory
Supporting evidences of this theory

A vast amount of plant materials accumulated in-situ in the present

day swamps.
Many fossilized tree-trunks found in erect positions with their
roots fixed in the under-clays that lie beneath the coal seams.
A comparatively pure state of coal seams indicates that the
materials accumulated without getting mixed with the adventitious
materials and not transported along the sediments.

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 Allochthonous/ Drift Theory

Supporting evidences of this theory

No under-clays, representing the soil at the root are associated

with the coal.

Stems with roots in upright positions are not found.

Beds of coals are observed to branch out, which only
characteristics of drifted matters.

Coal seams associated with sedimentary rocks and itself behave
like a stratified sedimentary rocks.

Presence of channel sands indicating criss-cross movement of
water through swamps.

The types of fossil plants found in coal do not clearly support the
autochthonous theory (www.icr.org/article/origin-coal/)

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 Composition of OM-Bearing
Rocks
The composition of OM-bearing rocks is described according to
three fundamental compositional parameters: Grade; Type and
Rank
Grade or Richness express the proportion of organic vs
mineral constituents
Type describes the various kinds of organic constituents
Rank determines the level of organic metamorphism
OM evolves compositionally throughout its history, driven by
temperature, pressure, and biochemical processes. Compositional
changes continue up to the present day, and can occur after
sampling.
All rocks may contain some organic matter or no organic matter.
Coal by definition is mostly organic matter.

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 Classification of OM-Rich Rocks
DE
EN PO
ClassificationTYP
VI SI
RO TIOof OM based on Density
N M NA
E OM-bearing
L
Rock Types ENT OM Content Bulk are
rocks Density
(Name) (wt %)
BURIAL (g/cm3)
classified
ENVIRONMENT
Carbonaceous Shale 0.1 7 according
2.5 2.7to:
GRAD TYPE
R. Carbonaceous Shale 7 50 1.76 2.5
E GRADE &
Dirty Coal 50 75 1.51 1.75
RANK
Clean Coal 75 100 1.3 1.5
Coal is
* This bulk density assume a phase density of 1.3 for the OM and 2.65 for the
distinguished
MM, with zero porosity. Actual rocks include a substantial proportion of
from OM-rich
porosity, RAN
which may be filled with low density fluids (water, oil, gas, or a
shale by being
mixture), which decreases their bulk density. K
>50% organic
matter
15
Grade and Type
formed here
Rank change
The precursor to coal was peat
Peat accumulates in mires (swamps, marshes,
and bogs).
With continued peat accumulation water table
is often rising, causing younger plant zones to
overtake older plant zones, creating a vertical
succession. The peat has to be buried under piles of
If subsidence continues, the water levels are sediments to be preserved.
too high for plants to grow or peat to The deeper the burial, the higher the heat, the
accumulate and sediments wash in to bury the greater the metamorphism or thermal
peat, forming stone partings if the peat grows maturation (rank).
again after flooding.

(Press and Seiver, 2004)

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 3 Processes Creating
Different Peat Types
Different kinds of plants and plant materials
contributing to the sediments(e.g. spores,
woody tissues, leaf cuticles, algal remains,
etc.).
Processes occurring immediately after
deposition in the peat-forming environment
(e.g. gelification, carbonization, etc.).
Processes in the burial environment
associated with rank, forming "secondary"
macerals, (especially related to oil
generation).
These different peat types are reflected in
different COAL LITHOTYPES

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 Coal Lithotypes
Vitrain macroscopically recognizable very bright bands or lenses of
coals. Usually a few mm in width, clean to the touch. In many coals the
vitrain is permeated with numerous fine cracks at right angle to
stratification, and consequently breaks with a conchoidal fracture.
Durain macroscopically recognizable dull bands of coals, characterized
by their gray and brownish black color and rough surface with dull or
faintly greasy luster. Reflection is diffuse, they are markedly less fissured
than bands of vitrain.
Clarain a bright lustrous constituent of coal, c.o bands of variable
thickness having a luster between that of vitrain and durain.
Conventionally the thickness of the fine, bright and dull striations must be
less that 3 mm. Clarain may have variable maceral composition from the 3
groups (vitrinite, liptinite, inertinite).
Fusain Macroscopically recognized by its black or grey-black color, silky
luster, its fibrous structure and extreme friability. Fusain may include a
high proportion of mineral material, which strengthens it and reduces its
friability.

(Stopes, 1919)
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 Classification of Coal
Lithotypes
Lithotype Description
Viterous to subviterous lustre, even to concoidal
Bright Coal (vitrain) B
fracture, brittle, may contain 10% dull coal bands
Mainly bright coal, contain thin 10 40% dull coal
Bright-banded Coal Bb
bands, even fracture
Banded Coal Contain bright and dull bands, bright bands range
BD
(duroclarain) in proportion between 40 60%
Banded dull Coal Mainly dull coal containing thin 10 40% bright
Db
(clarodurain) bands, uneven fracture
Mattle lustre and uneven fracture, may contain
Dull coal (durain) D
10% of bright coal bands
Dull with satin sheen, friable, may contain up to
Fibrous Coal (fusain) F
10% of other coal lithotypes
Contains 30 60% clay and silt in intimate
Shaley Coal Cs
mixture with coal, or separate bands each
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 Macerals
A maceral is a component of coal or oil shale. The term 'maceral' in
reference to coal is analogous to the use of the term 'mineral' in
reference to igneous or metamorphic rocks. It is mainly plant
materials. It is different types - internites, vitrinites and liptinites.
Inertinite is considered to be the equivalent of charcoal and degraded
plant material.
Vitrinite is shiny, glass-like material that is considered to be
composed of cellular plant material such as roots, bark, plant
stems and tree trunks. Vitrinite macerals when observed under the
microscope show a boxlike, cellular structure, often with oblong
voids and cavities which are likely the remains of plant stems.
Liptinite are considered to be produced from decayed leaf matter,
spores, pollen and algal matter. Resins and plant waxes can also
be part of liptinite macerals. Liptinite macerals tend to retain their
original plant form, i.e., they resemble plant fossils.

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 Vitrinite
Vitrinite is one of the primary components of coals and most
sedimentary kerogens.
Vitrinite is derived from the cell-wall material or woody tissue
of the plants from which coal was formed. Chemically, it is
composed of polymers, cellulose etc.
The vitrinite group that are derived from the same biogenic
precursors as coals, namely land plants and humic peats.
Vitrinite forms diagenetically by the thermal alteration of lignin
and cellulose in plant cell walls. It is therefore common in
sedimentary rocks that are rich in organic matter, such as
shales and marls with a terrigenous origin, or some
terrigenous content.
Conversely, carbonates, evaporites and well-sorted
sandstones have very low vitrinite contents. Vitrinite is
absent in pre-Silurian rocks because land plants had not yet
evolved

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 Coal Rank
Rank provides a measure of how far sedimentary organic matter has
advanced along the maturation pathway. A wide variety of physical and
chemical parameters can be used to determine rank: fixed carbon yield or
vitrinite reflectance
Peat a dark brown and black residuum produced by the partial
decomposition and disintegration of mosses, sedges, trees and other
plants that grow in marshes and swamps.
Brown coal a low rank coal, intermediate between peat and
bituminous rank; +/- synonymous with lignite.
Bituminous coal a term commonly applied to certain varieties of soft
(medium rank) coal which burn freely with a flame and which yield
volatile bituminous matter on heating.
Anthracite a hard, black lustrous coal containing a low %-age of
volatile matter, commonly referred to as hard coal and mined mostly
in eastern Pennsylvania. A coal yielding < 8% volatile
matter.

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 Significance of Rank
Rank is used to define these discrete points in the maturation
process.
Rank may vary laterally and vertically within a seam, and it varies
from seam to seam within a given coal group.
Physical properties often reach a maximum at hvAb level with a better
cleat system and propensity to fracture.
The vitrinite reflectance increases with maturation because of the
aromatization, aliphatic groups are dissipated as volatiles.
Vitrinite reflectance to establish rank of bituminous coals has the
following advantages:
 Steady increase of vitrinite reflectance with rank.
 Independence from composition or homogeneity.
 Independence of sample size.
 Minimal effects of oxidation.

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 Parameter Determining Coal Rank
Maximum
Volatile Matter
Rank Reflectance
(wt %)b
(% Ro)a
Anthracite (an) >3 2 to 8
Semi Anthracite (sa) 2.05 to 3.00 8 to 14
Low volatile Bituminous (lvb) 1.50 to 2.05 14 to 22
Medium volatile Bituminous (mvb) 1.10 to 1.50 22 to 31
High A volatile Bituminous (hAvb) 0.71 to 1.10 31 to 39
High B volatile Bituminous (hBvb) 0.57 to 0.71 39 to 42
High C volatile Bituminous (hCvb) 0.47 to 0.57 42 to 47
Sub-bituminous (sub) 0.30 to 0.47 > 47
lignite (lig) < 0.30*) -

aDavis (1978)
bASTM

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 Coal core description
Numerous elements should be captured in coal descriptions
External Character
Thickness, appearance
Banding
Thickness, character, brightness
Accessories
Non-coal partings, minerals and their distribution, plant material
Cleating
Development, distribution, characteristics, displacement, spatial
orientation
Adjacent lithologies
Sandstones, carbonates, shales
Paleosols, tonsteins
Contacts

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 Coal core description

Coal description provides several functions:

Helps predict the relative productivity of coal intervals
Captures features not resolved by wireline logs
Provides insights about coalbed geometry, continuity,
and directional permeability
Helps determine the contribution of interbedded
lithologies
Useful for integrating and quality checking measured
parameters

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Coal Distribution

Antracite
Low Rank
Bituminous

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 Reservoir Migas

Clastic sedimentary rocks

Bermigrasi dari batuan induk
(source rocks)
Minyak dan gas dijebak pada
media berpori
Reservoir adalah suatu
tutupan
Adanya kontak fluida (fluid
contacts): Water-Oil Contact,
Gas-Oil Contact, Gas-Water
Contact

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 Migrasi Hidrokarbon

Seal

Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact (OWC)

Migration route
Seal
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity

Source rock
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 Reservoir CBM

 Gas Metana Batubara terwujud bersamaan dengan

pembentukan batubara.
 Batubara sekaligus sebagai Source Rock dan
Reservoir Rock.
 Tidak ada kontak fluida (gas dan air).
 Reservoir menghampar secara areal seperti karpet.
 Besarnya Kapasitas penyimpanan gas merupakan
fungsi dari ranking batubara.

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 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia Conglomerate

Examples

Sandstone Shale
 Porous Medium

Hidrokarbon terjebak
di pori-pori batuan

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 Hidrokarbon

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 Proses Terbentuknya Batubara

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 Cycle of Coal Development

Increasing Time and Temperature

Peat

Lignite
Sub-
Bituminous

Bituminous

As coal is buried over time, coal responds to Anthracite

increased temperature by increasing thermal
maturity which is qualifies by coal rank.
Increased volumes of methane are generated
during this maturation process.
Graphite

March 9, 2013 | 2007 Institut Teknologi Bandung | Sumber: Ertekin

March 9, 2013 | 2007 Institut Teknologi Bandung |
Coalscience.com
 Gas Generation As A Function Of Thermal Maturity Of Coal

Increasing
gas
volume
Thermally-derived Volatile matter
methane driver off

Biogenic methane
Nitrogen dan Carbon
dioxide (CO2)

Lignite Subbituminous Bituminous Anthracite Graphite

Increasing coal rank

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 Pada umumnya Reservoir CBM di
Indonesia adalah pada Sub-
Bituminous Coal

ARI reference of 1972 Land and Jones Coal Study

2007 USGS study of Indonesian coals

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 Definisi: Coalbed Methane

 CBM adalah gas alam dengan

komposisi utama Metana
(CH4)
 Gas ini terwujud bersamaan
dengan pembentukan
batubara
 Terjebak dan teradsorpsi
pada cleats (macropore)
dan matrix batubara
(micropores)
 Diperlukan tekanan air yang
cukup untuk menahan gas
metana di tempat.

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 Batubara sebagai Reservoir CBM

After: Remner, Miracic

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 Pore
Pore Structure
Structure of
of Coal
Coal

Source: Narkiewicz, M. R. and Mathews, J. P., Visualization of carbon dioxide

sequestration issues within coal using molecular representation of
Pocahontas No. 3 coal, 12th International Conference on Coal Science and
Technology, 2005, October 9-14, Okinawa, Japan.

Prof. Ertekin-CBM Seminar in ITB 2006

March 9, 2013 | 2007 Institut Teknologi Bandung |

 PORE
PORE STRUCTURES
STRUCTURES OF
OF COALBED
COALBED METHANE
METHANE RESERVOIRS
RESERVOIRS

The molecular representation of a bituminous coal

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 Visualization of CO2 adsorption at capacity

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 The molecular representation of a bituminous coal
with 66 water molecules added
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 Gas adsorption on banks of
carbon nanotubes

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 COAL
COAL PETROLOGY
PETROLOGY

Coal petrology deals with the origin, occurrence, and structure of coal.
Coal contains more than 50% by weight and 70% by volume carbonaceous material.
Differences
(1) in the kinds of plant materials (represents the various kinds of organic constituents)



type
(2) in degree of metamorphism (the level of maturation reached from peat through antracite)



rank
(3) in the range of impurity (relative percentage of organic to mineral components



grade
are the characteristics of coal and are used to classify coals

Petrographic classification
of coal composition
on a three-axis diagram

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COAL PETROLOGY PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE ANALYSES PROCESSES

The composition of coal often is described by

proximate analysis and ultimate analysis.

A proximate analysis provides the percentage

of fixed carbon (FC), volatile matter (VM) and
moisture (H2O) and ash (ASH) content of coal.

An ultimate analysis provides the chemical

make up of the coal as percentages of carbon,
hydrogen, sulfur and ash.

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 Definisi: Coalbed Methane

 CBM adalah gas alam dengan

komposisi utama Metana
(CH4)
 Gas ini terwujud bersamaan
dengan pembentukan
batubara
 Terjebak dan teradsorpsi
pada cleats (macropore)
dan matrix batubara
(micropores)
 Diperlukan tekanan air yang
cukup untuk menahan gas
metana di tempat.

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 Storage Capacity

Range of surface area: 2150-

3150 ft square/gram
Modified from Okeke

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