A Comparison of Terrestrial Arthropod Sampling Methods

Author(s): Zou Yi, Feng Jinchao, Xue Dayuan, Sang Weiguo and Jan C. Axmacher
Source: Journal of Resources and Ecology, 3(2):174-182. 2012.
Published By: Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of
Sciences
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2012.02.010
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2012.02.010

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June, 2012 Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.3 No.2
J. Resour. Ecol. 2012 3 (2) 174-182
3FQPSU
DOI:10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2012.02.010
www.jorae.cn

A Comparison of Terrestrial Arthropod Sampling Methods

ZOU Yi1*, FENG Jinchao2, XUE Dayuan2, SANG Weiguo3 and Jan C. AXMACHER1

1 Department of Geography, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK;

2 College of Life and Environmental Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100082, China;
3 The State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, CAS, Beijing 100093, China

Abstract: Terrestrial arthropods are extremely important ecosystem components. The choice of
best approaches to collect the wide range of terrestrial arthropods has been a topic of long-lasting
debates. This article provides a brief overview of common sampling methods for terrestrial arthropod
assemblages. We divide sampling methods into three main categories: passive sampling methods without
any activity density bias, passive sampling methods with an activity density bias, and active sampling
methods with inherent activity density and often further species-dependent biases, discussing their
individual advantages and shortcomings as basis for biodiversity studies and pest control management.
The selection of the optimal sampling methods depends strongly on the purpose of individual studies and
the ecology and behavior of the arthropod groups targeted. A combination of different suitable methods is
highly recommended in many cases.

Key words: terrestrial arthropods; sampling methods; comparison; activity density

1 Introduction
Terrestrial arthropods are extremely important ecosystem
components. They exert control over the stability and
functioning of ecosystems, are key players in nutrient cycling
and also create substantial economic value via ecosystem
services such as pollination (Pyle et al. 1981). Moreover,
terrestrial arthropods are by far the most diverse group of
organisms on our planet, as insects alone account for an
estimated 57% of all species living on our planet (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment 2005).
The best approach to collect the wide range of terrestrial
arthropods has been a topic of long-lasting debates
(Greenslade and Greenslade 1964; Townes 1972; Shepard
et al. 1974; Basset 1988; Coddington et al. 1991; Brehm
and Axmacher 2006). When selecting an appropriate
sampling method, one should closely consider the design
of the respective sampling tools and their costs, as well as
the ecological traits and habitat conditions of the target taxa
(Gullan and Cranston 2005). Specific sampling methods
are indeed needed to sample different arthropod taxa. For
example, pitfall traps are highly useful for ground-dwelling
beetles and ants, malaise traps for flies or parasitic wasps,
light traps for moths and many other nocturnal insects, and
window traps for Staphylinidae and Scarabaeidae (Bowden
and Church 1973; Kitching et al. 2001). The capture
effectiveness of sampling methods and their improvements
are continually studied (Gressitt and Gressitt 1962; Shepard
et al. 1974; Luff 1975; Peck and Davies 1980; Masner and
Goulet 1981; Oliver and Beattie 1996; Campos et al. 2000;
Axmacher and Fiedler 2004; Sabu and Shiju 2010).
Some papers refer to active and passive sampling
as methods with or without human power when collecting
specimens (e.g. Gullan and Cranston 2005). Here, active
and passive sampling is used in a slightly different way,
distinguishing if an attractant is used to sample specimens or
not. Sampling methods are overall divided into three different
categories: passive sampling methods without any activity
density bias, for example collection of leaf litter or soil
samples, sweep netting and knockdown by chemical fogging;
passive sampling methods with an activity density bias,
for example pitfall traps, sticky traps, suction traps, Malaise
WUDSVDQGZLQGRZWUDSVDQGQDOO\DFWLYHVDPSOLQJPHWKRGV
with inherent activity density bias. All respective methods
use an additional attractant that often adds an additional

Received: 2012-02-24 Accepted: 2012-04-20

Foundation: the the China Bureau of Foreign Experts, the Ministry of Education of China (111 Program, Grant 2008-B08044), the Chinese Academy of
Sciences Fellowship for Young International Scientists (Fellowship Number 2010Y1SA16) and the Key Basic Research Project 973 (2010CB951301-5).
* Corresponding author: ZUO Yi. Email: zouyi@ibcas.ac.cn.
ZOU Yi, et al.: A Comparison of Terrestrial Arthropod Sampling Methods
bias to the sampling results due to a differentiation in the
UHVSRQVHRILQGLYLGXDOVSHFLHVWRWKHVSHFLFDWWUDFWDQW7KLV
latter group includes for example light traps, pan traps, bait
WUDSVDQGKLJKO\VSHFLFSKHURPRQHWUDSV
This review will provide a brief overview of common
sampling methods for terrestrial arthropod assemblages
used in biodiversity studies and pest control, discussing
their individual advantages and shortcomings.
2 Terrestrial arthropods sampling methods
2.1 Passive sampling methods without activity density
bias
2.1.1 Berlese-Tullgren funnel for soil samples
To extract micro-arthropods inhabiting the soil, a Berlese-
Tullgren funnel (Southwood and Henderson 2000) has been
widely used (e.g. Harris 1971). A soil core of standardized
volume is taken by for example a bulb planter or metal
ring. Soil cores are then moved into a funnel, where a
temperature gradient is created by heating sources like
100-W light bulbs, which causes living arthropods to
move from the warmer side to the cooler side of the funnel
and finally into the collecting bottle of this device. The
apparatus has been further improved by Macfadyen (1955,
1961), allowing the control of not only temperature, but also
humidity to increasing its effectiveness. Sample extraction
using this method is comparatively easy (Basset et al.
1997). However, soil samples need to be processed quickly
to avoid death of specimens, as it is based on the soil micro-
arthropods moving actively through the soil column.
2.1.2 Leaf litter collection
Leaf litter collecting is mainly used to sample ground-
dwelling microarthropods and beetles. In this approach, the
complete litter layer on top of the mineral soil is normally
collected over a standardized area. Leaf litter arthropods can
then be extracted with Berlese-Tullgren funnels (Crossley
and Hoglund 1962) or with litter-washing, where specimens
appear on the water surface when litter is positioned in
a water-filled tray (Spence and Niemel 1994). This is a
very inexpensive method, but often relative destructive
as large amounts of litter are often required to sample
VXIFLHQWQXPEHUVRIVSHFLPHQVZKLFKLVDOVRKLJKO\WLPH
consuming. Again, leaf litter washing requires dealing
with the samples quickly to avoid the death of specimen.
However, leaf litter sampling can form a good composite
technique with pitfall trapping, as specimen with small
body size rarely appear in the latter (Olson 1991; Spence
and Niemel 1994).
2.1.3 Netting
Butterfly and sweep nets are two common net types used
LQWHUUHVWULDODUWKURSRGVDPSOLQJ%XWWHU\QHWVDUHXVHGWR
FDSWXUHLQVHFWV\LQJRUKRYHULQJRYHUIROLDJHIRUH[DPSOH
butterflies, bees and hoverflies. A common butterfly net
FRQVLVWVRIDKDQGOHDQGDQHPHVKNHSWRSHQE\DPHWDO
175
hoop. The length of the handle and the diameter of the net
mouth can be varied to take account of the agility of target
insects and the type of habitat, with a longer handle and
wider mouth required for fast-moving and larger insects. In
this type of net, the bag is generally deeper than its diameter
(Gullan and Cranston 2005). The structure of sweep nets
LVVLPLODUZLWKEXWWHU\QHWVEXWDVWKHVHQHWVDUHDFWXDOO\
used to sweep arthropods off the vegetation, they are
made up of more solid and durable materials such as cotton
or linen. They are mainly used to catch insects hiding in low
grass- or herb-dominated vegetation and in small shrubs.
Netting is a highly cost-effective and rather non-intrusive
method. This approach is very useful when comparing
the relative species abundance and richness of small,
vegetation-dwelling arthropods between different areas with
similar vegetation types (Evans et al. 1983; Siemann et al.
1997). However, the capture rate of netting highly depends
RQWKHFROOHFWRUVVNLOOVDQGSDUWLFXODUEXWWHU\QHWWLQJKDV
an inherent bias related to the speed and activity pattern of
the specimens. It is also a time-consuming method which
is most suitable for open habitat types such as grass- and
bushland, but not easy to standardize in forest environments
with high vegetation density. Moreover, netting is normally
carried out at day time as it requires a good vision, thus
causing some limitation to its wider applicability, e.g. for
catching nocturnal taxa (Cane et al. 2000; Bartholomew and
Prowell 2005; Roulston et al. 2007).
2.1.4 Canopy fogging
Knockdown of arthropods from vegetation using an
insecticide fog is used mainly in samples of arboreal
arthropods (Basset et al. 1997). Insecticide fog can be
sprayed into the tree canopy directly from the ground or
distributed directly into tree crowns, while in larger-scale
sampling, and even planes are sometimes used to distribute
the insecticide (Adis et al. 1998). Arthropods falling from
the trees are collected in big plastic trays or nets (e.g. 1m2,
Allison et al. 1993) beneath the trees.
Fogging is a time-effective method which can assemble
comprehensive arthropod samples of taxa living in tree
canopies (Erwin 1983; Paarmann and Stork 1987; Basset
et al. 1997; Yanoviak et al. 2003). Fogging can cause low
rates of death depending on the type and concentration
of insecticides used (Paarmann and Stork 1987). The
shortcomings of this method include the need of a clam
weather condition; difficulties in assessing the correct
DPRXQWRILQVHFWLFLGHWREHXVHGDVLWLVGLIFXOWWRHVWLPDWH
the number and density of target specimens; resampling
of the same trees is problematic and the approach is not
very effective in sampling particular microarthropods
like Acarina or Collembola, and of species living in
microhabitats like bark crevices, epiphytes and tree holes
(Basset et al. 1997; Yanoviak et al. 2003). Depending on
the type of insecticide used, this method can also be highly
destructive to arthropod communities.
176
2.2 Passive sampling methods with activity density
bias
2.2.1 Pitfall traps
A pitfall trap consists of a container buried in the ground
with its rim at surface level, and often with a roof above
the trap to limit evaporation and dilution of killing liquids
by rain water. There are a variety sizes and designs of
pitfall traps. The diameter of the container varies between
2 cm and 2 m and contains different volumes, with
container materials ranging from glass and plastic to mental
(Greenslade 1964; Hinds and Rickard 1973; Luff 1975;
Oliver and Beattie 1996). In ground arthropod sampling,
liquids are usually added to kill the samples and preserve
them. Killing liquids usually cover the bottom of the
container, ensuring that the samples are easier to identify
after prolonged sampling periods and limiting their chance
to escape (Pekar 2002). Solutions commonly used are
water saturated with salt, diluted formaldehyde, ethylene
glycol, benzoic acid and alcohol. It should be added that
the use of strong volatility chemicals like alcohol can be
controversial for a standard passive sampling method as
it actively attracts certain species like molluscs, but we still
consider pitfalls as passive traps because the solutions are
mainly used to preserve samples rather than attracting them.
In water-based solutions, a little detergent is often added to
ORZHUWKHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQDQGSUHYHQWLQVHFWVIURPRDWLQJ
on the surface (Gullan and Cranston 2005). In addition to
Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.3 No.2, 2012
effective traps for catching carabids.
Pitfall traps are obviously suitable to sample mobile,
ground-dwelling arthropods, but not arboreal or primarily
airborne ones (Spence and Niemel 1994; Siemann et al.
1997; Rainio and Niemel 2003). In addition, pitfall traps
catch mammals (e.g. mice), amphibians (e.g. frogs) and
slugs, which rot quickly with bad smell, affecting catches of
target arthropods. Predation of sampled insects by birds or
predatory carabid beetles and other predatory insects inside
the containers can also influence to composition of pitfall
trap samples (Mitchell 1963).
2.2.2 Sticky traps
Sticky traps have been widely used in pest monitoring and
arthropod sampling (Harris et al. 1971; Williams 1973;
Midgarden et al. 1993; Basset et al. 1997; Atakan and
Canhilal 2004). They usually contain a cardboard coated
with sticky glue on the surface to catch target specimens
touching it. The height at which the trap is installed strongly
DIIHFWVFDWFKLQJUHVXOWV)RUH[DPSOHZHVWHUQRZHUWKULSV
are most effectively caught at 2.4 m above the ground
(Gillespiel and Vernonz 1990). Traditional sticky traps
are generally considered to be passive sampling methods,
but they often are coloured specifically to attract certain
DUWKURSRGWD[D)UXLWLHVDSKLGVZKLWHLHVDQGOHDIKRSSHUV
for example are all effectively attracted by yellow traps
(Atakan and Canhilal 2004), whereas translucent or
white traps are more effective than red and black ones in
wet pitfall traps which contain liquids, dry pitfall traps are
also sometimes used, which capture living samples (Mader
et al. 1990; Winder et al. 2001).
As cost-effective sampling methods, pitfall traps are
widely used in collecting surface-dwelling arthropods
(Greenslade 1964; Baars 1979; Olive and Beattie 1996;
Liu et al. 2006; Sabu and Shiju 2010), sometimes even as
the standard method for selected species assemblages (e.g.
for carabids, see Rainio and Niemel 2003). The capture
results are affected by the structure of the ground vegetation
(for example, catches of ground beetles can be reduced
with the increase of vegetation height, Greenslade 1964),
WUDSVL]HZLWKVPDOOWUDSVPRUHHIFLHQWLQFDWFKLQJVPDOO
beetles, while large trap in catching larger ones, Luff 1975),
trap shape (with round traps catching more carabids than
rectangular ones, Spence and Niemel 1994), material of the
trap (with glass being the most capture-effective material
in catching beetles as compared to plastic and metal, Luff
1975), solution concentration (with the concentration
of formaldehyde positively correlated with the capture
rate of carabids, Pekar 2002), detergent (for example the
number of spiders caught increases with the addition of
detergent, Pekar 2002) and cover use (more carabids caught
in traps without cover than in those with covers, Spence
and Niemel 1994). Therefore, when using pitfall traps to
study a certain arthropod taxon, a good combination of trap
designs should be considered. For example, round glass
traps with 20% formaldehyde and without cover would be
FROOHFWLQJLHV:LOOLDPVDQGEOXHVKDGHVDUHPRUH
effective than white and yellow ones for western flower
thrips (Brdsgaard 1989).
Sticky traps are highly cost effective and can be used
with many replicates in a certain area, but glues are hard
to remove from specimens and would potentially damage
them (Basset et al. 1997).
2.2.3 Suction traps
6XFWLRQWUDSVDUHGHYLFHVXVLQJDRZRIDLUOHGRYHUDQHWWR
catch arthropods. There are two main types of suction traps:
the Johnson-Taylor suction trap and the Dietrick vacuum
insect net (D-vac). Johnson-Taylor (Johnson 1950; Taylor
1951) suction traps are mainly used in catching aerial
arthropod. The trap mainly consists of a suction tube and
an exhaust box. The exhaust box consists of an electric fan
and a net attached over the collection jar. Air is extracted
from the box when the fan is working, resulting in a partial
vacuum and the rapid flow of air through the sampling
tube. Thus, arthropods are moved into the collection jar. To
reduce damages for arthropods caused by fast air flow in
the tube, there usually is an expanded buffer area connected
between the tube and the net. The D-vac (Dietick et al.
1960) suction trap uses a motor fan and is mainly used for
the sampling of ground active arthropods. It usually consists
of a motorized electric exhaust fan and a nylon collection
QHW7KHPRXWKRIWKHQHWLV[HGRQDFLUFXODUPHWDOKRRS
while the bottom is connected to the fan. When sampling,
ZOU Yi, et al.: A Comparison of Terrestrial Arthropod Sampling Methods 177
arthropods (Bouget et al. 2008). Small-scale diversity
WKHKRRSSDUWLV[HGWRWKHJURXQGFRYHULQJWKHWDUJHWDUHD
patterns are not always well reflected in samples from
from which the fan sucks the air.
window trap (Jonsson et al. 1986). The efficiency of
Suction traps are particular useful in monitoring
window traps is also affected by the material of the barrier,
DJULFXOWXUDOLQVHFWV7KH\DUHDKLJKHIFLHQWPHWKRGZKLFK
ZLWKODUJHEHHWOHV\LQJDWKLJKVSHHGSRWHQWLDOO\ERXQFLQJ
allows the sampling of a relatively large area within a short
off hard barriers without falling into the sampling containers
time period and are also useful for long-term arthropod
below (Boiteau 2000). The exact shape, silhouette and
monitoring. Disadvantages are that they are expensive per
KHLJKWRIWKHEDUULHUDOVRKDVDVWURQJLQXHQFHRQVDPSOLQJ
unit and are often bulky and therefore inconvenient for
HIFLHQF\%RXJHWet al. 2008), as has the exact placement
transport and work in remote areas.
of the trap. Disadvantages of window traps include that they
2.2.4 Malaise traps FDWFKRQO\\LQJDUWKURSRGVWKH\DUHUHODWLYHO\H[SHQVLYH
per unit especially in traps using hard barriers, can be easily
Malaise traps are an effective type of flight-interception
damaged by high winds, have a relatively small flight
traps invented by R. Malaise (1937). Several varieties are
interception area, and often suffer additional problems
currently in use (Gressitt and Gressitt 1962; Marston 1965;
UHODWLQJWRWKHHIFLHQWLQVWDOODWLRQDQGVDPSOHUHWULHYDODQG
Townes 1972; Masner and Goulet 1981; Steyskal 1981), but
logistical problems can occur when sampling is to occur
the basic structure consists of a tent with a large opening
in the forest canopy (Peck and Davies 1980; Carrel 2002;
at the front and back and a fabric barrier in the centre to
Gullan and Cranston 2005; Bouget et al. 2008).
LQWHUFHSW\LQJLQVHFWV,QWHUFHSWHGLQVHFWV\XSZDUGDQG
become trapped in the top of the trap in a collecting jar 2.3 Active sampling methods
RIWHQOOHGZLWKDNLOOLQJDJHQWVHH&DPSRVet al. 2000). In 2.3.1 Light traps
placing Malaise traps, the flight behaviour of the selected
target taxa and local circumstances such as topography, Nocturnal arthropods like many species of moths and
density of vegetation, wind and water conditions need to be beetles are easily attracted by artificial light sources
taken into consideration (Gressitt and Gressitt 1962). (Nag and Nath 1991; Axmacher and Fiedler 2004). Light
The Malaise trap is an easy-to-make, low cost sampling traps have therefore been widely used in nocturnal insect
tool which can capture flying arthropods day and night, sampling for a long time (e.g. Ricklefs 1975; Morton et al.
especially when additionally being illuminated at night 1981; Thomas 1996; Holyoak et al. 1997; Axmacher et al.
(Gressitt and Gressitt 1962; Basset 1988; Campos et al. 2004a, b).
2000). It is commonly used in sampling of Hymenoptera, Many light traps are often relatively expensive, but
Diptera, Thysanoptera and Coleoptera (Peck and Davis robust sampling devices which can collect high numbers
1980; Darling and Packer 1988; Strickler and Walker of specimens (Basset et al. 1997; Liu et al. 2007). Light
1993; Olsen and Midtgaard 1996; Campos et al. 2000). sources vary greatly, ranging from gas lamps to mercury
/LPLWDWLRQRI0DODLVHWUDSVDUHWKDWWKH\DUHFRQQHGWRWKH YDSRXUODPSVDQGXRUHVFHQW89OLJKWWXEHVDQGFROOHFWLRQ
VDPSOLQJRILJKWDFWLYHDUWKURSRGVKDYHDFRPSDUDWLYHO\ of samples can either be manual or automatically (Brehm
low trapping effectiveness which sometimes may cause and Axmacher 2006). There basically are two types of light
statistical problems, and in the trap equipment becoming trapping devices: light towers or more basic devices
easily damaged by wind, especially in long-term studies
(Basset 1988).
2.2.5 Window traps
A window trap is another type of flight interception trap,
EDVHGRQVLPLODUSULQFLSOHVWRWKH0DODLVHWUDS,WZDVUVW
introduced by Chapman and Kinghorn (1955) and later
modified for example by Peck and Davies (1980). The
construction of a window trap includes a pane of glass,
perspex, silk or fine mesh which is considered invisible
to the target arthropods. This pane or net is located in the
FHQWUHRIDVXVSHFWHGLJKWSDWKDVDEDUULHUWRDUWKURSRGV
XVLQJWKLVSDWKDQGDFRQWDLQHURUJXWWHUOOHGZLWKOLTXLG
preservatives is placed beneath the net (Fig. 1). Flying
arthropods are collected once they fall into the preserving
liquid after hitting the barrier. A roof is added on the top if
the trap needs to resist rain. Fig. 1 A window trap using black silk mesh of 1.5 m x 3 m
Window trapping is an easily standardized, replicable with a plastic roof in the Korean Pine forest of Changbai
VDPSOLQJPHWKRGDQGFDQFDSWXUHODUJHTXDQWLWLHVRI\LQJ Mountain, Jilin Province, China. Photo: ZOU Yi.
178
such as white sheets spread behind light sources which are
suitable for selective, manual collection, and automatic light
traps. In the case of light towers, insects are collected in a
jar equipped with a chemical to stun and kill the specimens
after they land on the surface of the light tower. Alternative
setups use a simple white sheet placed behind the light
source. In automatic trap, insects are sampled after they are
attracted towards transparent vanes, sliding down through
a funnel where killing agents can be applied (Brehm and
Axmacher 2006).
The capture rates of light traps are highly variable and
affected by a wide array of factors relating to the trap design
and environmental conditions. Sampling success is affected
for example by the above-ground height of the light source
and the type of trap illumination (Baker and Sadovy 1978;
Bowden 1982), and attraction also varies between species
(Bowden 1982). The timing of light traps should also
consider effects of background illumination by moonlight
or anthropogenic light sources (Bowden and Church 1973;
Morton et al. 1981; Bowden 1982; Nag and Nath 1991;
Nowinszky 2004). Light traps are highly effective and can
preserve specimen in relatively good state, which is very
important for sampling relatively frail specimens such as
small moths. The disadvantages of light traps include their
limitation to nocturnal species, and difficulties in direct
comparisons of quantitative data due to differences in
light attraction between taxa (Basset 1988). Traps are also
often heavy and inconvenient to carry in remote areas. In
addition, specimen can become damaged by large, active
species or when large sample sizes are caught in the traps
(personal experience).
2.3.2 Pan traps
Pan traps, also referred to as water traps, show many
similarities to pitfall traps, but are generally operated above
the soil surface (Cane et al. 2000). Pan traps are plastic
bowls commonly filled with water, with a few drops of
dishwasher detergent added to break the surface tension.
Target insects will sink into the water when they land
on the surface. Different colours can again significantly
affect the capture rate for different arthropod taxa. For
example, yellow pans are used in studies of diverse groups
of pollinators (Leong and Thorp 1999; Kitching et al.
2001), while blue pan traps are more effective in catching
Stephanidae in comparison to yellow ones (Aguiar and
Sharkov 1997) and red pans are attractive for Amphicoma
beetles (Dafni et al. 1990) while white is more attractive
than yellow for many dipterans (Disney et al. 1982).
Responses to traps differ between sexes (Leong and Thorp
1999), which needs to be taken into consideration during
general surveys.
Pan traps are effective in capturing a wide range of insect
taxa such as flower-visiting flies and skippers, and they
are very useful to record bee species (Leong and Thorp
1999; Cane et al. 2000; Roulston et al. 2007). Pan traps
are a cheap and easily transportable sampling tool. They
Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.3 No.2, 2012
are sensitive to rainfall and thereby need to be regularly
checked.
2.3.3 Bait traps
The term bait trap refers to a wide range of active taps
usually using potential food items as attractants and can be
combined with other trapping methods. While traditional
mouse-traps are an examples for bait traps used in mammal
catches, baited traps are also commonly used in arthropod
surveys. Examples of bait range from syrup used in pitfall
traps as an effective attractant for ants (Greenslade and
Greenslade 1971) to vinegar-sugar alcohol-water mixtures
as effective bait for carabids (Yu et al. 2006) in pitfall traps.
White bread is attractive food for cockroach sampling
(Ballard and Gold 1982) and rotting bananas, molasses and
UXPDUHXVHGLQDWWUDFWLQJEXWWHULHV+XJKHVet al. 1998).
Bait traps are effective sampling methods for live catches
of arthropods. The selection of food source is of crucial
importance, so basic knowledge of feeding habits is a
prerequisite to use this method.
2.3.4 Pheromone traps
Pheromones are semiochemicals released by species that
can cause certain behavioural or physiological responses
of other individuals. Pheromone traps are widely used
in monitoring arthropods population for pest control.
Sex pheromones and aggregating pheromones are the
main two types of pheromones used in these traps. Sex
pheromones are semiochemicals that sexually maturity
specimens produce to attract the opposite sex for mating
while aggregating pheromones are produced by species to
induce gathering for feeding or attack. Pheromone traps
are high selective for certain species and often gender, and
they are widely used in the trapping of Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera (e.g. Bell et al. 1972; Riedl et al. 1976; Mullen
1992; Turchin and Odendaal 1996; Walker et al. 2003).
Pheromone traps are an inexpensive and easily implemented
approach in many cases, although the initial production of
VSHFLFSKHURPRQHVFDQEHH[SHQVLYHDQGWLPHFRQVXPLQJ
They are usually weather sensitive and often require
substantial knowledge of the target species (Weinzierl et al.
2006).
3 Comparisons
As demonstrated above, different sampling methods need
to be used for different arthropod taxa, with appropriate
sampling techniques being key for effective arthropod
monitoring, pest control and biodiversity research. For
sampling methods with an inherent activity density bias
which are therefore depended on both population densities
and activity patterns of individual species, it is important
to acknowledge that respective samples will not normally
reflect the species prevailing density, and short-term
shifts for example in weather conditions can alter results
substantially. In biodiversity studies, we recommended
to use diversity indices which are robust for resulting
ZOU Yi, et al.: A Comparison of Terrestrial Arthropod Sampling Methods 179
Table 1 Comparisons among different terrestrial arthropods sampling methods.

Attractant Activity
Sampling
(passive/ density Targets Advantages Limitations
method
active) bias (+/-)
Soil extraction Passive - Soil microarthropods Inexpensive Samples need to be processed quickly
Leaf litter Passive - Ground-dwelling Inexpensive Samples need to be processed quickly;
collection microarthropods large amounts of litter needed
Netting Passive - Flying arthropods, arthropods Inexpensive; Labourious
sitting in vegetation non-intrusive
Canopy Passive - Arboreal arthropods Time effective; Weather sensitive; non-repeatable
fogging highly productive
Pitfall traps Passive + Ground-dwelling arthropods Inexpensive By catch of mammals, amphibians and slugs;
predation by birds and predatory insects
Sticky traps Passive + Flying arthropods Inexpensive 6SHFLPHQDUHGLIFXOWWRH[WUDFWIURP
the sampling device
Suction traps Passive + Aerial and ground-dwelling Highly effective ([SHQVLYHGLIFXOWWRWUDQVSRUW
arthropods
Malaise traps Passive + Flying arthropods Inexpensive Low trapping effectiveness;
easily damaged by wind
Window traps Passive + Flying arthropods Easily standardized; Easily damaged by wind,
replicable; highly effective VPDOOLJKWLQWHUFHSWLRQDUHD
Light traps Active + Nocturnal arthropods Highly effective Expensive, potential damage
of specimen
Pan traps Active + Flower-visiting arthropods Inexpensive Sensitive to rainfall
Bait traps Active + 6SHFLFJURXSVRUVSHFLHV Highly effective %DLWFDQEHGLIFXOWWRKDQGOH
Pheromone Active + 6SHFLFJURXSVRUVSHFLHV Highly effective Weather sensitive; need substantial
traps knowledge of the target species

differences in samples like Fishers (Alpha of the log 1974).

series, see e.g. Brehm et al. 2003; Axmacher et al. 2004a;
Liu et al. 2006).
Table 1 provides a brief comparison of sampling
methods for terrestrial arthropods described in this
review. Active methods here refer to sampling arthropods
with attractant that often work specifically for selected
taxa. For pest control management, such targeted active
methods are often more suitable than passive methods, for
example when controlling the populations of pest species
in Lepidoptera and Coleoptera using, for example, sex
pheromones. Bait and pheromones can be combined with
different trap types, for example in baited pitfall traps or
pheromone-malaise traps, or they can also be used together
to maximize sampling rates, with examples including sticky
traps with additional food attractants or the use of male
sex pheromones and female aggregation pheromones for
the control of the olive fruit flies (Diptera, Tephritidae)
(Haniotakis 1991).Some passive sampling methods are
also used in pest controls because they are very robust in
catching a large amount of pests, for instance in the use of
suction traps in agricultural pest control (Hoyt and Burts
In biodiversity studies, sampling methods yielding
large amounts of specimens while keeping them in
DSSURSULDWHFRQGLWLRQIRULGHQWLFDWLRQLVDQLGHDODSSURDFK
Nonetheless, a high sample volume is often correlated
with a high proportion of damaged individuals. Window
traps and Malaise traps are similar in constructions and can
ERWKEHXVHGWRVDPSOH\LQJDUWKURSRGVLQKLJKQXPEHUV
Compared with Malaise traps, window traps have much
higher yields. However, Malaise traps are more suitable
to be used with additional attractants to catch specific
taxa. Both methods require an open area and can only trap
WDUJHWVRQWKHLU\LQJSDWK7KXVVZHHSQHWWLQJLVDJRRG
complementary approach, also allowing for the catching
of vegetation-dwelling arthropods. They can also be used
to supplement light traps, where the type of light and trap
design again strongly influence both sample volume and
quality of the resulting specimens.
As results from different sampling methods yield strongly
differing results, the combination of different methods is
highly recommended for comprehensively sampling of
larger taxa where different species often vary strongly
180
in their behaviour and ecological niche. For example,
pitfall traps are considered to be a standard method for the
sampling of carabids (Rainio and Niemel 2003), but they
are strongly biased towards ground-dwelling ground beetles
with a large body-size, so that complementary catches
with light towers can generate a much better impression
of the overall assemblage structure and species richness
of a habitat (Liu et al. 2007). To record ground-dwelling
carabids with a small body size (e.g. cryptozoic beetles)
that are rarely recorded in pitfall traps (Olson 1994), leaf
litter collecting is also very useful. In addition, window trap
can catch day-flying carabids (e.g. Amara spp.). Further
combinations can further enhance sampling success, for
example with light towers placed behind window traps,
combining as a window-light trap, ideal in sampling of a
Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.3 No.2, 2012
at equal light sources: A comparison of catches from Mt. Kilimanjaro.
Journal of the Lepidopterists Society, 58: 196-202.
Axmacher J C, G Holtmann, L Scheuermann, G Brehm, K Mller-
Hohenstein and K Fiedler. 2004a. Diversity of geometrid moths
(Lepidoptera: Geometridae) along an Afrotropical elevational rainforest
transect. Diversity and Distributions, 10: 293-302.
Axmacher J C, H Tnte, M Schrumpf, et al. 2004b. Diverging diversity
patterns of vascular plants and geometrid moths during forest
regeneration on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Journal of Biogeography, 31:
895-904.
Baars M A. 1979. Catches in pitfall traps in relation to mean densities of
carabid beetles. Oecologia, 41: 25-46.
Baker R R and Y Sadovy. 1978. The distance and nature of the light-trap
response of moths. Nature, 276: 818-820.
%DOODUG-%DQG5(*ROG7KHHIIHFWRIVHOHFWHGEDLWVRQWKHHIFDF\
of a sticky trap in the evaluation of German cockroach populations.
Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 51: 86-90.
Bartholomew C S and D Prowell. 2005. Pan compared to malaise trapping
YHU\ZLGHUDQJHRI\LQJEHHWOHWD[D+XL]HQ
Among all sampling methods mentioned above, canopy
fogging, sticky traps, window traps and pan traps usually
kill specimen, and therefore not suitable for monitoring rare
species. Other methods such as pitfall traps and Malaise
traps can keep specimen alive if no killing solution is added
in the collection containers. In addition, pitfall traps, sticky
traps, Malaise traps, window traps and pan traps are easily
used in the long-term continuously monitoring, while others
such as soil extraction, leaf litter collection, netting and
canopy fogging are generally used for selecting certain
samples and could be influenced by collectors skills.
Suction traps and light traps can also be used in long-term
continuously monitoring if proper electric power can be
provided. Moreover, it should be kept in mind that some
methods like canopy fogging can be highly detrimental
to the arthropod populations within the study area and
potentially even in areas in their vicinity, indiscriminately
killing a wide range of species. These techniques should
therefore be avoided in sensitive habitats known to harbour
threatened species.
In conclusion, how to select a proper sampling method
depends on the sampling purpose. The basic knowledge
of target arthropods habits is required before starting
sampling. None of a single method is panacea for collecting
a wide range of arthropod taxa. Therefore, a good
combination of different methods is highly recommended
for ecological surveys.
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