MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

UNIT -1

QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. (a) Classify the composite material system? (b) Describe various characteristics of lamina and laminate? (c) State,
giving your reasoning, which composite materials you would select for the following applications.
(i) A component to operate with in a vacuum furnace at 21000 C
(ii) A Component of diesel engine, which is subject to wear.

Ans:

a) Classification of Composite Material System:

Particle Reinforced Composites: These can be further classified under two subgroups: (i) large particle and (ii)
dispersion- strengthened composites. The distinction between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening
mechanism. The term large indicate that particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular
level; rather continum mechanics is used. The particulate phase for most of these composites is harder and stiffer than
the matrix. In the vicinity of each particle, these reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase.
Obviously, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the load. We may
note that the degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on strong bonding at the
matrix particle interface. Concrete is familiar example of large-particle composite. Concrete is composed of cement
(the matrix), and sand and gravel (the particulates). Large-particle composites are utilized with all three material types,
i.e. metals, polymers and ceramics. Examples of ceramic-metal composite are cermets. Cemented carbide, which is
composed of extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium
carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or nickel is the most common cermet. These composites
are widely used as cutting tools for hardened steels. The hard particles provide the cutting surface but, being extremely
brittle, are not themselves capable of withstanding the cutting stresses. Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in
the ductile matrix that isolates the carbide particles from one another and prevents particle to particle crack
propagation.

Particles for dispersion-strengthened composites are normally much smaller (diameter between 0.01 and 0.1 _m).
Particle-matrix interactions occur on the atomic or molecular level and lead to strengthening. We may note that the
mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation. The matrix bears the major portion of an applied load,
where as the small dispersed particle hinder or impede the motion of dislocations. Obviously, plastic deformation is
restricted such that yield and tensile strengths, as well as hardness improve. This type of composite contains small
particulates or dispersions, which increase the strength of the composite by blocking the movement of dislocations.
The dispersed is typically a stable oxide of the original material. A common example is sintered aluminium powder
(SAP). SAP has an aluminium matrix, which contains up to 14% aluminium oxide (Al2O3). This composite is produced
with the powder metallurgy process, where the powders are mixed, compacted at high pressures, and sintered
together. Sintering involves heating a material until the particles of the material fuse together. Only the edges of the
particles are generally bonded together; the whole particle does not melt. In terms of sintered ceramics, the product
is a strong, rigid, brittle product that exhibit good compressive strength, high melting points, and good heat resistance.
Examples of dispersion-strengthened composites include AgCdO, used as an electrical contact material, PbPbO,
used in battery plates, and BeBeO, used in nuclear reactor and aerospace components.

Fiber reinforced composites: These are strong fibres imbedded in a softer matrix to produce products with high
strength-to-weight ratios. The matrix material transmits the load to fibres, which absorb the stress. Under an applied
stress, fibre matrix bond ceases at the fibre ends, yielding a matrix deformation pattern (Fig. 18.3). In order to have
effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite material, some critical fibre length is essential. This critical
length lc is dependent on the fibre diameter d and its ultimate (or tensile) strength f , and on the fibre-matrix bond
strength (or the shear yield strength of the matrix, whichever is smaller) c according to the following relation

The critical length, lc is on the order of 1 mm for a number of glass and carbon fibre-matrix combinations and ranges
between 20 and 150 times the fibre diameter. Obviously, the strength of these composites comes from the bonding
between the reinforcement fibres and the matrix. The length-to-diameter, or aspect, ratio of the fibres used as
reinforcement influences the properties of the composite. The higher the aspect ratio, the stronger the composite.
Therefore, long, continuous fibres are better than short ones for composite construction. However, continuous fibres
are more difficult to produce and place in the matrix. Shorter fibres are easier to place in the matrix but offer poor
reinforcement. Some trade-off is made when shorter, discontinuous fibres are used with aspect ratios greater than a
specified minimum value. The greater the number of fibres, the stronger the composite. This holds true up to about
80% of the volume of the composite, where the matrix can no longer completely surround the fibres. Fibres for which
l >> lc (normally l > 15 lc) are called continuous, whereas fibres which have lengths shorter than this are termed
discontinuous. The matrix deforms around the discontinuous fibre having length less than lc, such that there is virtually
no stress transference and little reinforcement by the fibre. These are essentially the particulate composites as
discussed earlier. In order to affect a significant improvement in strength of the composite, the fibres must be
continuous.

The arrangement or orientation of the fibres, relative to each other, the fibre concentration, and distribution all have
a significant influence on the strength and other properties of
fibre-reinforced composites. There are two possible extremes with respect to orientation: (i) a parallel alignment of
the longitudinal axis of the fibres in the single direction, and (ii) a totally random alignment. Continuous fibres are
normally aligned as shown in Fig. (a), discontinuous fibres may be aligned shown in Fig. (b) and randomly oriented, as
or partially oriented as shown in Fig. (c). One can realize overall better composite properties when fibre distribution is
uniform.

2.3 Structural Composites: Laminate: When multidirectional stresses are imposed within a single plane, aligned layers
that are fastened together one on top of another at different orientations are frequently utilized. These are called
laminar composites. These are generally designed to provide high strength and low cost at a lighter weight. A familiar
laminar composite is plywood, where the veneers are joined by adhesives, typically phenolic or amine resins. The
individual odd number of piles are staked so that the grain in each layer runs perpendicular to that of the layers above
and below it. This technique offers plywood that is strong and yet cheaper. Safety glass is a laminated structure, where
an adhesive such as polyvinyl butyl is used between two outer layers of glass to keep the glass from flying when broken.
Formica is another common laminate used for countertops. Laminates require two or more layers be bonded together.
Laminations may also be constructed using fabric material such as cotton, paper, or woven glass fibres embedded in
a plastic matrix. Obviously, a laminar composite has relatively high strength in a number of directions in the two-
dimensional plane; however, the strength in any given direction is, of course, lower than it would be if all the fibres
were oriented in that direction. Modern ski is one example of a relatively complex laminated structure.

b) Characteristics of lamina and laminate

(c) State, giving your reasoning, which composite materials you would select for the following applications.
(iii) A component to operate with in a vacuum furnace at 21000 C
(iv) A Component of diesel engine, which is subject to wear.

2.(a) How carbon fibers are made? Describe with neat sketches a typical fabrication process. (b) Write a note on
Natural and Man made composites.

a) Ans: Manufacturing of carbon fibers:

Today there are two basic methods for manufacturing carbon fibers based on the starting material or precursor. The
most extensively used method is the conversion of polyacrylonile (PAN) to carbon and then to graphite. The conversion
of PAN to the various grades of carbon fibers is shown diagrammatically in Fig. Carbon fibers are processed in a
continuous line in which acrylic fibers are introduced as the starting material and emerge as carbon yarn. In the first
step of this process the PAN fibers are heated to 200C to 300C in air for 1 to 2 hours while the fibers are in tension.
Sufficient tension is used to unfold the tightly folded chain molecules. The oxidizing environment causes the unfolded
chains to cross-link with oxygen molecules replacing a hydrogen molecules on adjacent chains. Excess oxygen carries
the hydrogen away as water vapor. This intermediate product of cross-linked PAN is heat resistant and often used as
a low cost fiber in heat resistant clothing under the trade name CELIOX. The fibers are then heated in nitrogen
atmosphere at 1200C-1500C for 30 to 60 seconds. This heat treatment is referred to as the carbonization step and
converts the cross-linked structure to the carbon ring structure. During this step excess water and hydrogen cyanide
are evolved. The crystal structure is very small resulting in rather high strength. The fiber weighs on 50% of the original
PAN fiber at this stage. This is the fiber form that is marketed as a low cost, moderate strength carbon fiber. The
stiffness of this product is 200 GPa, which is a minimum for carbon fibers. In order to achieve higher strength and
higher stiffness additional high temperature heat treatment is required. This third stage of processing is called the
graphitization treatment. The carbon fiber strands are heated in nitrogen/argon mixtures for 15 to 20 seconds at
2000C to 3000C. This treatment completes the conversion of remaining carbonaceous material to graphite. The
graphite tends to align the basal planes in the direction of the fiber. During the process, however, the crystallite size
can increase. The increase in graphite content results in increased stiffness while the increase crystallite size will lower
the strength.

b) Notes on natural and manmade composites

Natural Composites: woods, bones, stones, etc. are natural composites, as they are either grown in nature or
developed by natural processes .Wood is a fibrous material consisting of thread-like hollow elongated organic
cellulose that normally constitutes about 60-70% of wood of which approximately 30-40% is crystalline, insoluble
in water, and the rest is amorphous and soluble in water. Cellulose fibers are flexible but possess high strength.
The more closely packed cellulose provides higher density and higher strength. The walls of these hollow
elongated cells are the primary load-bearing components of trees and plants. Bones contain short and soft
collagen fibers i.e., inorganic calcium carbonate fibers dispersed in a mineral matrix called apatite. The fibers
usually grow and get oriented in the direction of load. Tooth is a special type of bone consisting of a flexible core
and the hard enamel surface. The most remarkable features of woods and bones are that the low density, strong
and stiff fibers are embedded in a low density matrix resulting in a strong, stiff and lightweight composite.

Man made composites: Modern day needs require many special properties for the materials that are not provided
by the conventional materials. Various artificial composites are made by combining different type of materials.
These are carbon-carbon composites; Glass fiber reinforced polymer composites; Metal matrix composites etc.,
catering to the demands like high stiffness, lower thermal expansion, light weight requirement, good thermal
stability etc., These are being extensively used in the application like aero-space, automobiles and domestic
equipment. Newer materials are under development.
3. Write short notes on:
a) Metal matrix composites (b) Quasi-isotropic laminates (c) Particulate composites

Ans:

a) Metal matrix composites

As the name implies, for metal-matrix composites (MMCs), the matrix is a ductile metal. These materials may be
utilized at higher service temperatures than their base metal counterparts; furthermore, the reinforcement may
improve specific stiffness, specific strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance, thermal conductivity, and
dimensional stability. Some of the advantages of these materials over the polymer matrix composites include higher
operating temperatures, non-flammability, and greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids. Metal-matrix
composites are much more expensive than PMCs, and, therefore, their (MMC) use is somewhat restricted. The super
alloys, as well as alloys of aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and copper, are employed as matrix materials. The
reinforcement may be in the form of particulates, both continuous and discontinuous fibers, and whiskers;
concentrations.

(b) Quasi-isotropic laminates

(c) Particulate composites

These can be further classified under two subgroups: (i) large particle and (ii) dispersion- strengthened composites.
The distinction between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism. The term large indicate
that particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular level; rather continum mechanics is
used. The particulate phase for most of these composites is harder and stiffer than the matrix. In the vicinity of each
particle, these reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase. Obviously, the matrix transfers
some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the load. We may note that the degree of
reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on strong bonding at the matrix particle interface.
Concrete is familiar example of large-particle composite. Concrete is composed of cement (the matrix), and sand and
gravel (the particulates). Large-particle composites are utilized with all three material types, i.e. metals, polymers and
ceramics. Examples of ceramic-metal composite are cermets. Cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard
particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix
of a metal such as cobalt or nickel is the most common cermet. These composites are widely used as cutting tools for
hardened steels. The hard particles provide the cutting surface but, being extremely brittle, are not themselves capable
of withstanding the cutting stresses. Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile matrix that isolates the
carbide particles from one another and prevents particle to particle crack propagation.

Particles for dispersion-strengthened composites are normally much smaller (diameter between 0.01 and 0.1 _m).
Particle-matrix interactions occur on the atomic or molecular level and lead to strengthening. We may note that the
mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation. The matrix bears the major portion of an applied load,
where as the small dispersed particle hinder or impede the motion of dislocations. Obviously, plastic deformation is
restricted such that yield and tensile strengths, as well as hardness improve. This type of composite contains small
particulates or dispersions, which increase the strength of the composite by blocking the movement of dislocations.
The dispersed is typically a stable oxide of the original material. A common example is sintered aluminium powder
(SAP). SAP has an aluminium matrix, which contains up to 14% aluminium oxide (Al2O3). This composite is produced
with the powder metallurgy process, where the powders are mixed, compacted at high pressures, and sintered
together. Sintering involves heating a material until the particles of the material fuse together. Only the edges of the
particles are generally bonded together; the whole particle does not melt. In terms of sintered ceramics, the product
is a strong, rigid, brittle product that exhibit good compressive strength, high melting points, and good heat resistance.
Examples of dispersion-strengthened composites include AgCdO, used as an electrical contact material, PbPbO,
used in battery plates, and BeBeO, used in nuclear reactor and aerospace components.
4. (a) Define the term composite material. What are the important properties of various types of composite materials?
(b) Write an essay why composites are very common in the Aerospace industry. Explain with suitable examples. (c)
What are the unique properties of composites over conventional materials?
Ans:
1. a) Composite:
A structural composite is a material system consisting two or more phases on a macroscopic scale, whose mechanical
performance and properties are designed to be superior to those of the constituent materials acting independently.
One of the phases is usually discontinuous, stiffer and stronger and is called as reinforcement, whereas the less stiff
and weaker phase is continuous and is called matrix. ( Figure). Sometimes, because of chemical interactions or other
processing effects, an additional phase, called interphase, exists between the reinforcement and the matrix.

Important properties of various types of composite materials:

Type-1 Particle Reinforced Composites:

The particulate phase for most of these composites is harder and stiffer than the matrix.

In the vicinity of each particle, these reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase

The hard particles provide the cutting surface but, being extremely brittle, are not themselves capable of withstanding
the cutting stresses.

Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile matrix that isolates the carbide particles from one another and
prevents particle to particle crack propagation.

Type- 2 Fiber reinforced composites:

These are strong fibres imbedded in a softer matrix to produce products with high strength-to-weight ratios.

The matrix material transmits the load to fibres, which absorb the stress

Under an applied stress, fibre matrix bond ceases at the fibre ends, yielding a matrix deformation pattern

The length-to-diameter, or aspect, ratio of the fibres used as reinforcement influences the properties of the composite.
The higher the aspect ratio, the stronger the composite.

The greater the number of fibres, the stronger the composite

In order to affect a significant improvement in strength of the composite, the fibres must be continuous.

Type -3 Structural Composites

These are generally designed to provide high strength and low cost at a lighter weight.

The individual odd number of piles are staked so that the grain in each layer runs perpendicular to that of the layers
above and below it. This technique offers plywood that is strong and yet cheaper

a laminar composite has relatively high strength in a number of directions in the two-dimensional plane
b) Why composites are very common in the Aerospace industry

AIRCRAFT AND MILITARY APPLICATIONS: The major structural applications for fiber-reinforced composites are in the
field of military and commercial aircrafts, for which weight reduction is critical for higher speeds and increased
payloads. Ever since the production application of boron fiber-reinforced epoxy skins for F-14 horizontal stabilizers in
1969, the use of fiber-reinforced polymers has experienced a steady growth in the aircraft industry. With the
introduction of carbon fibers in the 1970s, carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy has become the primary material in many
wing, fuselage, and empennage components. The structural integrity and durability of these early components have
built up confidence in their performance and prompted developments of other structural aircraft components,
resulting in an increasing amount of composites being used in military aircrafts. For example, the airframe of AV-8B, a
vertical and short take-off and landing (VSTOL) aircraft introduced in 1982, contains nearly 25% by weight of carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy. The F-22 fighter aircraft also contains ~25% by weight of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers; the
other major materials are titanium (39%) and aluminum (16%). The outer skin of B-2 and other stealth aircrafts is
almost all made of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers. The stealth characteristics of these aircrafts are due to the use
of carbon fibers, special coatings, and other design features that reduce radar reflection and heat radiation.

c) Unique properties of composites over conventional materials

(a) Composite characterization requires a comprehensive test program for determination of a large number (more
than 10) of basic material parameters. In the case of conventional materials, mechanical characterization is
simple, as only two elastic constants and two strength values are sufficient.
(b) Design and optimization: Composites components design and optimization is a concurrent process due to the
number of degrees of freedom available. However the process is more involved and more complex. In the case
of conventional materials, optimization is limited due to the few degrees of freedom available, usually one or two
geometric parameters.
(c) Fabrication: Number of parts to be assembled and the number of required joints can be reduced in the composite
manufacture. Relatively simple tooling is enough for the composite manufacturing. On the negative side,
composite fabrication is still dependent on skilled hand labor with limited automation and standardization. This
requires more stringent and extensive quality control procedures. In the case of conventional materials, material
fabrication and structure fabrication are two separate processes. Structures usually necessitate complex tooling
and elaborate assembly with multiple joints.
(d) Maintainability, serviceability and durability: Composites can operate in hostile environments for long periods of
time. They have long fatigue lives and are easily maintainable and repaired. However, they suffer from sensitivity
to hygrothermal environments. Service induced damage growth may be internal, requiring sophisticated,
nondestructive techniques for its detection and monitoring. Sometimes it is necessary to apply protective
coatings against erosion, surface damage, and lightning strike. Conventional materials, usually metals, are
susceptible to corrosion in hostile environments. Discrete flaws and cracks may be induced in service and may
grow and propogate to catastrophic failures. Although detection of these defects may be easier, repair of
conventional materials is not simple.
(e) Cost Effectiveness: One of the important advantages of the composites is the reduction in acquisition and/or life
time costs. This is affected through weight savings, lower tolling costs, reduced number of parts, and fewer
assembly operations. This may be offset by the high cost of raw materials, fibers , pre-preg and auxiliary materials
used in the fabrication and assembly with composite materials. In the case of conventional structural materials,
the low cost of raw materials is offset by the high cost of tooling, machining and assembly.
(f) Stress analysis is complex in composites. Simple in conventional materials.

5) (a) Distinguish fully between thermoplastics and thermosets. (b) Discus the advantages and disadvantages of
carbon-carbon composites over traditional PMCs.
Ans: a) thermoplastics and thermosets

The primary consideration in the selection of a matrix is its basic mechanical properties. For high-performance
composites, the most desirable mechanical properties of a matrix are 1. High tensile modulus, which influences the
compressive strength of the composite 2. High tensile strength, which controls the intraply cracking in a composite
laminate 3. High fracture toughness, which controls ply delamination and crack growth. For a polymer matrix
composite, there may be other considerations, such as good dimensional stability at elevated temperatures and
resistance to moisture or solvents. The former usually means that the polymer must have a high glass transition
temperature Tg. In practice, the glass transition temperature should be higher than the maximum use temperature.
Resistance to moisture and solvent means that the polymer should not dissolve, swell, crack (craze), or otherwise
degrade in hotwet environments or when exposed to solvents. Some common solvents in aircraft applications are
jet fuels, deicing fluids, and paint strippers. Similarly, gasoline, motor oil, and antifreeze are common solvents in the
automotive environment. Traditionally, thermoset polymers (also called resins) have been used as a matrix material
for fiber-reinforced composites. The starting materials used in the polymerization of a thermoset polymer are usually
low-molecular-weight liquid chemicals with very low viscosities. Fibers are either pulled through or immersed in these
chemicals before the polymerization reaction begins. Since the viscosity of the polymer at the time of fiber
incorporation is very low, it is possible to achieve a good wet-out between the fibers and the matrix without the aid
of either high temperature or pressure. Fiber surface wetting is extremely important in achieving fibermatrix
interaction in the composite, an essential requirement for good mechanical performance.

Thermosets: resins and epoxies: Epoxies (Principally used in aerospace & aircraft applications). Polyester and Vinyl
Esters( Commercially used in automotive, marine, chemical and electrical applications). Phenolics (used in bulk
moulding compounds). Polymids (high temp aerospace applications).

Advantages: (1) a good wet between the fibers and matrix without the aid of high temp and pressure. (2) good thermal
stability (3) good chemical resistance (4) less creep and relaxation than thermoplastics.

Dis adv.: (1) limited storage life (before final shape is molded) at room temp. (2) long fabrication time on the mold
(where polymerization reaction is carried out to completion and a solid part is obtained (3) low strain to failure (4) low
impact strength.

Thermoplastics: Nylons(used with discontinuous fibers in injection molded articles) Polymides (High temperature
applications with continuous fibers)

Advantages: (1) High impact strength (2) high fracture resistance (3) higher strains to failure, which provides a better
resistance to matrix microcracking to the composite laminate (4) unlimited storage life at room temp. (5) Short
fabrication time (6) post formability (7) ease of repair (8) ease of handling (no tacking)

Disadv: (1) high melt of solution viscosities, making incorporation of continuous fibers into thermoplastic materials is
difficult (2) low creep resistance and thermal stability.

b) Advantages and disadvantages of carbon-carbon composites over traditional PMCs.