5

Chapter

Valuing Bonds

5.1 Bond Characteristics

5.2 Interest Rates and Bond Prices

5.3 Current Yield and Yield to Maturity

5.4 Bond Rates of Return

5.5 The Yield Curve

5.6 Corporate Bonds and the Risk of Default

5.7 Summary

Appendix 5A Duration: Measuring the Life of

a Bond (see the Online Learning Centre at
www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey)
Appendix 5B A More Detailed Look at the
Yield Curve
Bondholders used to receive beautifully engraved
certificates like this one issued in 1918 by the Dominion
of Canada. Today, bond ownership is simply recorded
on an electronic database.
Scripophily.comThe Gift of History,
http://www.scripophily.net/doofcafiye51.html.

Investment in a new plant and equipment requires moneyoften a lot of money. Sometimes
firms may be able to save enough out of previous earnings to cover the cost of investments, but
often they need to raise cash from investors. In broad terms, we can think of two ways to raise
new money from investors: borrow the cash or sell additional shares of common stock for
cash.
If companies need the money for only a short while, they may borrow it from a bank; if they
need it to make long-term investments, they generally issue bonds, which are simply long-term
loans. When companies issue bonds, they promise to make a series of fixed interest payments
and then to repay the debt. As long as the company generates sufficient cash, the payments on
a bond are certain. In this case, bond valuation involves straightforward time-value-of-money
computations. But there is some chance that even the most blue-chip company will fall on hard
times and will not be able to repay its debts. Investors take this default risk into account when
they price the bonds and demand a higher interest rate to compensate.
Companies are not the only bond issuers. Provincial and local governments also raise money
by selling bonds. So does the Government of Canada. There is always some risk that a company,
province or municipality will not be able to come up with the cash to repay its bonds. However,
investors in Government of Canada issues can be confident that the federal government will
make the promised payments because they can print money. Therefore, in the first part of this
chapter we focus on Government of Canada bonds and sidestep the issue of default. We show
how bond prices are determined by market interest rates and how those prices respond to
changes in rates. We also consider the yield to maturity and discuss why a bonds yield may vary
with its time to maturity.

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5.1
bond Security that obligates the
issuer to make specified payments
to the bondholder.
coupon The interest payments
paid to the bondholder.
face value or principal
Payment at the maturity of the
bond. Also called par value, or
maturity value.
coupon rate Annual interest
payment as a percentage of face
value.
bre84034_ch05.indd 131
Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 131
Later in the chapter we look at corporate bonds where there is also a possibility of default.
We will see how bond ratings provide a guide to the default risk and how low-grade bonds offer
higher promised yields.
In Chapter 13 we will look in more detail at the securities that companies issue, and we will
see that there are many variations on bond design. But for now, well keep our focus on garden-
variety bonds and general principles of bond valuation.
After studying this chapter you should be able to
Distinguish among the bonds coupon rate, current yield, and yield to maturity.
Find the market price of a bond given its yield to maturity, find a bonds yield given its price,
and demonstrate why prices and yields vary inversely.
Explain what a yield curve is and why expected short-term interest rates affect its shape.
Show why bonds exhibit interest rate risk and how interest rate risk affects the shape of the
yield curve.
Understand why investors pay attention to bond ratings and demand a higher interest rate for
bonds with low ratings.
Bond Characteristics
Governments and corporations borrow money by selling bonds to investors. The money they
collect when the bond is issued, or sold to the public, is the amount of the loan. In return, they agree
to make specified payments to the bondholders, who are the lenders. When you own a bond,
you generally receive a fixed interest payment each year until the bond matures. This payment is
known as the coupon because most bonds used to have coupons that the investors clipped off and
mailed to the bond issuer to claim the interest payment. At maturity, the debt is repaid: The
borrower pays the bondholder the bonds face value (equivalently, its principal, par value, or
maturity value).
How do bonds work? Several years ago, the federal government raised money by selling
5.5 percent coupon, June 1, 2010 maturity, Government of Canada bonds. Each bond has a face
value of $1,000. Because the coupon rate is 5.5 percent, the government makes coupon payments
of 5.5 percent of $1,000, or $55 each year.1 When the bond matures on June 1, 2010, the govern-
ment must pay the face value of the bond, $1,000, in addition to the final coupon payment.
Suppose that in 2007 you decided to buy the 5.5s of 2010, that is, the 5.5 percent coupon
bonds maturing in 2010. If you planned to hold the bond until maturity, you would then have
looked forward to the cash flows depicted in Figure 5.1. The initial cash flow is negative and
equal to the price you have to pay for the bond. Thereafter, the cash flows equal the annual cou-
pon payment until the maturity date in 2010, when you receive the face value of the bond,
$1,000, in addition to the final coupon payment.
Bond Market Data
Bond prices are reported on the financial Web sites of major newspapers and are always for the
previous days trading activity. Figure 5.2 is based on the bond quotations for June 1, 2007,
reported at www.reportonbusiness.com, the financial Web site of The Globe and Mail, on
June 2, 2007. The entry for the 5.5 percent Canada bonds maturing in June 2010 that we just
looked at is highlighted.
The prices quoted are the closing prices as of 4 p.m. The bid price is the price you receive if
you sell the bond to a bond dealer. Prices are quoted as percentages of face value. Thus for the
5.5 percent bond, the price of 102.48 means 102.48 percent of the $1,000 face value, or
$1,024.80. If you want to buy the bond, you pay the asked price of $1,025.20. Just as used car
1 In
Canada, these coupon payments typically would come in two semi-annual instalments of $27.50 each. To keep things
simple for now, we will assume one coupon payment per year.
1/12/2009 10:32:22 AM
 132 Part Two Value

Figure 5.1
Cash flows to an investor in $1,055
the 5.5% coupon bond,
maturing in the year 2010
$1,000

$55 $55

$55

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010

Price

Figure 5.2
Government of Canada bond Coupon Bid Ask Bid Ask
quotes for June 1, 2007. Issuer Rate Maturity Price Price Yield Yield
CANADA
COUPON 0 12/1/2007 89.97 89.99 4.70 4.69
CANADA
COUPON 0 12/1/2008 93.52 93.54 4.56 4.55
CANADA
COUPON 0 9/15/2009 89.97 89.99 4.70 4.69
CANADA 10 6/1/2008 105.2 105.23 4.59 4.56
CANADA 4.25 12/1/2008 99.48 99.49 4.62 4.61
CANADA 11 6/1/2009 112.03 112.08 4.60 4.58
CANADA 5.5 6/1/2009 101.69 101.7 4.60 4.60
CANADA 4.25 9/1/2009 99.23 99.24 4.61 4.61
CANADA 9.75 3/1/2010 113.09 113.18 4.60 4.57
CANADA 9.5 6/1/2010 113.55 113.58 4.60 4.58
CANADA 5.5 6/1/2010 102.48 102.52 4.60 4.59
CANADA 9 3/1/2011 115.01 115.05 4.58 4.57
CANADA 6 6/1/2011 105.1 105.14 4.58 4.57
CANADA 3.75 6/1/2012 96.38 96.42 4.57 4.56
CANADA 5.25 6/1/2013 103.68 103.73 4.54 4.53
CANADA 11.25 6/1/2015 144.76 144.81 4.51 4.51
CANADA 4 6/1/2016 96.23 96.28 4.51 4.51
CANADA 4 6/1/2017 95.86 95.91 4.52 4.51
CANADA 8 6/1/2023 139.91 140.01 4.48 4.47
CANADA 8 6/1/2027 146.56 146.66 4.46 4.45
CANADA 5.75 6/1/2033 120.95 121.05 4.39 4.38
CANADA 5 6/1/2037 110.77 110.87 4.35 4.35
CANADA
RRB 4.25 12/1/2026 136.09 136.29 2.00 1.99
CANADA
RRB 4 12/1/2031 138.6 138.8 2.00 1.99

Source: www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/Page/document/v5/data/bonds. Reprinted with permission of

The Globe and Mail.

bre84034_ch05.indd 132 1/12/2009 10:32:23 AM


accrued interest Coupon
interestearnedfromthelast earned from the time of the last coupon payment to the purchase (settlement) date. This amount
couponpaymenttothepurchase is called accrued interest and is calculated as
dateofthebond.
clean bond price Bondprice
excludingaccruedinterest.
dirty bond price Bondprice
includingaccruedinterest.
Example 5.1
Check Point 5.1
bre84034_ch05.indd 133
Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 133
dealers earn their living by reselling cars at higher prices than they paid for them, so the bond
dealer needs to charge a spread between the bid and asked prices.
The next two columns, Bid Yield and Ask Yield, stand for bid yield to maturity and ask yield
to maturity. The Ask Yield measures the return that investors will receive if they buy the bond at
the asked price and hold it to maturity in 2010. We will explain shortly how these figures are
calculated.
If you wanted to buy the Canada 5.5s of 2010, you would contact a bond dealer. Dealers hold
inventories of bonds and are typically part of financial institutions such as banks and brokerage
houses. For example, TD Waterhouse offers bonds to retail investors through its online brokerage
service (www.TDWaterhouse.ca). At TD Waterhouses Web site on June 1, 2007, you could sell
the 5.5 percent bond for $1,020.1 (bid price) and buy it for $1,030 (ask price). The spread
between the bid and ask prices is $1,030 2 $1,020.1 $9.9, or about 1 percent of the bonds
value. The spread for a large investor, such as a pension fund, would be much smaller, closer to
the spread reported in the newspaper for that day, $1,025.2 2 $1,024.8 $0.40, or about
.04 percent of the bonds value.
When you buy a bond, you pay more than the quoted price if you happen to buy the bond
between coupon payments. The reason: The buyer compensates the seller for the coupon interest
number of days from last coupon to purchase date
Accrued interest 5 coupon payment 3 (5.1)
number of days in coupon period
Bond prices are typically quoted without the accrued interest and are known as clean prices.
When the accrued interest is included, the price is referred to as the dirty price.
whAt you reAlly PAy when you Buy A Bond
Suppose today is August 14, 2010, and the quoted clean price of a Canada 6 percent bond maturing
June 1, 2012, is 107.7. The bond pays semi-annual interest. The last $30 coupon was paid on
June 1, 2010, and the next coupon will be paid on December 1, 2010. The number of days from
the last coupon payment to the purchase date is 74 (29 days from June 1 to June 30, 31 days in July,
and 14 days in August) and the total number of days in the coupon period is 183 (from June 1 to
December 1). The accrued interest is $30 74/183 $12.13, making the total cost of buying one
bond $1,077 1 $12.13, or $1,089.13.
Traditionally, bonds have been traded in an over-the-counter market, where securities are
not traded in one central place but traded over the telephone. However, the development of
electronic markets for bond trading, such as CBID (found at www.pfin.ca) and CanDeal
(www.CanDeal.ca), are changing the operation of the Canadian bond market. Both CBID and
CanDeal allow institutional investors, who trade large dollar values of bonds, to see bond quotes
from multiple bond dealers at the same time, rather than having to telephone each dealer for a
quote. They can then execute a buy or sell order at the best price. CBID also has an electronic
retail bond market, providing trading of smaller dollar amounts of bonds by retail investment
advisors. The electronic bond trading platforms increase the competitiveness of the bond market,
reducing the spread between the bid and the ask prices.
Find the 11.25 percent June 1, 2015, Canada bond in Figure 5.2.
a. If you already own this bond, at what price can you sell it?
b. If you want to buy the bond, what price will you pay?
c. Why is the selling price different than the purchase price?
d. What annual interest payment does the bond make?
e. What is the bonds ask yield to maturity?
1/12/2009 10:32:23 AM
 134 part two Value

5.2 interest rAtes And Bond PriCes

In Figure 5.1 we set out the cash flows received by an investor in 5.5 percent Canada bonds.
How much would you have been willing to pay for these cash flows? The value of a security
is the present value of the cash flows it will pay to its owners. To find this value, we need
to discount each future payment by the interest rate that investors expect to earn on their
bonds.
The 5.5s were not the only Canada bonds that matured in June, 2010. Almost identical
bonds maturing at the same time offered an interest rate of about 4.6 percent. So, if the 5.5s
had offered a lower return than 4.6 percent, no one would have been willing to hold them.
Equally, if they had offered a higher return, everyone would have rushed to sell their other
bonds and buy the 5.5s. In other words, if investors were on their toes, the 5.5s had to offer
the same 4.6 percent rate of interest as similar Canada bonds. You might recognize 4.6 percent
as the opportunity cost of funds invested in the bond, as we discussed in Chapter 2. This is the
rate of return that investors could earn by placing their funds in similar securities rather than
in this bond.
We can now calculate the present value of 5.5s of 2010 by discounting the cash flows at
4.6 percent:
$55 $55 $1,055
PV 1 1
(1 1 r ) (1 1 r ) 2 (1 1 r )3
$55 $55 $1,055
1 2
1 $1,024.694
(1.046) (1.046) (1.046)3
Bond prices are usually expressed as a percentage of their face value. Thus we can say that
our 5.5 percent Canada bond is worth 102.4694 percent of face value, and its price would usually
be quoted as 102.4694. (The price of the bond shown in Figure 5.2 is 102.48, which is slightly
higher than our calculation. This is largely due to rounding error in the interest rate we used to
discount the bonds cash flows.)
Did you notice that the coupon payments on the bond are an annuity? In other words, the
holder of our 5.5 percent Canada bond receives a level stream of coupon payments of $55 per
year for each of the 3 years. At maturity the bondholder gets an additional payment of $1,000.
Therefore, you can use the annuity formula to value the coupon payments and then add on the
present value of the final payment of face value:
PV (bond) 5 PV (coupons) PV (face value) (5.2)
5 (coupon 3 annuity factor) (face value 3 discount factor)

5 $55 3 .046
1
2
1
.046(1.046)
3
1, 000 3
1
1.046 3

5 $150.908 $873.786 5 $1, 024.694

If you need to value a bond with many years to run before maturity, it is usually easiest to
value the coupon payments as an annuity and then add on the present value of the final
payment.

Check Point 5.2 Calculate the present value of a 6-year bond with a 9 percent coupon. The interest rate
is 12 percent.

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 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 135

Example 5.2
Bond Prices and Semi-annual Coupon Payments
Thus far weve assumed that interest payments occur annually. This is the case for bonds in many
European countries, but in Canada and the US most bonds make coupon payments semi-annually.
So when you hear that a bond in Canada has a coupon rate of 5.5 percent, you can generally
assume that the bond makes a payment of $55/2$27.50 every 6 months. Similarly, when investors
in Canada refer to the bonds interest rate, they usually mean the semi-annually compounded inter-
est rate. Thus an interest rate quoted at 4.6 percent really means that the 6-month rate is
4.6/22.3 percent.2
The actual cash flows on the Canada bond are illustrated in Figure 5.3. To value the bond more
precisely, we should have discounted the series of semi-annual payments by the semi-annual rate
of interest as follows:

$27.5 $27.50 $27.50 $27.50 $27.50 $1,027.50

PV 1 1 1 1 1
(1.023) (1.023)2 (1.023)3 (1.023)4 (1.023)5 (1.023)6
$1,024.95

which is slightly more than the value of $1,024.694 that we obtained when we treated the coupon
payments as annual rather than semi-annual.3 Since semi-annual coupon payments just add to the
arithmetic, we will often stick to our simplification and assume annual interest payments.

Figure 5.3
Cash flows to an investor in $1,027.50
the 5.5 percent coupon bond,
maturing in 2010. The bond
$1,000
pays semi-annual coupons,
so there are two payments of $27.50 $27.50 $27.50 $27.50 $27.50
$27.50 each year.
June 2007 $27.50

Dec. June Dec. June Dec. June

2007 2008 2008 2009 2009 2010

2 Youmay have noticed that the interest rate compounded semi-annually on the bond is also the bonds APR, although
this term is generally not used by bond investors. To find the effective rate, we can use a formula that we used in
Section 4.6:

APR m
Effective annual rate 1 1 21
m

where m is the number of payments each year. In the case of our Canada bond,

.046

2
Effective annual rate 1 1 2 1 (1.023) 2 2 1 .0465, or 4.65%
2

3 Why is the present value a bit higher in this case? Because now we recognize that half the annual coupon payment
is received six months into the year, rather than at year-end. Because part of the coupon income is received earlier,
its present value is higher. To match the price reported in Figure 5.2, calculate the bonds value with semi-
annual payments and a 6-month rate of 2.3027 percent. You should get the bonds value to be $1,024.80.

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 136 Part Two Value

How Bond Prices Vary with Interest Rates

As interest rates change, so do bond prices. For example, suppose that investors demanded an
interest rate of 5.5 percent on 3-year government bonds. What would be the price of the Canada
5.5s of 2010? Recalculate Equation 5.1 with a discount rate of r.055:
$55 $55 $1, 055
PV at 5.5% 1 1 $1, 000.00
(1.055) (1.055)2 (1.055)3
Thus when the interest rate is the same as the coupon rate (5.5 percent in our example), the
bond sells for its face value.
We first valued the Canada bond with an interest rate of 4.6 percent, which is lower than the
coupon rate. In that case the price of the bond was higher than its face value. We then valued it
using an interest rate that is equal to the coupon rate and found that bond price equalled face
value. You have probably already guessed that when the cash flows are discounted at a rate that
is higher than the bonds coupon rate, the bond is worth less than its face value. The following
example confirms that this is the case.

Example 5.3
Bond Prices and Interest Rates
Investors will pay $1,000 for a 5.5 percent, 3-year Canada bond, when the interest rate is
5.5 percent. Suppose that the interest rate is higher than the coupon rate at, say, 15 percent.
Now what is the value of the bond? Simple! We just repeat our initial calculation but with
r.15:

$55 $55 $1,055

PV at 15% 1 1 $783.09
(1.15) (1.15)2 (1.15)3

The bond sells for 78.31 percent of face value.

This is a key bond pricing rule. When the market interest rate exceeds the coupon
rate, bonds sell for less than face value. When the market interest rate is below the
coupon rate, bonds sell for more than face value. When the market rate of interest
equals the coupon rate, the bond sells at face value.

Suppose interest rates rise. On hearing the news, bond investors appear sad. Why? Dont they
like higher interest rates? If you are not sure of the answer, look at Figure 5.4, which shows the
present value of the 5.5 percent Canada bond for different interest rates. For example, imagine
the interest rate soars from 4.6 to 10 percent. The Canada 5.5s of 2010 would be worth less than
$900, creating a loss to bondholders of some 13 percent. Conversely, bondholders have reason
to celebrate when market interest rates fall. You can see this also by looking at Figure 5.4. For
instance, if interest rates fall to 2 percent, the value of our 5.5 percent bond would increase
to $1,100.
Figure 5.4 illustrates a fundamental relationship between interest rates and bond prices:

When the interest rate rises, the present value of the payments to be received by the
bondholder falls, and bond prices fall. Conversely, declines in the interest rate
increase the present value of those payments and result in higher bond prices.

A warning! People sometimes confuse the interest, or coupon, payment on the bond with the
interest ratethat is, the return that investors require. The $55 coupon payments on our Canada
bond are fixed when the bond is issued. The coupon rate, 5.5 percent, measures the coupon

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 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 137

Figure 5.4
The value of the 5.5 percent $1,200
bond is lower at higher
discount rates. The yield to $1,150
maturity is the discount rate
at which price equals present $1,100
value of cash flows.
$1,050

Bond Price
$1,000 Price $1,024.69

$950

$900

Yield to maturity 4.6%

$850

$800
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12% 13%
Discount rate

payment ($55) as a percentage of the bonds face value ($1,000) and is therefore also fixed.
However, the interest rate changes from day to day. These changes affect the present value of the
coupon payments but not the payments themselves.

5.3 Current Yield and Yield to Maturity

Suppose you are considering the purchase of a 3-year bond with a coupon rate of 10 percent.
Your investment adviser quotes a price for the bond. How do you calculate the rate of return the
bond offers?
For bonds priced at face value the answer is easy. The rate of return is the coupon rate. We
can check this by setting out the cash flows on your investment:
Cash Paid to You in Year
You Pay 1 2 3 Rate of Return
$1,000 $100 $100 $1,100 10%

current yield Annual coupon
payment divided by bond price.
Notice that in each year you earn 10 percent on your money ($100/$1,000). In the final year
you also get back your original investment of $1,000. Therefore, your total return is 10 percent,
the same as the coupon rate.
Now suppose that the market price of the 3-year bond is $1,136.16. Your cash flows are as
follows:
Cash Paid to You in Year
You Pay 1 2 3 Rate of Return
$1,136.16 $100 $100 $1,100 ?
Whats the rate of return now? Notice that you are paying out $1,136.16 and receiving
an annual income of $100. So your income as a proportion of the initial outlay is
$100/$1,136.16.088, or 8.8 percent. This is sometimes called the bonds current yield.
However, total return depends on both interest income and any capital gains or losses. A cur-
rent yield of 8.8 percent may sound attractive, only until you realize that the bonds price must
fall. The price today is $1,136.16, but when the bond matures 3 years from now, the bond will

bre84034_ch05.indd 137 1/12/2009 10:32:26 AM

 138
premium bond Bond that sells
for more than its face value.
discount bond Bond that sells
for less than its face value.
yield to maturity Interest rate
for which the present value of the
bonds payments equals the price.
Example 5.4
See Boxes,
PP. 139141
bre84034_ch05.indd 138
Part Two Value
sell for its face value, or $1,000. A price decline (i.e., a capital loss) of $136.16 is guaranteed,
so the overall return over the next 3 years must be less than the 8.8 percent current yield.
Let us generalize. A bond that is priced above its face value is said to sell at a premium and
is called a premium bond. Investors who buy a bond at a premium face a capital loss over the
life of the bond, so the return on these bonds is always less than the bonds current yield. A bond
priced below face value sells at a discount and is called a discount bond. Investors in discount
bonds face a capital gain over the life of the bond; the return on these bonds is greater than the
current yield:
Because it focuses only on current income and ignores prospective price increases
or decreases, the current yield mismeasures the bonds total rate of return. It over-
states the return of premium bonds and understates that of discount bonds.
We need a measure of return that takes account of both current yield and the change in a bonds
value over its life. The standard measure is called yield to maturity. The yield to maturity is the
answer to the following question: At what interest rate would the bond be correctly priced?
The yield to maturity is defined as the discount rate that makes the present value of
the bonds payments equal to its price.
If you can buy the 3-year bond at face value, the yield to maturity is the coupon rate, 10 per-
cent. We can confirm this by noting that when we discount the cash flows at 10 percent, the
present value of the bond is equal to its $1,000 face value:
$100 $100 $1,100
PV at 10% 1 2
1 $1, 000.00
(1.10) (1.10) (1.10)3
But if you have to buy the 3-year bond for $1,136.16, the yield to maturity is only 5 percent.
At that discount rate, the bonds present value equals its actual market price, $1,136.16:
$100 $100 $1,100
PV at 5% 1 2
1 $1,136.16
(1.05) (1.05) (1.05)3
Calculating Yield to Maturity for the Canada Bond
We found the value of the 5.5 percent coupon Canada bond by discounting at a 4.6 percent interest
rate. We could have phrased the question the other way around: If the price of the bond is
$1,024.694, what return do investors expect? We need to find the yield to maturity, in other words,
the discount rate r that solves the following equation:
$55 $55 $1,055
Price 1 1 $1,024.694
(11 r ) (11 r )2 (11 r )3
To find the yield to maturity, most people use a financial calculator or a spreadsheet. For our
Canada bond you would enter a PV of $1,024.694.4 The bond provides a regular payment of $55,
entered as PMT55. The bond has a future value of $1,000, so FV1,000. The bond life is
3 years, so n3. Now compute the interest rate, and you will find that the yield to maturity is
4.6 percent. The nearby Financial Calculator and Excel Spreadsheet boxes review the use of the
financial calculator and spreadsheets in bond valuation problems.
4 Actually on most calculators you would enter 1,024.694 as a negative number, (21,024.694), because the purchase of
the bond represents a cash outflow.
1/12/2009 10:32:27 AM
 financial calculator
Using Financial Calculators to Find
NpV and Irr
FinAnCiAl CAlCulAtor

In Chapter 4 we saw that financial calculators can compute the Your calculator should now display a value of 21,024.694. The
present values of level annuities as well as the present values of one- minus sign reminds us that the initial cash flow is negative: You have
time future cash flows. Coupon bonds present both of these character- to pay to buy the bond.
istics: The coupon payments are level annuities and the final payment You can also use the calculator to find the yield to maturity of a
of par value is an additional one-time payment. Thus for the coupon bond. For example, if you buy this bond for $1,024.694, you should
bond we looked at in Example 5.4, you would treat the periodic find that its yield to maturity is 4.6 percent. Lets check that this is
payment as PMT $55, the final or future one-time payment as so. You enter the PV as 21,024.694 because you buy the bond
FV $1,000, the number of periods as n 3 years, and the interest rate for this price. Thus to solve for the interest rate, use the following
as the yield to maturity of the bond, i 4.6 percent. You would thus key strokes:
compute the value of the bond using the following sequence of key
strokes. By the way, the order in which the various inputs for the bond Hewlett-Packard Sharpe Texas Instruments
valuation problem are entered does not matter. HP-10B EL-733A BA II Plus
55 PMT 55 PMT 55 PMT
Hewlett-Packard Sharpe Texas Instruments
HP-10B EL-733A BA II Plus 1000 FV 1000 FV 1000 FV

55 PMT 55 PMT 55 PMT 3 N 3 n 3 N

21024.694 PV 21024.694 PV 21024.694 PV

1000 FV 1000 FV 1000 FV

I/YR COMP i CPT I/Y

3 N 3 n 3 N

4.6 I/YR 4.6 i 4.6 I/Y

Your calculator should now display 4.6 percent, the yield to
PV COMP PV CPT PV maturity of the bond.

The yield to maturity is a measure of a bonds total return, including both coupon income and
capital gain. If an investor buys the bond today and holds it to maturity, his return will be the
yield to maturity. Bond investors often refer loosely to a bonds yield. Its a safe bet that they
are talking about its yield to maturity rather than its current yield.
The only general procedure for calculating yield to maturity is trial and error. You guess at an
interest rate and calculate the present value of the bonds payments. If the present value is greater
than the actual price, your discount rate must have been too low, so try a higher interest rate
(since a higher rate results in a lower PV). Conversely, if PV is less than price, you must reduce
the interest rate. In practice, investors use a financial calculator or a computer spreadsheet to do
the trial and error for them. The nearby boxes provide examples.

Example 5.5
yield to MAturity with seMi-AnnuAl CouPon PAyMents
Lets redo Example 5.4, but this time assume the coupons are paid semi-annually. Instead of three
annual coupons of $55, the bond makes six semi-annual payments of $27.50. We can find the semi-
annual yield to maturity on our calculators by using these inputs: n 6 (semi-annual) periods,
PV 21,024.694, FV 1,000, PMT 27.50. We then compute the interest rate to find that it is 2.3047
percent. This of course is a six-month, not an annual, rate. Bond dealers typically annualize the semi-
annual rate by doubling it, so the yield to maturity would be quoted as 2.3047 2 4.6094 percent,
see Box P. 140 which rounds to 4.61 percent. In Excel (see nearby Excel Spreadsheet box), you can confirm that
YIELD(DATE(2007,6,1), DATE(2010,6,1),.055,102.48,100,2) .0461. A better way to annualize
would be to account for compound interest. A dollar invested at 2.3047 percent for two 6-month peri-
ods would grow to $1 (1.023047)2 $1.0466. The effective annual yield is therefore 4.66 percent.

Check Point 5.3 A 4-year maturity bond with a 14 percent coupon rate can be bought for $1,200. What
is the yield to maturity if the coupon is paid annually? What if it is paid semi-annually?
You will need a spreadsheet or a financial calculator to answer this question.

139

bre84034_ch05.indd 139 1/12/2009 10:32:32 AM

 Bond Valuation

A B C D E F G H
1
2 Valuing bonds using a spreadsheet
3
4 5.5% coupon 6% coupon
5 maturing June 2010 10-year maturity
6
7 Settlement date 6/01/2007 1/1/2000
8 Maturity date 6/01/2010 1/1/2010
9 Annual coupon rate .055 0.06
10 Yield to maturity .046 0.07
11 Final payment (% of face value) 100 100
12 Coupon payments per year 1 1
13
14 Bond price (% of par) 102.469 92.976
15
16
17 The formula entered here is: PRICE(B7,B8,B9,B10,B11,B12)

excel and most other spreadsheet programs provide built-in
functions to compute bond values and yields. they typically ask you
to input both the date you buy the bond (called the settlement date)
and the maturity date of the bond.
The Excel function for bond value is
PRICE(settlement date, maturity date, annual coupon rate, yield
to maturity, final payment, number of coupon payments per
year).
For our 5.5 percent coupon bond, we would enter the values in
column B of the spreadsheet above. Alternatively, we could simply
enter the following function in Excel:
PRICE(DATE(2007,06,01),DATE(2010,06,01),.055,.046,100,1).
the Date function in excel, which we use for both the settlement
and maturity date, uses the format Date(year,month,day).
Notice that the coupon rate and yield to maturity are expressed
as decimals, not percentages. In most cases, final payment will be
100 (i.e., 100 percent of face value), and the resulting price will be
expressed as a percentage of face value. Occasionally, however,
you may encounter bonds that pay off at a premium or discount to
face value. One example would be callable bonds, discussed at the
end of the chapter.
The value of the bond assuming annual coupon payments is
102.469 percent of face value, or $1,024.69. If we wanted to
assume semi-annual coupon payments, we would simply change
the entry in cell B12 to 2, and the bond value would change to
102.495 percent of face value, as we found in Example 5.2.
In this example, we assume that the first coupon payment comes
in exactly one period (either a year or a half-year). In other words,
the settlement date is precisely at the beginning of the period.

5.4 Bond rAtes oF return

rate of return Totalincomeper
periodperdollarinvested.
When you invest in a bond, you receive a regular coupon payment. As bond prices change, you
may also make a capital gain or loss. For example, suppose you buy the 5.5 percent Canada bond
today for a price of $1,024.69 and sell it next year at a price of $1,046.46. The return on your
investment is the $55 coupon payment plus the price change of ($1,046.46 2 $ 1,024.69) $21.77.
The rate of return on your investment of $1,024.69 is
coupon income price change
Rate of return 5 (5.3)
investment
$55 $21.77
5 5 .0749, or 7.49%
$1, 024.69
Because bond prices fall when market interest rates rise and rise when market rates fall, the
rate of return that you earn on a bond will also fluctuate with market interest rates. This is why
we say bonds are subject to interest rate risk.

140

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 Excel spreadsheet

Excel Sp readsheet

A B C D E F G H
1
2 Finding yield to maturity using a spreadsheet
3 June 2010 maturity bond, coupon rate 5.5%, maturity 3 years
4
5 Annual coupons Semi-annual coupons
6
7 Settlement date 6/01/2007 6/01/2007
8 Maturity date 6/01/2010 6/01/2010
9 Annual coupon rate .055 .055
10 Bond price 102.469 102.469
11 Final payment (% of face value) 100 100
12 Coupon payments per year 1 2
13
14 Yield to maturity (decimal) .0460 .0461
15
16
17 The formula entered here is: YIELD(B7,B8,B9,B10,B11,B12)

However, the PRICE function will make the necessary adjustments
for intraperiod purchase dates.
Suppose now that you wish to find the price of a 10-year matu-
rity bond with a coupon rate of 6 percent (paid annually), selling
at a yield to maturity of 7 percent. You are not given a specific
settlement or maturity date. You can still use the PRICE function to
value the bond. Simply choose an arbitrary settlement date
(January 1, 2000 is convenient) and let the maturity date be 10
years hence. The appropriate inputs appear in column E of the
spreadsheet on the previous page, with the resulting price, 92.976
percent of face value, appearing in cell E14. You can confirm this
value on your calculator using the inputs: n10, i7, FV1000,
PMT60.
Excel also provides a function for yield to maturity. It is
YIELD(settlement date, maturity date, annual coupon rate,
bond price, final payment as percentage of face value, number of
coupon payments per year).
For example, to find the yield to maturity in Example 5.4, we
would use column B of the above spreadsheet. If the coupons were
paid semi-annually, as in Example 5.5, we would change the entry
for payments per year to 2 (see cell E12), and the yield would
increase to 4.61 percent.

Do not confuse the bonds rate of return over a particular investment period with its yield to
maturity. The yield to maturity is defined as the discount rate that equates the bonds price to the
present value of all its promised cash flows. It is a measure of the average rate of return you will
earn over the bonds life if you hold it to maturity. In contrast, the rate of return can be calculated
for any particular holding period and is based on the actual income and the capital gain or loss
on the bond over that period. The difference between yield to maturity and rate of return for a
particular period is emphasized in the following example.

Example 5.6
Rate of Return versus Yield to Maturity
Our 5.5 percent coupon bond with maturity in 2010 currently has 3 years left until maturity and
sells today for $1,024.69. Its yield to maturity is 4.6 percent. Suppose that by the end of the year,
interest rates have fallen and the bonds yield to maturity is now 2 percent. What will be the bonds
one-year rate of return?

141

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 142 part two Value

At the end of the year, the bond will have only two years to maturity. If investors then demand
an interest rate of 2 percent, the value of the bond will be

$55 $1,055
PV at 2% 1 $1,067.95
(1.02) (1.02)2

You invested $1,024.69. At the end of the year you receive a coupon payment of $55 and have
a bond worth $1,067.95. Your rate of return is therefore

$55 1 ($1,067.95 2 $1,024.69)

Rate of return .0959, or 9.59%
$1,024.69

The yield to maturity at the start of the year was 4.6 percent. However, because interest rates fell
during the year, the bond price rose, and this increased the rate of return.

Check Point 5.4 Suppose that the bonds yield to maturity had risen to 5 percent during the year. Show
that its rate of return would have been less than the yield to maturity.

Is there any connection between yield to maturity and the rate of return during a particular
period? Yes: If the bonds yield to maturity remains unchanged during an investment period, its
rate of return will equal that yield. We can check this by assuming that the yield on 5.5 percent
Canada bonds stays at 4.6 percent. If investors still demand an interest rate of 4.6 percent at the
end of the year, the value of the bond will be
$55 $1, 055
PV 1 $1, 016.83
(1.046) (1.046)2
At the end of the year you receive a coupon payment of $55 and have a bond worth $1,016.83,
somewhat less than you paid for it. Your total profit is $55 1 ($1,016.83 2 $1,024.69) $47.14.
The return on your investment is therefore $47.14/$1,024.69 .046, or 4.6 percent, just equal to
the yield to maturity.

When interest rates do not change, the bond price changes with time so that the total
return on the bond is equal to the yield to maturity. If the bonds yield to maturity
increases, the rate of return during the period will be less than that yield. If the yield
decreases, the rate of return will be greater than the yield.

Check Point 5.5 Suppose you buy the bond next year for $1,016.83, and hold it for yet another year, so
that at the end of that time it has only 1 year to maturity. Show that if the bonds yield
to maturity is still 4.6 percent, your rate of return also will be 4.6 percent and the bond
price will be $1,008.60.

The solid curve in Figure 5.5 plots the price of a 30-year maturity, 5.5 percent Canada bond
over time assuming that its yield to maturity remains at 4.6 percent. The price declines gradually
until the maturity date, when it finally reaches face value. In each period, the price decline offsets
the coupon income by just enough to reduce total return to 4.6 percent. The dotted curve in
Figure 5.5 shows the corresponding price path for a 30-year maturity, 2 percent coupon Canada
bond, also assuming its yield to maturity remains at 4.6 percent. This low-coupon bond currently

bre84034_ch05.indd 142 1/12/2009 10:32:35 AM

 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 143

Figure 5.5
Bond prices over time, $1,200 Price path for bond currently at a premium over face value
assuming an unchanged yield (coupon rate of 5.5% is greater than discount rate of 4.6%)
to maturity. Prices of both $1,100
premium and discount bonds
approach face value as their $1,000
maturity date approaches. Price path for bond currently at a discount to face value
$900 (coupon rate of 2% is less than discount rate of 4.6%)

Bond price
$800

$700

$600
Today Maturity date
$500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (years)

sells at a discount to face value. The coupon income provides less than a competitive rate of
return, so the bond sells below par. Its price gradually approaches face value, however, and the
price gain each year brings its total return up to the market interest rate of 4.6 percent.

TAXES AND RATES OF RETURN

Taxes reduce the rate of return on an investment. Lets go back to Example 5.6. You bought a
bond for $1,024.69 and sold it 1 year later for $1,067.95 and received one coupon payment of
$55. The before-tax rate of return on your 1-year investment was 9.59 percent. However, as we
discussed in Chapter 3, interest income is fully taxable, and 50 percent of capital gains are tax-
able. To figure out the after-tax rate of return on the investment, convert the cash flows to their
after-tax values by subtracting the relevant taxes. If your personal tax rate is 35 percent, the tax
on the coupon payment of $55 is
Tax on coupon income personal tax rate coupon income
.35 $55 $19.25
After taxes, the coupon income is
After-tax coupon income coupon income 2 tax on coupon income
$55 2 $19.25 $35.75
Likewise, the tax on the capital gain is
Tax on capital gain personal tax rate .5 capital gain
.35 .5 ($1, 067.95 2 $1, 024.69) $7.57
and the after-tax capital gain is
After-tax capital gain capital gain 2 tax on capital gain
($1, 067.95 2 $1, 024.69) 2 $7.57 $35.69
Your after-tax rate of return is therefore
after-tax coupon income 1 after-tax capital gain
After-tax rate of return
investment
$35.75 1 $35.69
.0697, or 6.97%
$1, 024.69

bre84034_ch05.indd 143 1/12/2009 10:32:36 AM

 144 part two Value

As you can see, taxes have a material effect on the rate of return on your investment! Here,
the 9.59 percent before-tax rate of return is only 6.97 percent once you consider the taxes you
must pay on your investment income.

Check Point 5.6 Suppose you bought an 8 percent coupon bond for $1,200 and sold it 1 year later for
$1,215. Calculate the before-tax and after-tax rate of return on your investment, if your
personal tax rate is 40 percent.

In our examples we have considered only one-year investments. How do you calculate the
rate of return if the investment lasts longer than one year? Suppose you buy the 5.5 percent
coupon bond for $1,024.69 and sell it in 2 years for $1,015.5. You receive cash flows at two
different points in time: a $55 coupon payment after one year, and then another $55 coupon plus
the cash from selling the bond after 2 years. If you ignore the fact that you received the first
$55 early, you can add up all the coupon payments and calculate the rate of return like we
did above. This method understates your rate of returnyou ignored the value of investing the
first coupon during the time of the bond investment. The standard approach to calculating the
rate of return is to assume that the first coupon is reinvested for the remaining life of the invest-
ment. In other words, calculate the future value of that first coupon payment at the end of the
second year.
Suppose when you received the first coupon payment you immediately invested at 4 percent
for 1 year. That coupon payment will be worth $55 1.04, or $57.2, 1 year later. At the end of
the 2 years, the total value of coupon income received is $57.2 1 $55, or $112.2. The price
change on the bond is a capital loss: $1,015.5 2 $1,024.69, or 2$9.19. Using Equation 5.3, the
rate of return on the investment is
coupon income 1 price change
Rate of return
investment
$112.2 2 $9.19
.1005, or 10.05%
$1, 024.69
Did you notice that this is a two-year rate of return? Rates of return are normally reported on
an annual basis so this two-year rate of return must be converted into its one-year equivalent. The
effective annual equivalent is (1.1005)1/2 2 1, or 4.9 percent. Your annual rate of return is
4.9 percent.
How do you know the rate at which the intermediate coupon payments are invested? You can
use the actual rates available at the time you received the coupons. Another approach is to use a
variation on the yield-to-maturity calculation. Using this method, your rate of return is the dis-
count rate that equates the purchase price to the present value of the coupons and the price you
receive when you sell the bond. This assumes that all of the coupons are invested at that discount
rate for the remaining time you own the bond. You can use this approach to calculate the after-tax
rate of return toojust use the after-tax cash flows. We will see this approach to calculating rates
of return again in Chapter 7, but there we will call it the internal rate of return.

Example 5.7
CAlCulAting the rAte oF return on A two-yeAr Bond inVestMent
You buy a 5.5 percent bond for $1,024.69 and sell it 2 years later for $1,015.5. What is the rate of
return on your investment if you use the yield-to-maturity approach? Using a calculator, enter
PV 2$1,024.69, PMT $55, FV $1,015.5, and n 2. Now compute the interest rate, which is
your rate of return. You should get 4.93 percent.

bre84034_ch05.indd 144 1/12/2009 10:32:36 AM


5.5
yield curve or term structure
of interest rates Graph of the
relationship between time to
maturity and yield to maturity,
for bonds that differ only in their
maturity dates.
Figure 5.6
The yield curve. A plot of
yield to maturity as a function
of time to maturity for
Government of Canada bills
and bonds on various dates.
bre84034_ch05.indd 145
Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 145
The Yield Curve
Look back for a moment at Figure 5.2. The Canada bonds are arranged in order of their maturity.
Notice that the longer the maturity, the slightly lower the yield. This is not the usual the case.
Typically, long-term bonds offer higher yields.
Figure 5.6 plots the relationship between bond yields and maturities. This is known as the
yield curve or the term structure of interest rates. Each yield curve in Figure 5.6 is a snapshot
of yields for Canada bonds of different maturities on a specific date. The yield curve for July 31,
2007, is the almost flat line near the bottom of the graph. It shows that bonds with six months to
maturity offered a yield of 4.6 percent; those with 10 years of maturity offered 4.5 percent.
Compare that curve to the yield curve for 3 years earlier, July 31, 2004, when 6-month treasury
bills were yielding 2.3 percent and 10-year bonds were yielding 4.8 percent. The yield curve for
July 31, 1990, is much higher than the other two and is downward-sloping, with yields on short-
term maturities higher than for long-term bonds. At that time, the 6-month T-bill yield was
12.3 percent and the 10-year Canada bond yield was 10.2 percent.
Figure 5.6 reveals two important characteristics of interest rates. First, the yields on bonds that
differ only in their maturities are not the same. For example, on July 31, 2004, the 10-year bond
was earning an extra 2.5 percentage points ( 4.8%2.3%) over the 6-month T-bill. Second, the
general level of interest rates changes over time. The July 31, 2007, 6-month T-bill yield was
2.3 percentage points higher than in 2004 and 7.7 percentage points lower than in 1990.
Economists have long sought to explain changes in interest rates and will continue seeking to
explain them for years to come. For now, we can give you some general answers. We will first
consider why the general level of interest rates changes over time, affecting the level of the yield
curve, and then look at factors affecting the shape of the yield curve.
Nominal and Real Rates of Interest
In Chapter 4 we drew a distinction between nominal and real rates of interest. The cash flows on
the 5.5 percent Canada bonds are fixed in nominal terms. Investors are sure to receive an interest
payment of $55 each year, but they do not know what that money will buy them. The real interest
0.14
0.13
0.12 July 31, 1990
0.11
Yield to maturity (%)
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07 July 31, 2004
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03 July 31, 2007
0.02
0.01
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Years to maturity
Source: Bank of Canada. Adapted from the Statistics Canada CANSIM database (http://cansim2.statcan.ca) series B14059,
B14060, B14061, B14062, B14067, B14068, B14069, B14070, B14071, and B14072.
1/12/2009 10:32:37 AM
 146
real return bond Bond with
variable nominal coupon payments,
determined by a fixed real coupon
payment and the inflation rate.
bre84034_ch05.indd 146
Part Two Value
rate on the bonds depends on the rate of inflation. For example, if the nominal rate of interest is
4.6 percent and the inflation rate is 2.4 percent, then the real interest rate is calculated as
follows:
1 1 nominal interest rate 1.046
(1 1 real interest rate) 1.0215
1 1 inflation rate 1.024
Real interest rate .0215, or 2.15%
Since the inflation rate is uncertain, so is the real rate of interest on the Canada bonds.
You can nail down a real rate of interest by buying an indexed or real return bond, whose pay-
ments are linked to inflation. The Government of Canada began issuing inflation-indexed or real
return bonds, RRBs, in 1991. The real cash flows are fixed, but the nominal cash flows (coupon
payments and principal) are increased as the consumer price index increases. For example, the
4.25 percent RRB due December 1, 2026, pays annual real coupons of $42.50. In Figure 5.2, the
prices and yields of two issues of Government of Canada real return bonds are seen at the bottom.
To see how the nominal coupon is calculated, suppose the Government of Canada issues a
3 percent, 2-year real return bond. The real cash flows are fixed but the nominal cash flows will
depend on the actual increase in the consumer price index. Suppose inflation turns out to be
5 percent in Year 1 and a further 4 percent in Year 2. The real and nominal cash flows of the bonds
would be
Year 1 Year 2
Real cash flows $30 $1,030
Nominal cash flows $301.05$31.50 $1,0301.051.04$1,124.76
For the 4.25 percent RRB, the nominal value of each coupon is calculated when the coupon
payment is due and reflects the inflation that has occurred since the issue of the bond. We wont
know the nominal value of the principal until just before the bond matures in 2026.
From Figure 5.2 we can see that the yield to maturity on the 4.25s of 2026 Canada RRBs was
about 2.0 percent in June 2007. This yield is a real interest rate. It measures the amount of extra
goods your investment will allow you to buy. Figure 5.2 also shows that the yield to maturity on
the 8s of 2027 Canada bonds was 4.46 percent. An estimate of the expected annual inflation rate
used by market participants when discounting future cash flows can be found by rearranging the
formula for the real interest rate:
1 1 nominal interest rate 1.0446
(1 1 inflation rate) 1.0241
1 1 real interest rate 1.02
inflation rate .0241, or 2.41%
If the annual inflation rate proves to be higher than 2.41 percent, you will earn a higher
nominal return by holding RRBs; if the inflation rate is lower than 2.41 percent, the reverse will
be true.
Inflation-indexed bonds have been issued by other governments and corporations. The United
Kingdom has issued indexed bonds since 1982. The United States Treasury began to issue
Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities, or TIPs, in 1997 and structured them similarly to the
Government of Canada Real Return Bonds. In 2000, 407 International Inc., owner of the largest
electronic toll highway in Canada, just north of Toronto, sold real return bonds with a 5.29 per-
cent real coupon rate, maturing in 2039.
What determines the real rate of interest demanded by investors? The classical economist
Irving Fishers answer is that real interest rates depend on the supply of savings and the demand
for new investment.5 As this supply-demand balance changes, real interest rates change. But they
do so gradually.
5 See Irving Fishers great book: The Theory of Interest: As Determined by Impatience to Spend Income and Opportunity
to Invest It, August M. Kelley, New York, 1965; originally published in 1930.
1/12/2009 10:32:37 AM

Fisher effect Thenominal
interestrateisdeterminedbythe
realinterestrateandtheexpected
rateofinflation.
Check Point 5.7
Figure 5.7
The bottom line shows the
real yield on long-term
Canada Real return bonds.
The top line shows the yield
on long-term Canada nominal
bonds. Notice that the real
yield has been much more
stable than the nominal yield.
bre84034_ch05.indd 147
Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 147
According to Fisher, the nominal interest rate reflects both the real interest rate and the expect-
ed inflation. In other words, the nominal interest rate is determined by the real rate of interest and
the expected inflation. This is known as the Fisher effect. More formally, the Fisher effect is
1 nominal interest rate 5 (1 real interest rate) 3 (1 expected inflation rate) (5.4)
When inflation and the real interest rate are not high, a reasonable approximation to
Equation (5.4) is
Nominal interest rate 5 real interest rate expected inflation rate (5.5)
Suppose that investors upwardly revise their forecast of inflation by 1 percent. How will this
affect interest rates? According to Fisher, if investors are concerned about the purchasing power
of their money, the changed forecast should not affect the real rate of interest. The nominal interest
rate must therefore rise by 1 percent to compensate investors for the higher inflation prospects.
How well does Fishers theory of interest rates work? The gold line in Figure 5.7 shows that
the real interest rate on the Government of Canada Real Return bonds has fluctuated within a
relatively narrow range, between 1.5 percent and 5 percent since 1991. The blue line shows the
nominal interest rate on ordinary long-term Government of Canada bonds. The nominal rate is
more variable than the real rate, ranging between 4 percent and 9.5 percent since 1991.
Some economists disagree with Fishers theory that inflation does not affect the real rate of
interest. For example, if inflation causes companies to change their investment activities, the real
interest rate will change. Looking at Figure 5.7 you can clearly see the impact of the steady decline
in inflation during most of the 1990s. This caused nominal yields to fall but the real yield fell only
slightly. In the 2000s, the real yield fell significantly and so did the nominal yield. Unfortunately, no
one has yet sorted out the complex relationship between inflation and interest rates. However, a
financial manager can use the Fisher effect as a valuable rule of thumb. If the expected inflation rate
changes, it is a good bet that there will be a corresponding change in the nominal interest rate.
Go back to Figure 5.6. Do you think the inflation rate in 1990 was higher or lower than
the 2007 inflation rate? Explain your thinking.
10
9
8
Nominal yield
Yield to maturity (%)
7
6
5
3
Real yield
2
0
Nov. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct.
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
Date
Source: Statistics Canada CANSIM database (cansim2.statcan.ca) series V122553 and V122544.
1/12/2009 10:32:37 AM
 148
interest rate risk Theriskin
bondpricesduetofluctuationsin
interestrates.
Check Point 5.8
bre84034_ch05.indd 148
part two Value
the deterMinAnts oF the yield CurVe
We have seen that the general level of interest rates is largely determined by the real interest rate
and the expected rate of inflation. But why do long-term bonds offer different yields than short-
term bonds? Generally the yield curve is upward sloping. However sometimes it is the other way
around, with short rates higher than long rates. As seen in Figure 5.6, the yield curve was down-
ward sloping in 1990. The yield curve can be flat, as it nearly was in 2007, or humped, with rising
short-term yields followed by lower long-term yields.
exPeCtAtions theory
A major factor determining the shape of the yield curve is expected future interest rates. To see
why, consider the following example. Suppose you want to invest your money for two years. You
could buy a one-year bond now. A year from now when the bond matures, you reinvest the pro-
ceeds in another one-year bond at whatever rate the bond market offers then. Alternatively, you
could buy a two-year bond today. According to the expectations theory of interest rates, interest
rates will adjust such that you dont care whether you invest in a two-year loan or in two succes-
sive one-year loans. This means an upward-sloping yield curve tells you that investors expect
short-term interest rates to rise. Likewise, a downward-sloping yield curve means that investors
expect short-term rates to fall.
Why would future short-term interest rates be expected to be higher than todays current
short-term rate? As we saw above, expected inflation is a key component of nominal interest
rates. So, if investors expect inflation to increase, they will demand higher short-term rates in the
future, which tends to result in an upward-sloping yield curve. Expected decreases in future
inflation will tend to lead to a downward-sloping yield curve.
interest rAte risk And the liQuidity PreMiuM
The expectations theory cannot provide a complete explanation of the yield curve because it does
not consider risk.
We have seen that bond prices fluctuate as interest rates change. In other words, bonds exhibit
interest rate risk. Bond investors cross their fingers that market interest rates will fall, so that
the price of their bond will rise. If they are unlucky and the market interest rate rises, the value
of their investment falls.
But all bonds are not equally affected by changing interest rates. Compare the two curves in
Figure 5.8. The orange line shows how the value of the 3-year, 5.5 percent coupon bond varies
with the level of the interest rate. The blue line shows how the price of a 30-year, 5.5 percent
bond varies with the level of interest rates. You can see that the 30-year bond is more sensitive
to interest rate fluctuations than the 3-year bond. This should not surprise you. If you buy a
3-year bond when the interest rate is 4.6 percent, and rates then rise, you will be stuck with a bad
dealyou have just loaned your money at a lower interest rate than if you had waited. However,
think how much worse it would be if the loan had been for 30 years, rather than 3 years. The
longer the period of the loan, the more income you have lost by accepting what turns out to be
a low interest rate. This shows that the price of the longer-term bond had a greater decline. Of
course, there is a flip side to this effect, which you can also see from Figure 5.8. When interest
rates fall, the longer-term bond responds with a greater increase in price.
Suppose that the interest rate rises overnight from 4.6 percent to 10 percent. Calculate
the present values of the 5.5 percent, 3-year bond and of the 5.5 percent, 30-year bond
both before and after this change in interest rates. Confirm that your answers correspond
with Figure 5.8. Use your financial calculator or a spreadsheet.
1/12/2009 10:32:38 AM
 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 149

Figure 5.8
Plots of bond prices as a $3,000
function of the interest rate.
Long-term bond prices are
more sensitive to the interest $2,500
rate than prices of short-term 30-year bond, 5.5% coupon rate
bonds.
$2,000

Bond price
When interest rate equals the
5.5% coupon rate, both bonds
$1,500 sell for face value

$1,000
3-year bond, 5.5% coupon rate

$500

$0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0% 9.0% 10.0%11.0%12.0%
Interest rate

We saw in Figure 5.8 that a longer-term bond has greater interest risk than a short-term bond
with the same coupon rate. If two bonds have the same maturity but unequal coupons, the bond
with the lower coupon will have the greater interest rate risk. In Appendix 5A, available on the
Online Learning Centre at www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey, we examine why coupon rates affect
bonds interest rate risk and introduce the important concept of duration, a method of measuring
a bonds life. We show that bonds with longer duration also have greater interest rate risk.
If investors dont like price fluctuations, they invest their funds in short-term bonds unless
they receive a higher yield to maturity on long-term bonds. This extra return has various names
including a liquidity premium, a maturity risk premium, and an interest rate risk premium.
According to this theory, known as the liquidity preference theory, the yield curve will tend to
upward sloping because of the liquidity premium needed to induce investors to buy the riskier
longer bonds.
The expectations theory and the liquidity preference theory together predict that the yield
curve will tend to be upward sloping both because of increases in future inflation and the liquid-
ity premium. A downward-sloping yield curve is still possible when future short-term interest
rates are expected to fall. However, with the liquidity premium, the declining yield curve will be
less steep. In Appendix 5B we provide a more detailed look at the expectations and liquidity-
preference theories.

5.6 Corporate Bonds and the Risk of

Default
Our focus so far has been on Government of Canada bonds. But the federal government is not
the only issuer of bonds. Provincial and municipal governments borrow by selling bonds. So do
corporations. Canadian governments and corporations also borrow in the United States and in

bre84034_ch05.indd 149 1/12/2009 10:32:38 AM

 150
default (or credit) risk The
risk that a bond issuer may default
on its bonds.
default premium or credit
spread The additional yield on
a bond that investors require for
bearing credit risk.
investment grade Bond rated
Baa or above by Moodys, or BBB
or above by Standard and Poors
or DBRS.
junk bond Bond with a rating
below Baa or BBB.
Table 5.1
Key to Dominion Bond
Rating Service (DBRS),
Standard & Poors (S&P,) and
Moodys bond ratings. The
highest quality bonds are
rated triple A, then come
double A bonds, and so on.
bre84034_ch05.indd 150
Part Two Value
other countries. The bonds may be denominated in Canadian dollars, US dollars, and sometimes
in another currency, such as the British pound or Japanese yen.
There is an important distinction between bonds issued by corporations and those issued by the
Government of Canada. National governments dont go bankruptthey just print more money.6
So investors do not worry that the Canadian government will default on its bonds. However, there
is some chance that corporations may get into financial difficulties and may default on their
bonds. Thus the payments promised to corporate bondholders represent a best-case scenario: The
firm will never pay more than the promised cash flows, but in hard times it may pay less.
The risk that a bond issuer may default on its obligations is called default (or credit) risk. It
should be no surprise to find that to compensate for this default risk companies need to promise
a higher rate of interest than the Canadian government when borrowing money. The difference
between the promised yield on a corporate bond and the yield on a Canada bond with the same
coupon and maturity is called the default premium, or credit spread. The greater the chance that
the company will get into trouble, the higher the default premium demanded by investors.
The safety of most corporate bonds can be judged from bond ratings provided by the
Dominion Bond Rating Service (DBRS), Moodys, Standard & Poors (S&P), or other bond-
rating firms. Table 5.1 lists the possible bond ratings in declining order of quality. For example,
the bonds that receive the highest rating are known as AAA, or triple A bonds. Then come AA,
or double A, A bonds, BBB bonds, and so on. Bonds rated BBB and above are called
investment grade, while those with a rating of BB or below are referred to as speculative grade,
high-yield, or junk bonds.
It is rare for highly rated bonds to default. For example, since 1971 fewer than one in 1000
triple A bonds have defaulted within 10 years of issue. However, when an investment-grade bond
does default, the shock waves can be considerable. For example, in May 2001 WorldCom sold
$11.8 billion of bonds with an investment-grade rating. Within little more than a year WorldCom
filed for bankruptcy and its bondholders had lost more than 80 percent of their investment. For
low-grade issues, defaults are less rare. For example, almost half of the bonds that were rated
CCC by Standard & Poors at issue have defaulted within 10 years.
Of course, bonds rarely fall suddenly from grace. As time passes and the company becomes
progressively more shaky, the agencies revise the bonds rating downward to reflect the increas-
ing probability of default. Consider the case of Air Canadas senior unsecured debt. Originally
rated BB by DBRS in 1997, it was downgraded to BB (low) in February 2001, in response to Air
Canadas large debt load, rising costs, and increased competition. With the terrorist attacks of
September 11, 2001, and the worsening economic slowdown, DBRS dropped the rating to B in
DBRS/
S&P Moodys Safety
AAA Aaa The strongest rating; ability to repay interest and principal is very strong.
AA Aa Very strong likelihood that interest and principal will be repaid.
A A Strong ability to repay, but some vulnerability to change in circumstances.
Adequate capacity to repay; more vulnerability to changes in economic
BBB Baa
circumstances.
BB Ba Considerable uncertainty about ability to repay.
Likelihood of interest and principal payments over sustained periods is
B B
questionable.
CCC Caa Bonds in the CCC and CC classes may already be in default or in danger
CC Ca of imminent default.
C C Little prospect for interest or principal on the debt ever to be repaid.
D D Debt payments have been missed; debt is in default.
6 But they cant print money of other countries. Therefore, when a government borrows in a foreign currency, investors
worry that in some future crisis the government may not be able to come up with enough of the foreign currency to
repay the debt. This worry shows up in the yield that investors demand on such debt. For example, in the summer of
2002, concerns about a possible Brazilian default caused yields on the US dollar bonds issued by the Brazilian
government to rise to 13 percentage points above the yields on comparable US Treasury issues.
1/12/2009 10:32:38 AM
 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 151

September 2001. As Air Canadas financial situation worsened, it filed for bankruptcy protection
in April 2003, prompting DBRS to lower the rating to C. By April 2004, the debt rating was cut
to D. Air Canada negotiated a debt-for-equity swap with its debtholders, who agreed to exchange
their debt for shares worth about one-tenth of the amount owed. In September 2004, the company
emerged from bankruptcy protection with a substantially reduced debt load, carrying a B rating
and a new name, ACE Aviation Holdings.
As you would expect, the yield on corporate bonds varies with the bond rating. Figure 5.9
presents the yields to maturity on ten-year default-free, long-term Government of Canada bonds,
AAA and AA-rated corporate bonds, A-rated bonds, and BBB-rated bonds since 1992. You can
see that yields on the four groups of bonds track each other over time. At any point in time, the
promised yield is higher as bond safety gets lower. The yield spreads, seen as the distance
between the Canada bond and each of the other bonds, are bigger for riskier bonds but not con-
stant over time. The yield spreads increase as overall risk rises. Notice the increase in the spreads
in 2007 and mid-2008, corresponding to the slow-down in the economy. You might be attracted
to the higher promised yields on the lower-grade bonds. But remember, the riskier the bond, the
less likely the bond will keep its promise.

Example 5.8
Promised versus Expected Yield to Maturity
Bad Bet Inc. issued bonds several years ago with a coupon rate (paid annually) of 10 percent and
face value of $1,000. The bonds are due to mature in six years. However, the firm is currently in
bankruptcy proceedings, the firm has ceased to pay interest, and the bonds sell for only $200. Based
on promised cash flow, the yield to maturity on the bond is 63.9 percent. (On your calculator, set
PV2200, FV1,000, PMT100, n6, and compute i.) But this calculation is based on the very
unlikely possibility that the firm will resume paying interest and come out of bankruptcy. Suppose
that the most likely outcome is that after 3 years of litigation, during which no interest will be paid,
debtholders will receive $.27 on the dollarthat is, they will receive $270 for each bond with
$1,000 face value. In this case the expected return on the bond is 10.5 percent. (On your calculator,
set PV2200, FV270, PMT0, n3, and compute i.) When default is a real possibility, the
promised yield can depart considerably from the expected return. In this example, the default
premium is greater than 50 percent.

Figure 5.9 12
Yields on ten-year Canadian
corporate bonds and ten-year 10-year BBB-rated Corporate
Government of Canada 10 10-year A-rated Corporate
10-year AA-rated Corporate
10-year Canada
bonds. Bonds with greater
Yield to maturity (%)

credit risk promise higher 8

yields to maturity.
6

0
D 94
D 93

D 99

D 01

D 03
D 04
D 92

D 2
D 98

D 00
D 96

D 06
D 5

D 5
D 97

7
-0
-9

-0

-0
-
-

-
-
-

-
-

-
-
ec
ec

ec

ec

ec
ec
ec

ec
ec

ec
ec

ec
ec

ec
ec

ec
D

Year

Source: PC Bond Index Team. Toronto Stock Exchange.

bre84034_ch05.indd 151 1/12/2009 10:32:39 AM

 finance in action
World Bank into Maple Bonds
Fin an ce in A ction

One of the worlds best-known issuers has joined the parade of
issuers to the Maple Bond market, the domestic market where non-
Canadian borrowers raise Canadian dollar-denominated debt that is
settled in Canada.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the
official name for the World Bank, priced an $850-million, five-year,
AAA-rated offering yesterday. That deal, upsized from an originally
planned $500-million, is the first in Canadian dollars under IBRDs so-
called global debt issuance facility (GDIF). The IBRD, the king of the
supranationals, was able to snare that debt at a yield of 4.323%, or 49.5
basis points above Canada bonds of a comparable term. (The coupon
was 4.30% and the debt was issued at $99.899 per $100.) Almost
three-quarters of the debt was placed with Canadian investors.
The IBRD hasnt been in a rush to raise capital in Canada since
the Maple market emerged. Last spring, it did a Canadian road show
in which it visited the major cities and talked to would-be bond
buyers. But it didnt follow the script and raise capital. Instead, it
waited until conditions were right so it could offer investors an
attractive yield but, more important, meet its own financing targets.
Its targets are defined in terms of a number that is below floating-rate
LIBOR (or London Interbank offer rate). To get there, it swaps the
proceeds from the fixed-rate Canadian-dollar borrowing to a float-
ing rate U.S.-dollar obligation.
Source: Excerpted from Barry Critchley, World Bank into Maple bonds, Financial
Post, Wednesday, November 21, 2007, p. FP2. Material reprinted with the express
permission of The National Post Company, a Canwest Partnership.

Variations in Corporate Bonds

Most corporate bonds are similar to the 5.5 percent Canada bonds that we examined earlier in
the chapter. In other words, they promise to make a fixed nominal coupon payment for each year
until maturity, at which point they also promise to repay the face value. However, you will find
that there is greater variety in the design of corporate bonds. We will return to this issue in
Chapter 13, but here are a few types of corporate bonds that you may encounter. In the nearby
See Box ABOVE Finance in Action box is an example of a Maple bond, a standard Canadian corporate bond with
a twist: The issuer is not in Canada.
Zero-Coupon Bonds. Corporations sometimes issue zero-coupon bonds. In this case, investors
receive $1,000 face value at the maturity date but do not receive a regular coupon payment. In
other words, the bond has a coupon rate of zero. You learned how to value such bonds in Chapter 4.
These bonds are issued at prices considerably below face value, and the investors return comes
from the difference between the purchase price and the payment of face value at maturity.
Stripped (or Strip) Bonds. Even if companies dont issue zero-coupon bonds, investment dealers
can create them by taking conventional bonds and selling the coupons and principal (residuals)
separately. For example, a 5-year Canada bond with a 5 percent coupon rate becomes 11 separate
zero-coupon bonds. Ten of the bonds are the $25 semi-annual coupon payments and the last is
the $1,000 principal payment. Figure 5.2 shows prices of several Canada strips. Notice how each
bond has zero coupons and sells at a discount to its maturity value.
Floating-Rate Bonds. Sometimes the coupon rate can change over time. For example, floating-
rate bonds make coupon payments that are tied to some measure of current market rates. The rate
might be reset once a year to the current T-bill rate plus 2 percent. So if the T-bill rate at the start of
the year is 4 percent, the bonds coupon rate over the next year would be set at 6 percent. This ar-
rangement means that the bonds coupon rate always approximates current market interest rates.
Convertible Bonds. If you buy a convertible bond, you can choose later to exchange it for a speci-
fied number of shares of common stock. For example, a convertible bond that is issued at par
value of $1,000 may be convertible into 50 shares of the firms stock. Because convertible bonds
offer the opportunity to participate in any price appreciation of the companys stock, investors
will accept lower interest rates on convertible bonds.
Callable Bonds. Suppose that a company issues a 6.5 percent, 30-year bond at a price of $1,000.
Five years later interest rates have fallen to 4 percent and the bond price has risen dramatically. If
you were the companys treasurer, wouldnt you like to be able to retire the bond issue and issue
some new bonds at the lower interest rate? Well, with some bonds, known as callable bonds, the
company does have the option to buy them back early for the call price. Of course, holders of
callable bonds will know that the company will be tempted to buy back the bond if interest rates
152 fall and therefore the price of the bond will not rise above the call price.

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 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 153

Figure 5.10
Prices of callable versus $2,000
straight debt. When interest $1,800
rates fall, bond prices rise.
$1,600 Straight bond
But the price of the callable
bond (orange line) is limited $1,400 Call price $1,060
by the call price.

Bond price
$1,200

$1,000

$800
Callable bond
$600

$400

$200

$0
5% 7% 9% 11% 13% 15% 17% 19%
Interest rate

Figure 5.10 shows the risk of a call to the bondholder. The blue line is the value of a 30-year,
6.5 percent coupon straight, that is, non-callable bond; the orange line is the value of a bond
with the same coupon rate and maturity, but callable at $1,060 (i.e., 106 percent of face value).
At very high interest rates, the risk of call is negligible, and the values of the bonds are nearly
identical. As rates fall, the non-callable bond steadily increases in value, but because call
becomes more likely in this region, the value of the callable bond is limited by its call price.
Recognizing this pattern, bond investors calculate yield to call rather than yield to maturity
for bonds at high risk of being called. The yield to call is calculated like yield to maturity with
time until call replacing time until maturity, and the call price replacing face value.

Example 5.9
yield to CAll
Suppose a 8.5% coupon, 30-year maturity bond (making annual coupon payments) sells for $1,040
and is callable in 10 years at a call price of $1,060. We would calculate its yield to maturity and
yield to call on our calculators as follows:

Calculator input yield to Call yield to Maturity

Coupon payment PMT 85 85
Number of periods n 10 30
Final payment FV 1,060 1,000
Price PV 21,040 21,040
ANSWER: Compute i 8.30% 8.14%

In Excel, we could solve for these rates as: yield to call YIELD(DATE(2000,1,1),
DATE(2010,1,1),.085,104,106,1) and yield to maturity YIELD(DATE(2000,1,1),
DATE(2030,1,1),.085,104,100,1). The yield to call is higher because the firm has to
pay a premium to call the bonds.

Check Point 5.9 Find the yield to call and yield to maturity of the bond in Example 5.9 if it pays its cou-
pons semi-annually.

bre84034_ch05.indd 153 1/12/2009 10:32:41 AM

 154 part two Value

Most callable Canadian corporate bonds have a special call feature known as the Canada call
or the Doomsday call. With a Canada call, the call price is not set in advance but is determined
at the time of the call. The call price is calculated to generate a specific yield, with par value as
the minimum price. A typical Canada call provision states that the call price, referred to as the
Canada yield price, must offer an equivalent yield of a Government of Canada bond of the same
maturity plus an additional prestated amount, for default risk.
With the Canada call, the call price increases as interest rates fall, making it less attractive to
call the bond. By contrast, the call price for a conventional call provision is fixed and if interest
rates fall enough, it becomes profitable for the issuer to call the bond. You wont be surprised to
learn that bonds with a Canada call are rarely called.

Example 5.10
CAlCulAting the CAnAdA yield PriCe
A Cameco 4.7 percent bond due September 16, 2015, is callable (redeemable) at any time at the
greater of the Canada Yield Price and par. The Canada Yield is the yield to maturity for a Government
of Canada bond with the same maturity date as the Cameco bond. To determine the Canada Yield
Price (or call price), the remaining cash flows of the Cameco bond are discounted at the Canada
Yield plus .22 percent.
Suppose the Cameco bond is trading for $1,031.40 on September 16, 2010, giving a yield
to maturity of 4 percent. The coupon rate is greater than the bonds yield. Should the bond be
called and replaced with bonds carrying a lower coupon rate? If equivalent-maturity Canada bonds
are yielding 3.7 percent, the Canada Price must be calculated with a yield of .037 1 .0022,
or 3.92 percent, making the call price $1,035.10. (The Cameco bond is 5 years to maturity, with
10 coupon payments of $23.50 remaining to be paid. On your calculator, set FV 1,000,
PMT 47/2 23.5, n 10, i 3.92/2 1.96, and compute PV.). The call price is greater than the
current market price, and the bond wont be called.

5.7 suMMAry
1. What are the differences between the bonds coupon
rate, current yield, and yield to maturity?
A bond is a long-term debt of a government or corpora-
tion. When you own a bond, you receive a fixed interest
payment each year until the bond matures. This payment
is known as the coupon. The coupon rate is the annual
www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey
bonds. The bond payments discounted at the bonds yield
to maturity equal the bond price. You may also start with
the bond price and ask what interest rate the bond offers.
This interest rate that equates the present value of bond
payments to the bond price is the yield to maturity.
Because present values are lower when discount rates are
higher, price and yield to maturity vary inversely.

coupon payment expressed as a fraction of the bonds face

value. At maturity the bonds face value is repaid. In
3.
Canada most bonds have a face value of $1,000. The
current yield is the annual coupon payment expressed as
a fraction of the bonds price. The yield to maturity mea-
sures the average rate of return to an investor who pur-
chases the bond and holds it until maturity, accounting for
coupon income as well as the difference between pur-
4.
chase price and face value.
2. How can one find the market price of a bond given its
yield to maturity and find a bonds yield given its
price? Why do prices and yields vary inversely?
Bonds are valued by discounting the coupon payments and
the final repayment by the yield to maturity on comparable
Why do interest rates change over time?
The general level of interest rates varies over time with
changes in the real rate of interest and expected inflation.
The Fisher effect says that the nominal interest rate
equals the real rate of interest plus expected inflation.
What determines the difference between yields on
long-term and short-term bonds?
The yield curve is a snapshot of yields on bonds of dif-
ferent maturities at a point in time. Typically, it is upward
sloping but can also be downward sloping or humped.
According to the expectations theory, bonds are priced so
that the expected return over any period is independent of

bre84034_ch05.indd 154 1/12/2009 10:32:44 AM

 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 155

the maturity of the bonds held. Consequently, a higher
yield on a longer-term bond implies that investors expect
future short-term interest rates to rise. However, the
expectations theory ignores interest rate risk, which
arises from the fact that bond prices rise when market
rates fall, and fall when market rates rise. Long-term
bonds exhibit greater interest rate risk than short-term
bonds. According to the liquidity-preference theory, long-
term bonds earn extra return to compensate for interest
rate risk, resulting in higher yields on long-term bonds
and a tendency for the yield curve to be upward sloping.
5. Why do investors pay attention to bond ratings and
demand a higher interest rate for bonds with low
ratings?
Investors demand higher promised yields if there is a high
probability that the borrower will run into trouble and
default. Credit risk implies that the promised yield to
maturity on the bond is higher than the expected yield.
The additional yield investors require for bearing credit
risk is called the default premium. Bond ratings measure
the bonds credit risk.

Related Web Links

www.finpipe.com The Financial Pipeline is an Internet site dedicated to financial education; see the page on
bonds, ignore the out-of-date Canadian bond market commentary
www.dbrs.com Web site for Dominion Bond Rating Service
www.standardpoor.com Standard & Poors provides information on how it rates securities
www.bankofcanada.ca Lots of interest rate data
www.bondsonline.com U.S. bond data
www.pfin.ca/canadianfixedincome Canadian bond data and bond trading
http://www.financialpost.com/markets/market_data/bonds-canadian.html More Canadian bond data

Key Terms
accrued interest 133
bond 131
clean bond price 133
coupon 131
coupon rate 131
current yield 137
default (or credit)
risk 150
default premium or
credit spread 150
dirty bond price 133
discount bond 138
face value 131
Fisher effect 147
interest rate risk 148
investment grade 150
junk bond 150
premium bond 138
rate of return 140
real return bond 146
yield curve or term structure
of interest rates 145
yield to maturity 138

Questions and Problems

*Answers in Appendix B

Basic
*1. Bond Yields. A 30-year Canada bond is issued with par value of $1,000, paying interest of $60 per year. If
market yields increase shortly after the bond is issued, what happens to the bonds www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey
a. coupon rate
b. price
c. yield to maturity
d. current yield
2. Bond Yields. If a bond with par value of $1,000 and a coupon rate of 6 percent is selling at a price of $970,
is the bonds yield to maturity more or less than 6 percent? What about the current yield?
*3. Bond Yields. A bond with par value $1,000 has a current yield of 7.5 percent and a coupon rate of 8 percent.
What is the bonds price if it pays interest annually?
*4. Bond Pricing. A 6-year Circular File bond pays interest of $75 annually and sells for $950. What is its
coupon rate, current yield, and yield to maturity?
5. Bond Pricing. If Circular File (see previous problem) wants to issue a new six-year bond at face value, what
coupon rate must the bond offer?

bre84034_ch05.indd 155 1/12/2009 10:32:45 AM

 156 Part Two Value

6. Bond Yields. A BCE bond has 10 years until maturity and a coupon rate of 8 percent payable annually, and
sells for $1,050.
a. What is the current yield on the bond?
b. What is the yield to maturity?
7. Coupon Rate. General Matters outstanding bond issue has a coupon rate of 7 percent and a current yield
of 7.6 percent, and it sells at a yield to maturity of 9.25 percent. The firm wishes to issue additional bonds
to the public at par value. What coupon rate must the new bonds offer in order to sell at par?
8. Financial Pages. Turn back to Figure 5.2. What is the current bid yield of the Canada 5.5 percent, June 1,
2010 maturity? What price would you have had to pay to buy the bond that day?
*9. Rate of Return. You bought a 10-year, 5 percent coupon bond for $1,000 and sold it 1 year later for $1,100.
What is the rate of return on your investment if the bond pays interest annually?
*10. After-Tax Rate of Return. Refer to problem 9. If your marginal tax rate is 30 percent, and 50 percent of
capital gains are taxable, what is the after-tax rate of return on your bond investment?

Intermediate
*11. Bond Prices and Returns. One bond has a coupon rate of 8 percent, another a coupon rate of 12 percent.
Both bonds have 10-year maturities and sell at a yield to maturity of 10 percent. If their yields to maturity
next year are still 10 percent, what is the rate of return on each bond? Does the higher coupon bond give a
higher rate of return? Assume the bonds pay annual interest.
12. Accrued Interest. The July 15, 2011, quoted price of a bond with a coupon rate of 4.5 percent, payable
semi-annually, maturing on March 1, 2015, is 990. If you buy the bond on July 15, 2011, what is the total
price you must pay for the bond?
*13. Bond Returns.
a. If the BCE bond in problem 6 has a yield to maturity of 8 percent 1 year from now, what will its
price be?
b. What will be your rate of return if you buy it today and sell it in one year?
c. If the inflation rate during the year is 3 percent, what is the real rate of return on the bond?
14. Bond Pricing. A Metallico bond carries a coupon rate of 8 percent, payable semi-annually, has 9 years until
maturity, and sells at a yield to maturity of 9 percent.
a. What interest payments do bondholders receive each year?
*b. At what price does the bond sell?
c. What will happen to the bond price if the yield to maturity falls to 7 percent?
15. Bond Pricing. A 30-year maturity bond with $1,000 face value makes annual coupon payments and has a
coupon rate of 9.75 percent. What is the bonds yield to maturity if the bond is selling for
a. $900
b. $1,000
www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey

*c. $1,100
16. Bond Pricing. Repeat the previous problem if the bond makes semi-annual coupon payments.
17. Bond Pricing. Fill in the table below for the following zero-coupon bonds. The face value of each bond is
$1,000.
Price Maturity (Years) Yield to Maturity
$300 30
$300 8%
10 10%
18. Consol Bonds. Perpetual Life Corp. has issued consol bonds with coupon payments of $60. (Consols pay
interest forever and never mature. They are perpetuities.) If the required rate of return on these bonds at the
time they were issued was 6 percent, at what price were they sold to the public? If the required return today
is 10 percent, at what price do the consols sell?

bre84034_ch05.indd 156 1/12/2009 10:32:45 AM

 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 157

*19. Bond Pricing. Sure Tea Co. has issued 9 percent annual coupon bonds, which are now selling at a yield to
maturity of 10 percent and current yield of 9.8375 percent. What is the remaining maturity of these
bonds?
20. Bond Pricing. Large Industries bonds sell for $1,065.95. The bond life is 9 years, and the yield to maturity
is 7 percent. What must be the coupon rate on the bonds? Coupons are paid semi-annually.
*21. Bond Prices and Yields.
a. Several years ago, Castles in the Sand, Inc., issued bonds at face value at a yield to maturity of 65 percent.
Now, with 8 years left until the maturity of the bonds, the company has run into hard times, and the
yield to maturity on the bonds has increased to 14 percent. What has happened to the price of the bond?
Coupons are paid semi-annually.
b. Suppose that investors believe that Castles can make good on the promised coupon payments, but that
the company will go bankrupt when the bond matures and the principal comes due. The expectation is
that investors will receive only 80 percent of face value at maturity. If they buy the bond today, what yield
to maturity do they expect to receive?
*22. Bond Returns. You buy an 8 percent coupon, paid annually, 10-year maturity bond for $980. A year later,
the bond price is $1,050.
a. What is the yield to maturity on the bond today? What is it in one year?
b. What is your rate of return over the year?
23. Bond Returns. You buy an 8 percent annual coupon, 10-year maturity bond when its yield to maturity is
9 percent. A year later, the yield to maturity is 10 percent. What is your rate of return over the year?
24. Rate of Return. A 2-year maturity bond with $1,000 face value makes annual coupon payments of $65 and
is selling at face value. What will be the rate of return on the bond if its yield to maturity at the end of the
year is
a. 6 percent
b. 8 percent
c. 10 percent
25. Rate of Return. A bond that pays coupons annually is issued with a coupon rate of 4 percent, maturity of
30 years, and a yield to maturity of 8 percent. What rate of return will be earned by an investor who pur-
chases the bond and holds it for 1 year if the bonds yield to maturity at the end of the year is 9 percent?
*26. Rate of Return. Five years ago you purchased an 8 percent coupon bond for $975. Today you sold the bond
for $1,000. What is your rate of return on the bond in each of the following situations:
a. All coupons were immediately spent when received.
b. All coupons were reinvested in your bank account, which pays 1 percent interest until the bond is sold.
c. All coupons were reinvested at 8.64 percent until the bond is sold.
*27. Rate of Return. Looking back at the previous question, use the yield-to-maturity method to compute the
rate of return on your bond investment.
28. Bond Pricing. Are the following statements true or false? Provide simple examples to support your
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assessment.
a. If interest rates rise, bond prices rise.
b. If the bonds yield to maturity is greater than its coupon rate, the price is greater than the bonds face
value.
c. High-coupon bonds of a given maturity sell for lower prices than otherwise identical low-coupon
bonds.
d. If interest rates change, the price of a high-coupon bond changes proportionately more than the price of
a low-coupon bond of the same maturity and default risk.
e. A investor who owns a 10 percent, 5-year Canada bond is wealthier if interest rates rise from 4 percent
to 5 percent.
29. Internet. Use historical yield-to-maturity data from the Bank of Canada Web site at www.bankofcanada.ca
to look at bonds of different types. Go to www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/bond-look.htm and follow the
instructions. Download 60 months of yield-to-maturity data for long-term corporate bonds (series V122518),

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 158 Part Two Value

long-term provincial bonds (V122517), and long-term Canada bonds (series V122544), and put the data into
a spreadsheet. Calculate the average spreads of the corporate and provincial bonds over the Canada bonds.
Graph the yields to maturity over time. What do you see? Does it make sense?
30. Yield Curve. The following table shows the prices of strips of Canada bonds in November 2008. Each strip
makes a single payment of $100 at maturity.
Maturity Price ($)
June 2010 96.94
June 2012 91.04
June 2015 80.58
June 2019 65.43
June 2025 45.75

a. Calculate the annually compounded, yield to maturity (spot interest rate) for each bond.
b. Is the term structure upward or downward sloping?
31. Bond Pricing. Diamond Corporation is planning a bond issue with an escalating coupon rate. The annual
coupon rate will be 4 percent for the first 3 years, 5 percent for the subsequent 3 years, and 6 percent for the
final 3 years. If bonds of this risk are yielding 5 percent, estimate the bonds current price.
32. Interest Rate Risk. Consider three bonds with 8 percent coupon rates, all selling at face value. The short-
term bond has a maturity of 4 years, the intermediate-term bond has maturity of 8 years, and the long-term
bond has maturity of 30 years.
a. What will happen to the price of each bond if their yields increase to 9 percent?
b. What will happen to the price of each bond if their yields decrease to 7 percent?
c. What do you conclude about the relationship between time to maturity and the sensitivity of bond prices
to interest rates?
*33. Bond Risk. A bonds credit rating provides a guide to its risk. Long-term bonds rated AA currently offer
yields to maturity of 8.5 percent EAR. A-rated bonds sell at yields of 8.8 percent EAR. If a 10-year bond
with a coupon rate of 8 percent, paid semi-annually, is downgraded by DBRS from AA to A rating, calculate
the likely effect on the bond price.
34. Internet. Free on-line yield-to-maturity and credit spread data for Canadian corporate bonds with different
debt ratings is not available. However, old US data is available at www.bondsonline.com/Todays_Market/
Corporate_Bond_Spreads.php. You will see a table showing credit spreads for corporate bonds of different
risk over comparable-term US government bonds from 2006. The spreads are measured in basis points,
where 1 basis point equals .01 (1/100) percentage point. Using the data in the table, estimate the required
rate of return on a 10-year debt issue by a US company with A2/A-rated debt. What if its debt had a
B2/B rating? The current yield to maturity on US Treasury bonds is available at www.bondsonline.com/
Todays_Market/Composite_Bond_Yields_table.php.
35. Internet. From www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/Page/document/v5/data/bonds, find five different corpo-
www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey

rate bonds and find Government of Canada bonds with similar terms to maturity. Look up their ratings at
either www.dbrs.com or www.standardpoor.com. Compare the bonds yields to maturity to comparable-
term Government of Canada bonds. Do the yields make sense relative to their bond ratings?
36. Real Rate of Interest. You have been told that the yield to maturity on 3-month Treasury bills is 4 percent
and the current inflation rate is 2 percent. Estimate the real rate of interest.
37. Real Returns. Suppose that you buy a 1-year maturity bond for $1,000 that will pay you $1,000 plus a
coupon payment of $60 at the end of the year. What real rate of return will you earn if the inflation rate is
*a. 2 percent
b. 4 percent
c. 6 percent
d. 8 percent

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 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 159

38. Real Returns. Now suppose that the bond in the previous problem is a real return bond with a coupon rate
of 4 percent. What will the cash flow provided by the bond be for each of the four inflation rates? What will
be the real and nominal rates of return on the bond in each scenario?
39. Real Returns. Now suppose the real return bond in the previous problem is a two-year maturity bond. What
will be the bondholders cash flows in each year in each of the inflation scenarios?
40. Yield to Call. A 6.25 percent 15-year bond, paying interest annually, can be called at 110 percent of par
value in 10 years. The bond currently sells for $1,048.
a. What is the yield to maturity?
b. What is the yield to call?
41. Canada Call Price. A 7 percent corporate bond with 6 years to maturity has a Canada call. The bonds yield
to maturity is 4.8 percent. The call price must offer an equivalent yield to a Canada bond plus .35 percent.
Currently, six-year Government of Canada bonds are yielding 4 percent. Assume coupons are paid
annually.
a. What is the current bond price?
b. What is the current call price?
42. Canada Call. When ABC Company originally issued its callable 5.5 percent, 10-year bond, it was rated AA
and priced to sell at par. The bond is callable at the price that offers an equivalent yield to a Canada bond
plus .15 percent. At that time, the credit spread over 10-year Canada bonds was .25 percent. The bond pays
interest annually.
a. What was the call price at issue?
Now, 5 years later, the bond rating agencies have raised the bond rating to AAA and the bonds yield to
maturity is 5 percent. Equivalent-maturity Canada bonds are yielding 4.9 percent.
b. What is the current call price?
c. Would ABC Company consider calling the bond now?

Challenge
43. Interest Rate Risk. Suppose interest rates increase from 8 percent to 9 percent. Which bond will suffer the
greater percentage decline in price: a 30-year bond paying annual coupons of 8 percent, or a 30-year zero
coupon bond? Can you explain intuitively why the zero exhibits greater interest rate risk even though it has
the same maturity as the coupon bond?
44. After-Tax Rate of Return. Using the information in problem 26, calculate your after-tax rate of return on
your bond investment assuming that your marginal tax rate is 35 percent. You pay tax on the interest when
it is received.
45. Bond Prices and Yields. Big Time Company is planning to raise $15 million by selling 10-year bonds.
The bond rating agency has advised the company that the bonds will have an A rating. Currently, the
difference between the yield to maturity of A-rated corporate bonds over similar-maturity Government of
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Canada bonds is 150 basis points (1 basis point equals .01 percentage points). If 10-year Canada bonds are
currently priced to yield 5 percent, what coupon rate should Big Time select if the new issue is to sell at par
value.
46. Standard & Poors. Go to Market Insight (www.mcgrawhill.ca/edumarketinsight) and find the bond rat-
ing of BCE (BCE) and Agrium (AGU) in the Financial Highlights section. Which has the higher bond
rating (i.e., S&P Issuer Credit Rating)? What are the main business activities of each of these companies?
Compare their ability to pay their interest obligations by calculating the ratio of EBIT to interest payments.
The higher this times interest earned ratio, the greater a companys ability to make its interest payments.
Also, calculate both companies indebtedness, as measured by the ratio of debt to equity. The higher the
times interest earned and the lower the indebtedness, the more likely a company will be able to make its debt
payments. Are the debt ratings consistent with the calculated ratios?

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 158 Part Two Value

long-term provincial bonds (V122517), and long-term Canada bonds (series V122544), and put the data into
a spreadsheet. Calculate the average spreads of the corporate and provincial bonds over the Canada bonds.
Graph the yields to maturity over time. What do you see? Does it make sense?
30. Yield Curve. The following table shows the prices of strips of Canada bonds in November 2008. Each strip
makes a single payment of $100 at maturity.
Maturity Price ($)
June 2010 96.94
June 2012 91.04
June 2015 80.58
June 2019 65.43
June 2025 45.75

a. Calculate the annually compounded, yield to maturity (spot interest rate) for each bond.
b. Is the term structure upward or downward sloping?
31. Bond Pricing. Diamond Corporation is planning a bond issue with an escalating coupon rate. The annual
coupon rate will be 4 percent for the first 3 years, 5 percent for the subsequent 3 years, and 6 percent for the
final 3 years. If bonds of this risk are yielding 5 percent, estimate the bonds current price.
32. Interest Rate Risk. Consider three bonds with 8 percent coupon rates, all selling at face value. The short-
term bond has a maturity of 4 years, the intermediate-term bond has maturity of 8 years, and the long-term
bond has maturity of 30 years.
a. What will happen to the price of each bond if their yields increase to 9 percent?
b. What will happen to the price of each bond if their yields decrease to 7 percent?
c. What do you conclude about the relationship between time to maturity and the sensitivity of bond prices
to interest rates?
*33. Bond Risk. A bonds credit rating provides a guide to its risk. Long-term bonds rated AA currently offer
yields to maturity of 8.5 percent EAR. A-rated bonds sell at yields of 8.8 percent EAR. If a 10-year bond
with a coupon rate of 8 percent, paid semi-annually, is downgraded by DBRS from AA to A rating, calculate
the likely effect on the bond price.
34. Internet. Free on-line yield-to-maturity and credit spread data for Canadian corporate bonds with different
debt ratings is not available. However, old US data is available at www.bondsonline.com/Todays_Market/
Corporate_Bond_Spreads.php. You will see a table showing credit spreads for corporate bonds of different
risk over comparable-term US government bonds from 2006. The spreads are measured in basis points,
where 1 basis point equals .01 (1/100) percentage point. Using the data in the table, estimate the required
rate of return on a 10-year debt issue by a US company with A2/A-rated debt. What if its debt had a
B2/B rating? The current yield to maturity on US Treasury bonds is available at www.bondsonline.com/
Todays_Market/Composite_Bond_Yields_table.php.
35. Internet. From www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/Page/document/v5/data/bonds, find five different corpo-
www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey

rate bonds and find Government of Canada bonds with similar terms to maturity. Look up their ratings at
either www.dbrs.com or www.standardpoor.com. Compare the bonds yields to maturity to comparable-
term Government of Canada bonds. Do the yields make sense relative to their bond ratings?
36. Real Rate of Interest. You have been told that the yield to maturity on 3-month Treasury bills is 4 percent
and the current inflation rate is 2 percent. Estimate the real rate of interest.
37. Real Returns. Suppose that you buy a 1-year maturity bond for $1,000 that will pay you $1,000 plus a
coupon payment of $60 at the end of the year. What real rate of return will you earn if the inflation rate is
*a. 2 percent
b. 4 percent
c. 6 percent
d. 8 percent

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 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 161

The yield to maturity at the start of the year was 4.6 percent. However, because interest rates rose during the
year, the bond price fell and the rate of return is below the yield to maturity.
5.5 By the end of this year, the bond will have only one year left until maturity. It will make only one more pay-
ment of coupon plus face value, so its price will be $1,055/1.046$1,008.60. The rate of return is
therefore
$55 1 ($1, 008.60 2 $1, 016.83)
.046, or 4.6%
$1, 016.83
5.6 The coupon payment is .083$1,000, or $80, before tax. The tax on the coupon interest is .43$80, or $32.
A capital gain of $1,2152$1,200$15 is made. The capital gains tax is .53.43$15, or $3. The before-tax
rate of return is
$80 1 ( $1, 215 $1, 200 )
.0792, or 7.92%
$1, 200
The after-tax rate of return is
$80 2 $32 1 ( $1, 215 2 $1, 200 ) 2 $3
.05, or 5.0%
$1, 200
5.7 The general level of (nominal) interest rates in July 1990 was much higher than in 2007. This suggests that
investors were expecting much higher inflation in 1990 than in 2007. The inflation rate in 1990 was about
5 percent and was about 2.5 percent in 2007.
5.8 At an interest rate of 4.6 percent, the 3-year bond sells for $1,024.69. If the interest rate jumps to 10 percent,
the bond price falls to $888.09, a decline of 13.3 percent. The 30-year bond sells for $1,144.89 when the
interest rate is 4.6 percent, but its price falls to $575.79 at an interest rate of 10 percent, a much larger per-
centage decline of 49.7 percent.
5.9 The semi-annual coupon is $42.50. The number of payments will be 20 if the bond is called after 10 years,
or 60 if it is held until maturity. Therefore, use these inputs:

Yield to Call Yield to Maturity

Coupon payment (PMT) 42.50 42.50
Number of periods (n) 20 60
Final payment (FV) 1,060 1,000
Price (PV) 21,040 21,040
The yield to call is 4.15% semi-annual, or 8.30% annualized. The yield to maturity is 4.07% semi-annual, or
8.14% annualized. These yields are actually slightly higher than those calculated by using annual payments
but are the same to two decimal places.

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For Appendix 5A, see the Online Learning Centre at www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/brealey.

Appendix 5B: A More Detailed Look at

the Yield Curve
In December 2006, you could invest in a one-year Government of Canada stripped bond yielding
about 4.17 percent.7 A two-year Canada strip had a yield of about 4.02 percent. These are spot
rates, interest rates available today on investments today. If you invested in the 1-year strip, by
December 2007, every dollar invested would have grown to $13(1.0417)5$1.0417. If instead

7 Astripped bond, or strip, is a bond that makes only one payment at maturity. Stripped bonds are also called zero-coupon
bonds.

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 162 Part Two Value

you invested in the two-year strip, by the end of two years, December 2008, every dollar invested
would grow to $13(1.0402)25$1.082016. By keeping your money invested for the extra year,
your savings grow from $1.0417 to $1.082016, an increase of 3.87 percent (51.082016/1.041721).
This extra 3.87 percent that you earn by investing for two years, rather than one, is called a for-
ward interest rate.
A forward interest rate is an interest rate calculated using spot rates. Let r1 be the current
one-year spot rate and r2 be the current two-year spot rate. Invest for one year, each dollar grows
to (11r1). Invest for two years in the two-year bond, your investment grows to (11r2)2. The
extra rate of return that you earn in the second year is the forward rate, f2. In our example,

(1 r2 )2 (1.082016) (5B.1)
f2 5 215 2 1 5 .0387, or 3.87%
(1 r1 ) 1.0417
Twist this equation around and you get an expression for the two-year spot rate, r2, in terms
of the one-year spot rate, r!, and the forward rate, f2:
(1r2)25(1r1)3(1f2) (5B.2)
In other words, you can think of the two-year investment as earning the one-year spot rate for
the first year and the forward rate for the second year.
Forward rates can be calculated for other years, provided that you have the appropriate spot
rates. For example, if the 5-year spot rate, r5, is 6% and the 6-year spot rate, r6, is 6.5 percent,
the forward rate for the 6th year, f6, must satisfy this equation:
(1r6)65(1r5)53(1f6) (5B.3)
In other words, the Year 6 forward rate is the extra return for investing for the 6th year. In this
case, f6(1.065)6/(1.06)521, or 9 percent. Generally, the forward rate for the nth year, fn, must
satisfy the following equation:
(1rn)n5(1rn21)n213(1fn) (5B.4)

The Expectations Theory

How attractive is the extra 3.87 percent return for investing for two years rather than one in
December 2006? It depends on how you expect interest rates to change over the coming year.
Suppose, for example, you expected interest rates to rise, so that by December 2007 the one-year
rate will be 6 percent. In that case, rather than investing in a two-year bond and earning the extra
3.87 percent, you would do better if you invested in the one-year bond and, when that matured,
reinvested the money for a further year at 6 percent. If all investors thought like you, no one
would want to buy the two-year bond. Its price would fall. The price would continue to fall until
the extra return on the two-year bond equalled the expected future one-year rate. We use the
symbol 1r2 to represent the expected future one-year spot rate on a loan maturing at the end of
Year 2.
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According the expectations theory, in equilibrium the forward rate, f2, equals the expected
one-year spot rate, 1r2. The expectations theory implies that the only reason for an upward-
sloping yield curve is that investors expect short-term interest rates to rise. Likewise, the only
reason for a downward-sloping yield curve is that investors expect short-term rates to fall.
If the expectations theory is correct, you can use the current spot rates to calculate investors
expected future spot rates. For example, suppose the current one-year spot rate is 3 percent and
the current two-year spot rate is 6 percent. What is the expected one-year spot rate for Year 2?
According to the expectations theory,
(1 1 r2 ) 2 (1.06)2
1 r2 f2 21 2 1 .0909, or 9.09%
(1 1 r1 ) 1.03
If short-term rates are much lower than long-term rates, it may be tempting to borrow short
term. However, the expectations theory tells us to not be fooled. Long-term rates are connected

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 Chapter 5 Valuing Bonds 163

to short-term rates. If long-term rates are higher, it must be the case that the market is expecting
interest rates to rise.

The Liquidity-Preference Theory

The expectations theory implies that investing in a series of one-year bonds earns the same expect-
ed return as investing in long-term bonds. However, as we pointed out in Section 5.5, investing in
long-term bonds is riskier than short-term bonds because long-term bond prices are more variable
than short-term bond prices. To compensate for the extra risk of lending long, investors demand
a liquidity risk premium. With this liquidity premium added to the bond yield, it is no longer the
case that the forward rate must equal the expected future spot rate. In fact, the forward rate must
be higher than the expected future spot rate to compensate investors for the liquidity risk.
Together, the expectations and liquidity-preference theories can partially explain the shape of
yield curves. The yield on a longer-term bond reflects both expectations of future short-term
interest rates and the liquidity risk premium. Other theories exist but are beyond the scope of this
book.

Questions and Problems

5B.1. Calculating Forward Rates. The following are the yields to maturity on Canada strip
bonds with various years to maturity.
Years to Maturity Yield to Maturity (%)
1 5.0
2 5.4
3 5.7
4 5.9
5 6.0

a. Calculate the forward rate for each period.

b. Calculate the price today of the following Canada bonds:
i. 5 percent, 2-year bond.
ii. 5 percent, 5-year bond.
iii. 10 percent, 5-year bond.
c. Calculate the yields to maturity on each of the bonds in part (b).
d. Why is the yield to maturity on the 10 percent bond less than the yield on the 5 percent,
5-year bond?
5B.2. Term Structure Theories. Refer back to question 5B.1.
a. If the expectations theory of the term structure is correct, what do the forward rates
calculated in (a) tell you about expected future short-term interest rates?
b. If the liquidity-preference theory is added, what can you conclude about expected
future short-term rates?
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5B.3. Calculating Forward Rates. Suppose in June 2008, the Canada June 2009 strip was sell-
ing for $970.87, the Canada June 2010 strip was selling for $924.56, and the Canada June
2011 strip was selling for $863.84.
a. Calculate the yield to maturity for each bond.
b. Calculate annually compounded, one-year forward rate of interest at June 2009,
June 2010, and June 2011.
c. Using the available information, estimate the June 2008 price of a 5 percent, Canada
bond maturing June 2011. Explain your assumptions.
5B.4. Understanding the Yield Curve. Assume that the term structure is upward sloping. How
would you respond to the following statement? Given the current yield curve, a company
should borrow short term rather than long term. It will be cheaper.

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