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Running Head: PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PROCRASTINATION

Personality Traits and its Predictors on the

Prevalence of Student Procrastination

Gavin Murray: s3854748

Assessment 3: Research Proposal

For: Capstone Research Investigation

AED5001 Education Research Design and Methods

Due Date: 28/5/2017

Victoria University, Footscray Campus

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PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PROCRASTINATION

Abstract
The word procrastination is a global phenomenon which virtually every individual

can experience in numerous forms. Procrastination can afflict a persons productivity, sense

of accomplishment, mental/physical well-being and an array of other dilatory and negative

consequences. There are many wide-ranging definitions of procrastination noted by

academics within their research. Steel (2007) defined procrastination as a voluntarily delay,

an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. This global

phenomenon is detrimental to our students well-being and success. In terms of student

behavioural tendencies and poor personality attributes Hussain & Sultan (2010) defined that

traits such as poor analytical skills can be a direct relation to higher levels of procrastination

this is due to the student not capable of managing their time and life in an effective manner.

Steel (2007), gives an explanation of procrastination that stems from an individuals being;

that personality traits can be a predictor the prevalence of procrastination.

In terms of procrastination at an academic level, it is described as a student that;

delays academic work until substantial stress occurs (Sencal, Julien, & Guay, 2002), a

student putting off decisions which leads to a goal (Grpel, & Steel, 2008) and a student

delaying the studies at a school (Kaan, akr, lhan, & Kandemir, 2010, p. 303).

Regardless of what procrastination is defined as, the result is a significant negative impact for

students in regards to learning and achievement (Ferrari, & Tice, 2000). The five-factor

model of personality is a systematic organisation of personality traits in five developed

dimensions, these include: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and

openness to experience (Engler., 2013). Pang, Tong & Wong (2011) states that as

conscientiousness is the greatest predictor of a students behaviour of lower levels of

procrastination. This is mainly due to students demonstrating higher levels of

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conscientiousness have more favourable behaviours such as self-regulation, control,

deliberation, dutifulness and the ability to strive for achievement (Heward, 2010).

Two research questions have been defined: 1. Can personality traits help teachers

reduce the level of student procrastination. 2. Can personality traits predict students

academic level. This study has three hypotheses: 1. It hypothesised that higher levels of

neurotic personality traits reported by participants will show an increase in reported

procrastination. 2. It is hypothesised that higher levels of conscientious traits will show a

decrease in reported procrastination. 3. It is hypothesised that participants who have

personality traits which are prevalent in procrastination will perform academically worse than

participants who show less personality traits that are prevalent in procrastination
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 2
LIST OF TABLES .4
1. INTRODUCTION..5
2.LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.2 Personality Traits and Procrastination.....8
2.3 The Five Factor Model9
2.4 Personality Traits, Procrastination and Psychological Studies..10
2.5 Personality Traits, Procrastination and The Student..10
2.6 Conclusions........12
3.METHODOLOGY13
3.1 Positivism and Research Approach........13
3.2 Research Design Causal-Comparative14
3.3 Research Methods Quantitative Research.......15
3.4 Data Selection.16
3.5 Data Analysis.....18
3.6 Reliability and Validity..19
3.7 Ethical Risks..20
3.8 Reflective Statement..21
4. APPENDIXES.....22
Appendix A..22
Appendix B..23
Appendix C..24
5.REFERENCES 25
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Introduction/Background to the Study

Procrastination as an aspect in personality is a multifaceted element with emotional,

cognitive and behavioural components (Rothblum, Solomon, & Murakami, 1986) in basic

terms it can be described as the process of avoiding accomplishing, prolonging or starting a

task that is necessary to reach a needed goal. (Jaffe, 2013). The term procrastination is a

global phenomenon which virtually every individual can experience in numerous forms.

Procrastination can afflict a persons productivity, sense of accomplishment, mental/physical

well-being and an array of other dilatory and negative consequences (Steel, 2007). This

report will investigate and systematically review the overall effect of procrastination on a

student, evaluate the problems associated with procrastination and students, the personality

factors influencing procrastination and offer solutions to stated problems.

There are many wide-ranging definitions of procrastination noted by academics

within their research. Steel (2007) defined procrastination as a voluntarily delay, an intended

course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay while Solomon and

Rothblum (1984) describes it as a behaviour that is an act of needlessly delaying a task that

usually produces feelings of discomfort. Dryden (2000) states that procrastination is a

common self-regulatory failure that involves stalling the initiation or completion of important

duties or responsibilities until the last minute, after a predetermined deadline, or indefinitely

and lastly Schraw et al (2007) describes procrastination as a combination of delaying to

work on a task and discomfort with the delay While these definitions slightly differ, there

are common themes that procrastination is; a negative event; that is repeated and seen as

irrational, a means to complete or start a task but is unable and that the delay is voluntary.
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Procrastination is a self-debilitating behaviour an observable common phenomenon

within a students educational journey. Procrastination and dilatory behaviours coincide with

one another, Rothblum Solomon & Maurakami (1986) give some extremely straightforward

examples of procrastination in everyday life which can relate to a students life. These

include: prolonging the amount of time spent in bed, a student not starting his homework due

to watching television and even spending too much time in the shower which in turn makes

the person run late to school. Even though there are almost thirty years of well-developed

research into the procrastination theres yet to be complete understanding of the true

underlying influences which cause procrastination, let alone procrastination within students

(Steel, 2007).

Research over the years have found certain common trends within procrastination,

examples of these are studies using psychological research by Kuar & Sharma (2011) that

described males were disposed to delay starting work, while on the other hand females in the

studies were of high risk in regards to procrastination due to fear of failure. Rothblum

Solomon, Murakami (1986) discovered that it was more likely that individuals would be

more inclined to do work if it produced short term gains or positive reinforcement. In terms

of student behavioural tendencies and poor personality attributes Hussain & Sultan (2010)

defined that traits such as poor analytical skills can be a direct relation to higher levels of

procrastination this is due to the student not capable of managing their time and life in an

effective manner. Steel (2007), gives an explanation of procrastination that stems from an

individuals being; that personality traits can be a predictor the prevalence of procrastination.
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Literature Review

Personality Traits and Procrastination

In terms of procrastination at an academic level, it is describes a student that; delays

academic work until substantial stress occurs (Sencal, Julien, & Guay, 2002), a student

putting off decisions which leads to a goal (Grpel, & Steel, 2008) and a student delaying

the studies at a school (Kaan, akr, lhan, & Kandemir, 2010, p. 303). Regardless of how

procrastination is defined, the result is a significant negative impact for students in regards to

learning and achievement (Ferrari, & Tice, 2000). Whilst personality traits are loosely

defined as; characteristics, behaviours and attitudes that are unique to each persons being

that make up their mindset (Kaan, akr, lhan, & Kandemir, 2010). Psychologists choose to

look at personality traits of an individual to attempt to make correlations between common

aspects of traits and procrastination. For example; modern day research has shown that

students who show levels low of self-esteem (Ferrari, & Tice, 2000) self-efficacy and higher

laziness (Steel, & Ferrari, 2012) all have higher levels of procrastination.

Steel, Brothen, & Wambach (2001) thorough research was based on predisposition of

emotions towards starting or completing a task, the thought process behind this is that student

academic procrastination stems from previous emotions (stress, anxiety or worry) when

having to start a task that is required at future point of time. These psychological effects can

cause ripples in a students life and that negative emotions can follow in years to come

further reinforcing the student into procrastinating in future work. Research has discovered

that two of the largest correlated personality traits with procrastination is conscientiousness

and neuroticism (Watson, 2011). Having traits which are closely linked with being more

conscientiousness usually produce students whom procrastinates less, while students who
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have traits that follow closely with higher levels of neuroticism show more inclination to

procrastinate (Steel, 2007)

The Five Factor Model

The five-factor model of personality is a systematic organisation of personality traits

in five developed dimensions, these include: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

neuroticism and openness to experience (Engler., 2013). This model is based on research

using natural language and theoretically based personality questionnaires, the model has

evolved over the years and is said to be applicable to society across cultures (Engler, 2013).

These five dimensions are an integral way of describing, sorting and evaluating individuals

personalities for further research.

Extraversion is based on an individuals engagement and energy levels through social

situations, characterised with high levels of excitability, sociability and assertiveness.

Agreeableness includes attributes that are closely linked with prosocial behaviours such as

trust, kindness or affection. Conscientiousness refers for an individuals tendency to be

organised, purposeful action, goal orientated and being motivated to succeed. Neuroticism is

described by this model as the predisposition to experience unwanted/negative emotions or

the individual is suffering from a psychological disorder for example mania, depression or

even lower than normal self-esteem. Lastly, openness to experience is characterised with

individuals that score high in creative thoughts, imagination and insight.

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Personality Traits, Procrastination and Psychological Studies

Dong-Gwi Lee and his accompanying psychologists investigated the correlation

between procrastination and two of the big five personality factors - conscientiousness and

neuroticism (Lee, Kelly & Edwards, 2006). The psychological-study included 354

participants (219 male and 135 female) first-year undergraduate students. Lee et al. (2006)

had the students fill out a questionnaire made by Lee and his associates that was made to

define procrastination levels within participants; these results were than correlated with the

Five Factor Inventory. Lee et al. (2006) discovered that higher procrastination levels were

associated with dilatory behaviours, negative outlooks and psychological distress. Results

also indicated that participants that scored higher in questions which specified a higher drive

for goals and the attributes for organisation resulted in lower reported procrastination levels.

Lee et al. (2006) described personality traits neuroticism and conscientious as clear predictors

for the prevalence of procrastination.

Personality Traits, Procrastination and The Student

Trait procrastination is continuously paired with both neuroticism and

conscientiousness of the five-factor model of personality (Schouwenburg & Lay, 1995).

Substantial research has focused on conscientiousness as a largely significant factor for low

levels of procrastination, while high levels of neurotic traits leads to high levels of

procrastination. Older research by Knaus(1973) has been seen as the core of the

psychological framework to more recent research, he states that irrational belief is a large

contributing factor. Phchyl, & Flett (2012) follows on Knauss research and describes

irrational belief as; the more developed chance of rejection, the more probable that the

student will experience worry and concern as they approach the beginning of a task. This is
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due to thoughts about the project inducing the feeling of worry and concern, the

procrastinator starts a substitute task or distraction.

Knaus (1973) believed that there were two main irrational beliefs which related to

procrastination and neuroticism these are; if a student believes that they are inadequate or the

coursework is too difficult and demanding. Further research on Knaus early research has

transformed into four main irrational beliefs which relate to all students; these include fear of

failure, the need to perform perfectly, lower than average self-esteem and nervousness

(Brown, & Marshall, 2001). Brown and Marshall (2011) also describe the internal battle

students have when trying to complete work when they show higher levels of neuroticism.

They describe that if students report lower levels of self-esteem than in turn the self-

satisfaction of completing a work task doesnt outweigh the risk and embarrassment of not

handing or starting a piece of work. procrastination in this state is done purposely, to

maximise their own utility (Brown & Marshall, 2001).

Pang, Tong & Wong (2011) states that as conscientiousness is the greatest predictor

of a students behaviour of lower levels of procrastination. This is mainly due to students

demonstrating higher levels of conscientiousness have more favourable behaviours such as

self-regulation, control, deliberation, dutifulness and the ability to strive for achievement

(Heward, 2010). Phchyl, & Flett (2012) documented that self-regulation is one of the most

important factors which influence levels procrastination, students that that use external and

internal indicators on when to begin, maintain and finish their own goal-directed are more

inclined to stay on track and procrastinate less.

Conclusion

To reiterate so far, procrastination will always be and has always been a problem for

all individuals, this is compounded for students who have numerous tasks that can be
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procrastinated on. Students can encounter an array of tasks, activities and deadlines which

need to be met; with their time being unstructured and unregulated outside of school hours

procrastination can be easily indulged. As previous research that has been stated above,

students that have personality traits that are more neurotic are more inclined to procrastinate

while students that are more conscientious are less likely to procrastinate. Teachers should

attempt to evolve their teaching styles with what personality traits students have in the

classroom. The question lays that: can personality traits and its predictors, positively help the

prevalence of student procrastination. If a student is being problematic with not handing in

work, theres an array of opportunities for a teacher to take. For example, a teacher could

identify a neurotic student that may have low self-esteem which is negatively affecting their

school work - a teacher could sit down and restate the importance of the test, while showing

understanding and explaining that the rewards of doing well outweighs the worry and stress

that is involved with studying. A teacher could also bring in techniques which allow students

to improve on traits within conscientiousness which they may be lacking, such as goal-

orientation and self-regulation.

With this information, two research questions have been defined: 1. Can personality

traits help teachers reduce the level of student procrastination. 2. Can personality traits

predict students academic level. This study has three hypotheses: 1. It hypothesised that

higher levels of neurotic personality traits reported by participants will show an increase in

reported procrastination. 2. It is hypothesised that higher levels of conscientious traits will

show a decrease in reported procrastination. 3. It is hypothesised that participants who have

personality traits which are prevalent in procrastination will perform academically worse than

participants who show less personality traits that are prevalent in procrastination.
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Methodology

Positivism and Research Approach

Positivism as an epistemological approach explains relationships of variables using

precise scientific methods based on mathematics and logic. (Hirschheim, 1985, p 3). Usually,

positivists are identified as empirical, quantitative, rigid, measuring the universe around

them as a comprising of immutable objects and structures (Hirschheim, 1985, p. 3).

Positivism is a position where the goal of knowledge is simply to define the phenomena that

individuals experience, it is a rejection of speculation instead a need for facts and scientific

knowledge (Ritzer, 2003). Positivisms core principals are simple; operating by law of cause

and effect the positivist uses deductive reasoning to hypothesise theories that are testable

(Trochim, 2006). This positivism paradigm follows alongside with the aims of the research

proposal and the strategy to conduct the research.

The aim of this study is to test the relationship between personality traits and

procrastination, by attempting to explain this correlation it is operating at the same laws of

positivism; cause and effect. It was assumed on previous research by Steele, Knaus and many

other previous psychologists that personality traits will have a direct effect on procrastination.

Within this study it is attempting to define the cause of procrastination in students in a

different method instead of defining and labelling students who are consistently

procrastinating as lazy, self-destructive, bad students or any other negative label which aims

to position the student as having the intended skills but choosing not to, this study has an

alternative outlook. As per the positivism views the definition of the phenomena

procrastination in individuals is different; students have personality traits which are causing

procrastination. In this case: instead of the student being lazy thus causing procrastination,
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the student doesnt have the required conscientious traits (organisational skills, goal driven

etc.) or too many neurotic traits (high nervousness, low self-esteem etc.) and these

phenomena are causing procrastination. As the study is testing the validity and reliability of

assumptions, the use above mentioned positivism ideologies, with clear use a formulated

hypothesis which is being supported or rejected; the deductive research approach is used.

Research Design Causal-Comparative

The casual-comparative design attempts to identify a causative relationship between

an independent variable and a dependant variable (Gay & Airasian, 2000, 364). It involves

comparing phenomenas however, in the casual-comparative design the experimenter does

not control the independent variables as the influence of them has occurred before the

experiment. In turn, the experimenter is searching for the independent variables effect on the

dependant variable. (Gay & Airasian, 2000, 364). The casual-comparative design is

embedded in this research proposal as the experimenters are testing a cause and effect but

do not have control over the independent variable. An example as how the research design

intends to answer the hypothesis; If an individual has high neurotic traits (independent

variable that is not controlled by the experimenter) is testing the effect on procrastination

(dependent variable). The results of the change are recorded and interpreted. The casual-

comparative design is demonstrated in all three hypotheses; the effect of neurotic traits on

procrastination, the effect of conscientious traits on procrastination and the effect of

procrastination on student academic levels. In all situations, the independent variable is not

being manipulated by the experimenter.

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Research Methods Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research involves establishing statistically significant conclusions about

a population by studying a representative sample of the population (Creswell, 2003) This

sample needs to be an accurate representative sample of the population to ensure reliability

and validity of results. This research involves precise measurements and controlled

environment of experiments, this allows experimenters to reduce extraneous, confounding,

participant or experimenter variables (Creswell, 2003). These methods of research focus on

objectivity, numerical analysis of data and statistical practices using information technology.

Quantitative research main goal is to use this numerical data and generalise its results to

explain a specific phenomenon. (Jervis, & Drake, 2014).

The main characteristics of quantitative research is that; research can be replicated,

research has a clear definition of their research question and, data is in the form of numbers

and statistics, data is usually arranged in a graphics such as tables or charts and researchers

use of tools such as questionnaires. (Jervis, & Drake, 2014). This research proposal includes

the use of quantitative research methods all data will be numerical; the data will be

generalised from the sample and SPSS will be the technology used for data analysis

Self-report inventories will be the method of collecting data, with four questionnaires

being used in the experiment. There are numerous benefits for using self-reported data, firstly

in all the questionnaires being used include the parallel forms reliability questions where the

same question is asked but in a different way. The reasoning behind parallel forms reliability

are that it aids reliability that the participants are confirming their answers. (Jervis, & Drake,

2014). Questionnaires can be given to participants and answered in a relatively quick manner,

are usually inexpensive and they are scientifically scrutinised by peers (Aitken, 2002).

However, the experimenter doesnt have control over participants as they answer; this can
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cause numerous effects such as exaggeration, false, improper or misunderstood answers.

(Aitken, 2002)

The Ten Item Personality Measure (Appendix A) is used to test which dimension of

personality participants are, the Academic Procrastination State Inventory (Appendix B)

which will be used to test procrastination levels in participants. The Depression Anxiety and

Stress Scale (Appendix C) that is designed to differentiate the levels of depression, anxiety

and other dilatory actions in participants and the UFFM-I Conscientiousness Scale(Appendix

D) will be used to test conscientious traits in participants. All these questionnaires involve

previous scientific research scrutiny and implementation, Likert scale with ranked options,

tested for validity/reliability and have been used by numerous experimenters.

Data Selection

Selecting the correct representative participants, use of valid instruments and

evaluating the setting is extremely significant, as any mistakes in this area can cause the

experiment to be invalid in terms of significance and generalisation to the population

(Creswell, 2003). Recruiting the sample of participants from the population needs to be a

thorough procedure experimenters need to ensure that participants are representative of the

target group, free of participant bias and other related extraneous variables (Creswell, 2003).

Instruments and materials used within an experiment need to be carefully reviewed if theyre

valid and reliable for the experiment. (Creswell, 2003). The data selection method in this

proposal has gone under many considerations and changes from its original form these

changes stem from possible issues with extraneous/confounding variables and reliability.

Originally the selection of participants was established to be completely random by

posting a link on Facebook to the Victoria University official Facebook page and the

Victoria University Stalk Space page. This link would include all questionnaires, a brief
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description that this is a research task for Masters student in teaching and a consent form.

After the questionnaires are complete they would be informed on the background, aim of the

experiment and a small debriefing information section. The order of not allowing the

participants what the topic of the study is for is to reduce participant bias when answering

questions. However, this method of selecting participants was not used as the sample of

participants would not be representative and have confounding variables it could be a

chance that more procrastinators would do online questionnaires and browse Facebook to

originally receive the link.

The second selection method of participants would be to go to a university (in this

case Victoria University, Footscray Campus) and in person give out the questionnaires or

refer the potential participants to an online link that they could complete. The process of the

online link would be the same as the first concept. To aid the probability of participants

completing the questionnaires a reward would be offered as a chance to win on completion.

Once again, this method was not used to select participants, this would also not be a true

representation of a realistic population for two reasons; students who are at university could

be likely to procrastinate less as more procrastinators could simply go home straight after

class or not turn up at all. Secondarily, the reward on completion attracts more conscientious

personality traits that are goal driven and pushes away those away with low traits.

The data selection method chosen was aimed to reduce extraneous variables and

participant variables. The sample of participants would be chosen at a local high school; the

participants would be VCE level. This allows for confounding variables such as less parents

influence on procrastination (comparatively to younger students) and the student would be at

an age of matured personality traits. The questionnaires are distributed to the whole year level

this would require the school to agree to this and for parents to sign consent forms.

However, to combat resistance to the experiment; it could be explained the potential

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implications of the experiment to the school. These could range from the results indicting a

large percentile of procrastinators at the school, the need to combat this and the potential

programs that could be put in place to lower school procrastination levels.

Before participants start the questionnaires, they should be split up from one-another

so that potential influences of other participants are being controlled. A consent form will be

provided which involves the participant writing their academic level (grouped by As Bs

etc.). The participants are not told of the topic of the experimenter however; they are

informed that they have a choice to not undertake the experiment, that they can leave at any

time and skip any question they feel uncomfortable. Instructions are given that they should

remain quiet throughout, can leave at any time and if theres words, meaning or definitions to

be clarified that they are happy to help. When the participants are finished, they are given a

debriefing pamphlet on exit and are thanked for participating in the experiment.

Data Analysis

Ary et al (2006) described inferential statistics as being associated with formulating

predictions and hypothesis, making inferences about a population from the representative

sample. The eventual goal of inferential statistics is testing data to guarantee statistical

significance so that data can be generalised from the sample to the population (Drnyei,

2007). Statistical significance in basic terms is ensuring that the results you obtain from the

data is not due to chance. Inferential tests of significance can include; t-test, analysis of

variance, correlations and chi-square tests.

Data analysis in this experiment will be a repeatable procedure starting with

summarising and collaborating the data. The results of all questionnaires will be compiled

into SPSS (a data analysis tool), the data will be summarised and data imputed into four

sections: results of neurotic traits, results of conscientious traits, academic level and
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procrastination results. To test the experiments multiple hypothesis the results would then be

collaborated to test the relationship and statistical significance of the variables. For example;

the higher levels of conscientious traits would be compared to procrastination levels. This

would be repeated until all relationships with variables are shown and all the hypothesis are

either supported or rejected. Lastly, generalisations from the data will set (if significant) from

the representative sample to the population.

Reliability and Validity

As stated and described previously in this proposal, reliability and validity is at the

upmost importance when attempting to authenticate and generalise experiment results

(Creswell, 2003). Reliability in this experiment will be ensured in numerous ways; firstly,

correlations will be assessed using SPSS (Cronbachs alpha), a high correlation usually

warrants an instruments reliability (Osburn, 2000). The questionnaires themselves have been

used in numerous experiments over the years which offers test-retest reliability, also the

questions have parallel forms reliability components where the questions are asked twice in

similar statements to confirm participant results. In terms of validity, the questionnaires have

gone through vigorous scientific scrutiny which ensures they are measuring what they are

supposed to be measuring. As mentioned previously in other sections, numerous measures

have been considered to reduce the amount of participant/experiment bias from the selection

process and data analysis.

Ethical Risks

Ethical issues and risks have been well considered in preparation of this proposal. Respect,

inclusion, welfare and the overall view of beneficence has been incorporated. Firstly, the

population picked was inclusive for all there no was selective picking in terms of age, sex
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or race. With regard to ethical participant issues that have been considered; informed consent

from all participants and parents, no names or personal information that will establish who

they are have been recorded, experimenters are advised to help any student with literacy

problems, they will be debriefed, no risk or harm should come from participants as all the

questionnaires are aimed at all ages and they can withdraw at any given time. In regards of

ethical data analysis all recognisable information of participants is not available; the data

being kept should be safeguarded. However, dealing with VCE students who are potentially

underage there is always ethical issues to be aware of, especially the use of potential

confronting language within the questionnaires; to manage this all experimenters at the

school should have a working with childrens care card and is knowledgeable on healthy

communication with minors.

Reflective Statement

If its not apparent from the style of this research proposal task; my background is

psychology and I have completed numerous literature reviews and a few research tasks

before - I did walk into the start of the year expecting easy things from AED5001. However,

this wasnt the case and the combination of being out of university for a few years and the

research task being quite hard (but enjoyable!) revealed a different narrative. The process of

being half in class and half online was a positive, it allowed me to completely be in control of

how my learning was tracking. It forced me to read more articles which in turn gave me new

perspectives on not only my own topic but on being a future teacher and on educational

research. Not only a new perspective, but it made me respect the process one needs to go

through undertaking quality educational research.

In reflection, if I had the chance to do a research task again Id stray away from going

through what Im used to in quantitative methods of research and try qualitative research.
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One of the most important aspects of this unit I believe is the collaborative mind-frame most

of the students had, the discussions outside of the class on topics/research/perspectives were

interesting and its an aspect you dont see much in other units. In terms of my learning, my

writing has not been tested for a very long time it was enjoyable to see how my personal

literacy skills has developed from the original task to now. In conclusion, this unit, research

task and the journey undertaken was something of value developing and increasing

knowledge on my topic was a sluggish task but the end-product was worthwhile.
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Appendixes

Appendix A Sample TIPI Questions:

Appliedpsychometriclab.uga.edu. (2017).
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Appendix B
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Www2.psy.unsw.edu.au. (2017).

Appendix C

Www2.psy.unsw.edu.au. (2017)
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References

Aiken, L. R. (2002) Psychological Testing and Assessment. New York: Allyn & Bacon
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Razavieh, A., & Sorensen, C. (2006). Introduction to research in

education (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Appliedpsychometriclab.uga.edu. (2017). UFFM-I General Conscientiousness Measure.

[online] Available at: http://appliedpsychometriclab.uga.edu/UFFM

I_General_Conscientiousness_Measure.html [Accessed 3 May 2017].

Brown, J., & Marshall, M. (2001). Self-Esteem and Emotion: Some Thoughts about Feelings.

Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(5), 575-584.

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