Computer Networks LIR3071Spring 2017 - 190-220

4.
8 Routing algorithms
Interplay between routing algorithm

routing and forwarding
local forwarding table
header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1
value in arriving
packets header
0111 1
3 2
Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Copyright 1996-2017 J.F Kurose 190
and K.W. Ross
Graph abstraction
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
1
Graph: G = (N,E)
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (u,w), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

and K.W. Ross
Graph abstraction: costs
5 c(x,x) = cost of link (x,x)

v 3 w
5 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
2
u 2 z
1 cost could always be 1, or
3
1 inversely related to bandwidth,
x y 2
or inversely related to
1
congestion
Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + + c(xp-1,xp)
Question: Whats the least-cost path between u and z ?
Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

and K.W. Ross
Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized Static or dynamic?

information? Static:
Global: routes change slowly
all routers have complete over time
topology, link cost info
link state algorithms
Dynamic:
routes change more
Decentralized:
quickly
router knows physically-
connected neighbors, link periodic update
costs to neighbors in response to link cost
iterative process of changes
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
distance vector algorithms

and K.W. Ross
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstras algorithm
net topology, link costs Notation:
known to all nodes c(x,y): link cost from node x
accomplished via link to y; = if not direct
state broadcast neighbors
all nodes have same info D(v): current value of cost of
path from source to dest. v
computes least cost paths
from one node (source) p(v): predecessor node
along path from source to v
to all other nodes
N': set of nodes whose least
gives forwarding table for

cost path definitively known
that node
iterative: after k iterations,
know least cost path to k
dest.s

and K.W. Ross
Dijsktras Algorithm
1 Initialization: 5
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v v 3 w
2 5
4 if v adjacent to u
u 2 z
5 then D(v) = c(u,v) 1
3
6 else D(v) = 1
x y 2
7 1
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

and K.W. Ross
Dijkstras algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)

0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
1

and K.W. Ross
Dijkstras Algorithm Example
The first 5 steps used in computing the shortest path from A to

D. The arrows indicate the working node.
and K.W. Ross
Distance Vector Algorithm
Basic idea:
Each node periodically sends its own distance vector
estimate to neighbors
When node a node x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming)
Define dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) } for each node y N
where min is taken over all neighbors of x

and K.W. Ross
Bellman-Ford example
5
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z B-F equation says:
1
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x y 2
1 c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Node that achieves minimum is next
hop in shortest path forwarding table
and K.W. Ross
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z)= min{c(x,y) + Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from
from
y y 2 0 1
from
y 2 0 1
z z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y table
x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x x 0 2 7
from x 0 2 3 x z
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
from
y 2 0 1 7
z z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node z table
x y z x y z x y z
x x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from
y 2 0 1 from y 2 0 1
from
y
z 71 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
and K.W. Ross
Comparison
Distance vector algorithm

Very simple to implement
May have convergence problems
Used in RIP and EIGRP
Link-state algorithm
Much more complex
Switches perform independent computations
Used in OSPF (Open Shortest Path First Protocol)

and K.W. Ross
4.9 Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
all routers identical administrative autonomy
network flat Internet = network of
not true in practice networks
scale: with 200 million each network admin may
destinations: want to control routing in its
cant store all dests in
own network
routing tables! aggregate routers into regions,
routing table exchange
autonomous systems (AS)
would swamp links! routers in same AS run same
routing protocol
Gateway router: Direct link to intra-AS routing protocol
router in another AS routers in different AS can
run different intra-AS
routing protocol
and K.W. Ross
Classification Of Internet Routing Protocols

Two broad classes
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs): aka Intra-AS routing protocols.
Used among routers within autonomous system
Destinations lie within IGP
RIP: Routing Information Protocol. RIPng for IPv6
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First. OSPFv3 for IPv6
IGRP/EIGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs): aka Inter-AS routing
protocols.
Used among autonomous systems (BGP)
Destinations lie throughout Internet

and K.W. Ross
Interconnected ASes
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1
Forwarding table is
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS Inter-AS
Routing Routing algorithm
algorithm algorithm
Intra-AS sets entries for
Forwarding internal dests
table
Inter-AS & Intra-As sets
entries for external dests

and K.W. Ross
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
Distance vector algorithm

Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)
destination hops Distance vectors:

u v
u 1 exchanged among
w v 2 neighbors every 30 sec
A B w 2
x 3 via Response Message
y 3 (also called
x z 2 advertisement)
z C D Each advertisement: list
y of up to 25 destination
nets within AS

and K.W. Ross
RIP: Example
Dest Next hops
w - - Advertisement
x - - from A to D
z C 4
. ...
z
w x y
A D B
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.

w A 2
y B 2
z B A 7 5
x -- 1
. . ....
Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino Routing table in D 206
Copyright 1996-2017 J.F Kurose
and K.W. Ross
An OSPF AS Consists of Multiple Areas Linked by

Routers
Illustration Of OSPF Graph
(a) an interconnect of routers and

networks, and
(b) an equivalent OSPF graph
Router corresponds to a node in the
graph
Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP
(rather than TCP or UDP): protocol number
89 for the IP Protocol field

and K.W. Ross
BGP basics
Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over
semi-permanent TCP conctns: BGP sessions on port 179.
Note that BGP sessions do not correspond to physical
links.
When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is promising it
will forward any datagrams destined to that prefix towards
the prefix.
AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
and K.W. Ross
5. Link Layer and LANs

Some terminology: link
hosts and routers are nodes
communication channels that
connect adjacent nodes along
communication path are links
wired links
wireless links
LANs
layer-2 packet is a frame,
encapsulates datagram
data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to adjacent node over a link

and K.W. Ross
Two types of networks at the data link layer
Broadcast Networks: All stations share a single

communication channel
Point-to-Point Networks: Pairs of hosts (or routers) are
directly connected
Broadcast Network Point-to-Point Network
Typically, local area networks (LANs) are broadcast and

wide area networks (WANs) are point-to-point
and K.W. Ross
Local Area Networks

Local area networks (LANs) connect computers within a building or a enterprise
network
Almost all LANs are broadcast networks
Typical topologies of LANs are bus or star or ring. There are also mesh, hybrid,
hierarchical star, star-wireless.
We will work with Ethernet LANs. Ethernet has a bus or star topology.

and K.W. Ross
IEEE 802 Standards
Number Description
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 Logical Link Control
802.3 Ethernet (CSMA/CD)
802.3u Fast Ethernet
802.3z Gigabit Ethernet
802.3ae 10 Gigabit Ethernet
802.4 Token Bus
802.5 Token Ring
802.6 Distributed Queue Dual Bus (MAN)
802.7 Broadband Technology
802.8 Fiber Optic Technology
802.10 LAN Security
802.11a/b/g/n Wireless LAN
802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
802.15.3a UWB (Ultra-WideBand)
802.16 Wireless MAN WiMAX
802.20 Wireless WAN (Mobile Broadband Wireless Access MBWA).
802.22 Wireless RAN (Regional Area Network)

and K.W. Ross
5.1 Link layer: context and services
Datagram transferred by different link protocols

over different links:
e.g., Ethernet on first link, frame relay on
intermediate links, 802.11 on last link
Framing, link access:

encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
channel access if shared medium
MAC addresses used in frame headers to identify source,
dest
different from IP address!
Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
seldom used on low bit error link (fiber, some twisted pair)
wireless links: high error rates
and K.W. Ross
Link Layer Services (more)
Flow Control:
pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
Error Detection:
errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
receiver detects presence of errors:
signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
Error Correction:
receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission
Half-duplex and full-duplex
with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can
transmit, but not at same time

and K.W. Ross
Adaptors Communicating
datagram
link layer protocol rcving
sending node
node
frame frame
adapter adapter
link layer implemented in receiving side
adaptor (aka NIC) looks for errors, rdt, flow
Ethernet card, 802.11 card control, etc
sending side: extracts datagram, passes to
encapsulates datagram in a rcving node
frame adapter is semi-autonomous
adds error checking bits, rdt link & physical layers
(reliable data transfer), flow
control, etc.

and K.W. Ross
5.2 Error Detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields
Error detection not 100% reliable!

protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

and K.W. Ross
Parity Checking
Single Bit Parity: Two Dimensional Bit Parity:

Detect and correct single bit errors
Detect single bit errors
0 0

and K.W. Ross
Checksumming: Cyclic Redundancy Check
view data bits, D, as a binary number

choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
<D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero
remainder: error detected!
can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice

and K.W. Ross
CRC Example
[D.2r XOR R]/G = Q

[D.2r]/G = Q XOR R/G
if we divide by D.2r
G, want remainder R
D .2 r
R = remainder[ ]
G

and K.W. Ross
Polynomials

and K.W. Ross

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4.

Interplay between routing algorithm

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

5 c(x,x) = cost of link (x,x)

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: Whats the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

Routing Algorithm classification

Global or decentralized Static or dynamic?

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dijkstras Algorithm Example

The first 5 steps used in computing the shortest path from A to

dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) } for each node y N

where min is taken over all neighbors of x

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Distance vector algorithm

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Classification Of Internet Routing Protocols

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)

Distance vector algorithm

destination hops Distance vectors:

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.

An OSPF AS Consists of Multiple Areas Linked by

(a) an interconnect of routers and

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

5. Link Layer and LANs

data-link layer has responsibility of

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Broadcast Networks: All stations share a single

Broadcast Network Point-to-Point Network

Typically, local area networks (LANs) are broadcast and

Local Area Networks

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

5.1 Link layer: context and services

Datagram transferred by different link protocols

Framing, link access:

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Error detection not 100% reliable!

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Single Bit Parity: Two Dimensional Bit Parity:

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

view data bits, D, as a binary number

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

[D.2r XOR R]/G = Q

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

Dr. Vicente Alarcn Aquino

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