FUNGSI

SUSUNAN SARAF MOTORIK

DAN
REFLEKS

Rahmatina B. Herman
Bagian Fisiologi
Fakultas Kedokteran - Unand
 Experimental Animal
Spinal Animal
Spinal cord in transected in the
neck most of cord still
remains functional
Immediately after transecting,
most of spinal cord function
below transection level is
severely depressed
A few hours-weeks after
transecting, most of intrinsic
spinal cord functions return to
nearly normal
Decerebrate Animal
Brain stem is transected at the
middle to lower mesencephalic
level
Block normal inhibitory signals
from higher control centers of
brain to pontile nuclei and
vestibular muscle control nuclei
the nuclei become tonically
active, transmitting facilitatory
signals to most of SC motor
control circuits SC motor
reflexes become very excitable
easy to activate even by slightest
sensory input signals
Intrinsic excitatory motor
functions of spinal cord
REFLEXES
 Reflex Arc
Reflex arc is basic unit of integrated reflex activity
Consists of:
- a sense organ or receptor,
- an afferent neuron,
- one or more synapses within a central integrating
station,
- an efferent neuron,
- an effector
Bell-Magendie Law: In spinal cord the dorsal roots are
sensory and ventral roots are motor
The connection between afferent and efferent neurons
is generally in spinal cord or brain
 Reflex Arc..
The cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia or in homologous
ganglia on cranial nerves
The afferent neurons enter via dorsal roots of spinal
cord or cranial nerves
The efferent neurons leave via ventral roots of spinal
cord or corresponding motor cranial nerves
Type of reflex based on number of synapse in reflex arc:
- Monosynaptic reflexes: single synapse between afferent
and efferent neurons monosynaptic
- Polysynaptic reflexes: 2-hundreds of synapses between
afferent and efferent neurons polysynaptic
Reflex Arc
 Monosynaptic Reflexes
Stretch reflex:
- Initiated by stretch of muscle contraction
- Receptor: muscle spindle
- Fast sensory fibers pass directly to spinal cord motor
neurons which supply the same muscle
- Clinical: knee jerk reflex
Inverse stretch reflex or autogenic inhibition:
- Initiate when muscle contraction so stronger tension
becomes great enough contraction suddenly ceases
and muscle relaxes
- Receptor: Golgi tendon organ
- Stimulation leads to production of IPSPs on motor neuron
- Clinical: clonus
 Polysynaptic Reflexes
Polysynaptic reflex paths branch in a complex fashion
The number of synapses in each branch varies
Because of synaptic delay at each synapse activity in
branch with fewer synapses reaches motor neurons first

Prolonged bombardment of motor neurons from a

single stimulus prolonged responses
Some of branch pathways turn back on themselves
permitting activity to reverberate until it becomes
unable to cause a propagated transsynaptic response
and dies out
Diagram of polysynaptic connections between afferent and efferent neurons
In spinal cord. Note that one of interneurons in pathway C connects to a
Neuron that doubles back to other neurons, forming reverberating circuits
 Polysynaptic Reflexes..
Flexor reflex and withdrawal reflex:
- In response to painful stimulation of skin or subcutaneous
and muscle: nociceptive reflex or pain reflex
- Response: contraction of flexor muscle and inhibition of
extensor muscle body part stimulated is flexed (flexor
reflex) and withdrawn from stimulus (withdrawal reflex)
- Strong stimulus to a limb flexion & withdrawal of that
limb, and extension of the opposite limb (crossed
extensor response)
- In animal spinal: strong stimulus to a hind limb
withdrawn of stimulated hind limb, extended of opposite
hind limb, and extended of ipsilateral forelimb (irradiation
of stimulus), due to recruitment of motor units
 Polysynaptic Reflexes..
Flexor reflex and withdrawal reflex:..
Fractionation & occlusion:
- Supramaximal stimulation never produces contraction the
flexor muscles as strong as the elicited stimulation.
This indicate that afferent inputs fractionate motor
neuron pool, that is each input goes to only part of motor
neuron pool for the flexors of the particular extremity
- On the other hand: if all the sensory inputs are dissected
out and stimulated one after the other, the sum of tension
developed by stimulation of each is greater than that
produced by stimulation. This indicates that the various
afferent inputs share some of motor neurons and that
occlusion occurs when all inputs are stimulated at once
 General Properties of Reflexes
Reflex activity is stereotyped
Specific in terms of stimulus and responses: a particular
stimulus elicits a particular response
The fact that reflex response are stereotyped includes
the possibility of their being modified by experience
Reflexes are adaptable and can be modified to perform
motor tasks and maintain balance
Descending inputs from higher brain regions play
important role in modulating and adapting spinal
reflexes
 General Properties of Reflexes..
Adequate stimulus
- Stimulus that triggers a reflex is generally very precise
- Example: Scratch reflex in dog
> Spinal reflex is adequately stimulated by multiple linear
touch stimuli such as by an insect crawling across the
skin vigorous scratching of area stimulated.
> If fleas jump from place to place multiple touch
stimuli are widely separated or not in a line, the
adequate stimulus is not produce and no scratching
occurs
> It is doubtful if the flea population would survive long
without the ability to jump
 General Properties of Reflexes..
Final common path
- Motor neurons that supply the extrafusal fibers in
skeletal muscles are the different side of many reflex arcs.
All neural influences affecting muscular contraction
ultimately funnel through them to the muscles, and they
are therefore called final common path
> At least 5 inputs go from the same spinal segment to a
typical spinal motor neuron
> In addition, there are excitatory and inhibitory inputs,
generally relayed via interneurons from other levels of
spinal cord and multiple long-descending tracts from
brain
- All of these pathways converge on and determine the
activity in the final paths
 General Properties of Reflexes..
Central excitatory & inhibitory states
- These terms have been used to describe prolonged states
in which excitatory influences overbalance inhibitory
influences and vice versa
- When central excitatory state is marked, excitatory
impulse irradiate not only to somatic areas of spinal cord
but also to autonomic areas
- In chronically paraplegic humans, a mild noxious stimulus
may cause in addition to prolonged withdrawal-extension
patterns in all fours limbs, urination, defecation,
sweating, and blood pressure fluctuation (mass reflex)
 General Properties of Reflexes..
Central excitatory & inhibitory states..
These phenomena may be described as follow:
- Normally, direct and presynaptic excitatory and
inhibitory effects can be widespread up and down of
the spinal cord.
These effects is generally transient
- Spinal cord also shows prolonged changes in
excitability, possibly because of activity in
reverberating circuits or prolonged effects of synaptic
mediators
MOTOR FUNCTION
OF SPINAL CORD
Organization of SC for Motor Function
Organization of SC for Motor Function..
The cord gray matter is the integrative area for cord
reflexes
Sensory signals enter the cord almost entirely
through sensory (posterior) roots
After entering the cord, every sensory signal travel
to 2 destination:
1. one branch terminates almost immediately in
gray matter and elicits local segmental cord reflexes
2. another branch transmits signals to higher levels
of nervous system
Organization of SC for Motor Function..

Each segment of spinal cord (at each

spinal nerve level) has several million
neurons in its gray matter:
- Sensory relay neurons
- Anterior motor neurons
- Interneurons
Organization of SC for Motor Function..

Connection of peripheral sensory fibers and corticospinal fibers

With interneurons and anterior motor neurons of SC
Organization of SC for Motor Function..
 Anterior Motor Neuron
50-100 % larger than most other neurons
Nerve fibers leave the cord through anterior roots and
directly innervate skeletal muscle fibers (2 types):
1. Alpha motor neurons
- excite large type A motor nerve fibers ( 14 m)
- branch many times after entering muscle
- innervate large skeletal muscle fibers (3-hundreds
muscle fibers) called motor unit
2. Gamma motor neurons
- excite smaller type A motor nerve fibers ( 5 m)
called intrafusal fibers constitute the middle of
muscle spindle for controlling basic muscle tone
 Anterior Motor Neuron..

Muscle spindle: showing large extrafusal skeletal muscle fibers,

intrafusal and sensory innervation
 Interneuron
Present in all areas of cord gray matter (dorsal horns,
anterior horns and intermediate areas)
30 times as numerous as anterior motor neuron
Smaller but highly excitable
Exhibiting spontaneous activity and capable of firing as
rapidly 1500x/sec
Have many interconnections with one another
Synapse directly with anterior motor neurons
responsible for most integrative functions of SC
All types of neuronal circuit are found in interneurons
(diverging, converging, repetitive discharge, and others)
Almost all incoming sensory signals transmitted first
through interneurons
 Renshaw Cells
are inhibitory interneurons
Numerous number, smaller
Located in gray matter of anterior horn, in close
association with motor neuron
Collateral branches of axon of anterior motor
neuron pass to adjacent Renshaw cells transmit
inhibitory signals to surrounding motor neurons
inhibit adjacent motor neurons called lateral
inhibition to focus or sharpen the signal
 Propriospinal Fibers
Multisegmental connections from one SC level
to other levels
As sensory fibers enter the cord from posterior
roots, they bifurcate and branch up and down
the cord
Providing pathways for multisegmental reflexes
that coordinate simultaneous movements in
forelimbs and hind limbs
 Control of Muscle Function
Control of muscle function requires:
- Excitation by anterior motor neuron of SC
- Continuous feedback of sensory information from each
muscle to SC through sensory receptors (proprioceptors):
> muscle spindle:
distributed throughout muscle belly; send information
about muscle length or rate of change of length
> Golgi tendon organs:
located in muscle tendons and transmit information
about tendon tension or rate of change of tension
- For intrinsic muscle control and at subconscious level
- Information also send to cerebellum and cerebral cortex to
provide control of muscle contraction
 Function of Muscle Spindle
Role of muscle spindle in voluntary motor activity:
When signals are transmitted from motor cortex or
from any other area of brain to alpha motor neurons,
gamma motor neurons are stimulated simultaneously
(coactivation) extrafusal and intrafusal muscle fibers
contract at the same time :
1. coactivation keeps the length of receptor from
changing keeps muscle spindle reflex from
opposing muscle contraction
2. coactivation maintains the proper damping function
of muscle spindle, regardless of any change in
muscle length
 Function of Muscle Spindle..
Muscle stretch reflex is the simple manifestation of
muscle spindle function
When muscle is stretched suddenly excitation of
spindles reflex contraction of:
- large skeletal muscle fibers of the stretched muscle
- closely allied synergistic muscles
This is a monosynaptic pathway allows a reflex
signal to return with the shortest possible time delay
back to the muscle after excitation of spindle
Damping function of stretch reflexes
Ability to prevent oscillation or jerkiness of body
movements a damping or smoothing function
Function of Muscle Spindle..

Neuronal circuit of muscle stretch reflex

 Function of Muscle Spindle..

Details of nerve connections from nuclear bag and nuclear chain

muscle spindle fibers
 Function of Muscle Spindle..
Stretch reflex can be divided into 2 components:
1. Dynamic stretch reflex
Elicited by potent dynamic receptor signal transmitted
from primary sensory endings of muscle spindle, caused
by rapid or sudden stretch or unstretch
Functions: to oppose sudden changes in muscle length
2. Static stretch reflex
Dynamic stretch reflex is over within a fraction of a
second after stretched (or unstretched) to its new length
Then a weaker static stretch reflex continues for a
prolonged period thereafter
Elicited by continuous static receptor signals transmitted
by both primary and secondary endings.
Functions: causes the degree of muscle contraction
remain reasonably constant
 Function of Muscle Spindle..
Brain areas for control gamma motor system
Gamma efferent system is excited by:
> specifically signals from bulboreticular facilitatory region
in brain stem
> secondarily by impulses transmitted into bulboreticular
area from:
1. cerebellum
2. basal ganglia
3. cerebral cortex
Bulboreticular facilitatory area is particularly concerned
with antigravity contractions, and antigravity muscles have
an especially density of muscle spindles the importance
of gamma efferent mechanism for damping movements of
different body parts during walking and running
 Function of Muscle Spindle..
Mechanism how muscle spindle system stabilizes body
position during tense action
- Bulboreticular facilitatory region and its allied area of
brain stem transmit excitatory signals through gamma
nerve fibers to intrafusal muscle fibers of muscle spindles
shortens the ends of spindles stretches central
receptor regions increasing signal output
- If muscle spindles on both sides are activated at the same
times excitation of skeletal muscles on both sides
tight, tense muscles opposing each other net effect:
> position of joint becomes strongly stabilized
> any force that tends to move the joint from its current
position is opposed by highly sensitized stretch reflexes
on both sides
Clinical Application of Stretch Reflex
Physical examination : to determine how much back-
ground excitation or tone is sent to SC by brain
Knee jerk:
- striking patellar tendon with a reflex hammer
instantaneously stretches quadriceps muscle and excites
a dynamic stretch reflex lower leg jerk forward
- to assess the degree of facilitation of SC centers:
means: facilitatory impulses and vice versa
- used in determining the presence / absence of muscle
spasticity caused by lesions in motor areas of brain or
diseases that excite bulboreticular facilitatory area of
brain stem
- lesions in motor area of cerebral cortex but not in lower
motor control areas jerks on opposite side of body
Clinical Application of Stretch Reflex..
Ankle clonus (oscillation of muscle jerks):
- If a person standing on the tip ends of feet suddenly drops
the body downward and stretches gastrocnemius muscles
impulses transmitted from muscle spindle into SC
reflectively excite stretch muscles dynamic stretch
reflex lifts body up again, then after a fraction of second
reflex contraction of muscle dies out body falls again
stretching spindles and so forth stretch reflex of
gastrocnemius continues to oscillate, often for long period
- Clonus occurs only when stretch reflex is highly sensitized
by facilitatory impulses from brain
- Test: suddenly stretching a muscle and applying a steady
stretching force to it, if clonus occurs means
degree of facilitation is
Myograms recorded from quadriceps muscle on knee jerk
And from gastrocnemius muscle on ankle clonus
 Function of Golgi Tendon Organ
Golgi tendon organs (GTO) provide nervous system
with instantaneous information on the degree of
tension in each small segment tendon of each muscle
Stimulated by muscle tension due to contracting or
stretching
Each GTO connected to 10-15 muscle fibers
Perform dynamic response when muscle tension
suddenly increases, but settling down within a fraction
of a second to a lower level of steady-state firing that
is almost directly proportional to muscle tension (static
response)
 Function of Golgi Tendon Organ..
Golgi tendon reflex: inhibitory reflex
- When GTOs are stimulated by increased tension of
muscle, signals are transmitted to SC to cause inhibitory
reflex effect in respective muscle negative feedback
mechanism that prevents too much tension on the
muscle
- When tension on tendon become extreme sudden
reaction in SC instantaneous inhibitory effect
instantaneous relaxation of entire muscle
- This effect is called lengthening reaction a protective
mechanism to prevent muscle tearing or avulsion
tendon from its attachments to bone
 Function of Golgi Tendon Organ..
Possibly role of tendon reflex in equalize contractile
forces of separated muscle fibers:
Muscle fibers that exert Muscle fibers that exert
excess tension too little tension
inhibited by tendon reflex absence of reflex inhibition

Spread muscle load over all fibers prevents

damage in isolated areas of a muscle
where small numbers of fibers might be overloaded
Golgi tendon organ
 MOTOR CONTROL
FUNCTION OF
MUSCLE SPINDLES AND
GOLGI TENDON ORGANS
IN CONJUGATION WITH
HIGHER LEVELS OF BRAIN
Flexor Reflex and Withdrawal Reflex
Basic type of circuit:
- Diverging circuits to spread reflex to necessary muscles
for withdrawal
- Circuits to inhibit antagonist muscles, called reciprocal
inhibition circuits
- Circuits to cause after-discharge lasting many fractions
of a second after stimulus is over
The duration of afterdischarge depends on intensity of
sensory stimulus:
> weak stimulus almost no afterdischarge
> strong pain afterdischarge may last for 1 second
As strength of a noxious stimulus is increased, reaction time
is shortened due to summation of EPSPs to firing level
 Flexor Reflex and Withdrawal Reflex..

The afterdischarge in flexor reflex resulting from

repetitive discharge circuits
Prolonged afterdischarge resulting from recurrent
pathways that initiated oscillation in reverberating
interneuron circuits impulses transmit to anterior
motor neurons, sometimes for several seconds after the
incoming sensory signal is over
Afterdischarge reflex can hold the irritated part away
from stimulus for 0.1-3 seconds during this time
other reflexes and actions of CNS can move entire body
away from painful stimulus
 Flexor Reflex and Withdrawal Reflex..
Pattern of withdrawal:
Depends on which sensory nerve is stimulated
- Pain stimuli in inward side of arm not only
contraction of flexor muscle, but also abductor
muscles to pull arm outward
- So, the integrative centers of spinal cord cause those
muscles to contract that can most effectively remove
the pained part of body away from object causing
pain
- Even this principle of local sign applies to any part
of body, it is especially applicable to the limbs
 Cross Extensor Reflex
A cross extensor reflex occurred in the opposite limb that is
0.2-0.5 seconds after a stimulus elicits a flexor reflex in
one limb can push the entire body away from stimulus
Basic type of circuits:
- Signals from sensory nerves cross to the opposite side of
spinal cord to excite extensor muscles
- Many interneurons are involved in the circuit between
the incoming sensory neuron and motor neurons of
opposite side of spinal cord for crossed extension
- After the painful stimulus is removed, the crossed
extensor reflex has an even longer period of afterdischarge,
presumed results from reverberating circuits among
interneuron
Myogram of flexor reflex showing rapid onset of reflex, interval of fatigue,
and finally afterdischarge after input stimulus is over
Myogram of crossed extensor reflex showing slow onset of reflex
but prolonged afterdischarge after input stimulus is over
 Reciprocal Inhibition
and Reciprocal Innervation
 Myogram of a flexor reflex showing reciprocal inhibition caused by an
inhibitory stimulus from a stronger flexor reflex on the opposite of the body
 Reflexes of Posture and Locomotion
Positive supportive reaction:
- Reflex that stiffens the limbs sufficiently to support the
weight of the body when pressure applied on footpad of
a decerebrate animal
- This reflex is so strong in animal whose spinal cord has
been transected for several months the reflexes
become exaggerated
- This reflex involves complex circuit in interneurons similar
to circuits responsible for flexor and cross extensor reflex
- The locus of pressure on footpad determines the
direction in which the limb will extend:
pressure one side extension in that direction
(magnet reaction) keep from falling to that side
 Reflexes of Posture and Locomotion..

Cord righting reflexes:

- Reflex occurred when a spinal animal laid on its side
incoordinate movements trying to raise to standing
position
- In an animal with well-healed transected thoracic cord
between the levels for forelimb and hindlimb can
right itself from lying position and even walk using its
hindlimbs in addition to its forelimbs
- This reflex demonstrates that some relatively complex
reflexes associated with posture are integrated in spinal
cord
 Reflexes of Posture and Locomotion..
Stopping and walking movements:
Rhythmical stepping movements of a single limb
- Forward flexion of a limb is followed a second or later by
backward extension of that limb; it is repeated over & over
- Sensory signals from footpads and from position sensors
around the joints play a strong role in controlling foot
pressure and frequency of stepping
- Cord mechanism for control of stepping can be even more
complex: for instance in the stumble reflex as follow
During forward thrust, top of foot encounters obstruction
forward thrust will stop temporarily, then in rapid
sequence, the foot will be lifted higher and proceed
forward to be placed over the obstruction
 Reflexes of Posture and Locomotion..
Stopping and walking movements:..
Rhythmical stepping movements of two limbs
- Every time stepping occurs in forward direction in one
limb, the opposite limb ordinarily moves backward
- It is results from reciprocal innervation between the 2
limbs reciprocal stepping of opposite limb
Rhythmical stepping movements of four limbs
- Stepping occurs diagonally response is another
manifestation of reciprocal innervation
- Occurring the entire distance up and down the cord
between forelimbs and hindlimbs
- This walking pattern is called mark time reflex
Diagonal stepping movements (mark time reflex)
exhibited by a spinal dog
 Reflexes of Posture and Locomotion..
Galloping reflex
- Both forelimbs move backward in unison while both
hindlimbs move forward
- Often occur when almost equal stretch or pressure
stimuli are applied to the limbs on both sides of body
at the same time
- When the animal strikes the ground during galloping,
both forelimbs and both hindlimbs are stimulated
about equally predisposes the animal to keep
galloping and continues this pattern of motion
 Scratch Reflex
Initiated by itch or tickle sensation
It involves 2 functions:
- a position sense allows the paw to find the exact point
> if a flea is crawling as far forward as the shoulder
the hind paw can still find its position
> when the flea crosses the midline the first paw stops
scratching and the opposite paw begins the to-and-fro
motion and eventually finds the flea
- a to-and-fro scratching movement
> like the stepping movements of locomotion
> involves reciprocal innervation circuits that cause
oscillation
Spinal Cord Reflexes that Cause Muscle Spasm

In human beings, local spasm is often observed

In many instances, localized pain is the cause of local
spasm
- Muscle spasm resulting from broken bone
- Abdominal muscle spasm in peritonitis
- Muscle cramps
> Muscle contraction is believed to stimulate the
same sensory receptors even more spinal cord
increases the intensity of contraction
> Positive feedback develops, so that a small
amount of initial irritation causes more and more
contraction until a full-blown muscle cramp ensues
Autonomic Reflexes in Spinal Cord
Many types of segmental autonomic reflexes are
integrated in spinal cord:
1. Changes in vascular tone resulting from changes in local
skin heat
2. sweating resulting from localized heat on body surface
3. intestino-intestinal reflexes that control some motor
functions of the gut
4. peritoneo-intestinal reflexes that inhibit gastrointestinal
motility
5. evacuation reflexes for emptying full bladder or colon
6. all the segmental reflexes can at times be elicited
simultaneously mass reflex
Autonomic Reflexes in Spinal Cord
Mass reflex
- In spinal animal or human being, sometimes spinal cord
suddenly becomes excessively active massive discharge
in large portions of spinal cord
- Presumably results from activation of great numbers of
reverberating circuits that excite large areas of spinal cord
at once
- The usual stimulus is strong pain to the skin or excessive
filling of a viscus, such as overdistention of bladder or gut
- The effects are:
1. Strong flexor spasm of a major portion of skeletal muscles
2. Colon and bladder are likely to evacuate
3. Arterial pressure to a maximum (systolic > 200 mmHg)
4. Profuse sweating of large areas of body
 ROLES
OF HIGHER BRAIN AREAS
ON MOTOR FUNCTION
 Motor Cortex
The motor cortex is divided into 3 subareas:
1. Primary motor cortex
2. Premotor area
3. Supplementary motor area
Each of which has its own topographical representation of
muscle groups and specific motor functions
Excitation of a single motor cortex neuron usually
excites a specific movement rather than one specific
muscle.
To do this, it excites a pattern of separate muscles,
each of which contributes its own direction and
strength of muscle movement
 Motor Cortex..
Primary motor cortex
- Voluntary control over movement produced by skeletal
muscle on the opposite side of body motor
homunculus
- Damage: paralysis on the opposite side
Premotor area
- Coordination of complex movement
Supplementary motor area:
- Programming of complex sequences of movement
Lesions in premotor & supplementary motor area:
interfere with performance of integrated movements (not
paralysis)
Motor and somatosensory functional areas of the cerebral cortex
Degree of presentation of the different muscles of the body in motor cortex
Representation of the different muscles of the body in the motor cortex
And location of other cortical areas responsible
for specific types of motor movements
 Cerebellum
Especially vital during rapid muscular activities such as
running, typing, playing piano, and even talking
- Helps to sequence the motor activities
- Monitors and makes corrective adjustments in the bodys
motor activities
While they are being executed they will conform to the
motor signals directed by the cerebral motor cortex and
other parts of the brain
Loss of this area can cause almost total incoordination
of rapid muscular activities (no muscles paralysis)
 Cerebellum..
Turn-on/turn-off and turn-off/turn-on output signals
from cerebellum
- The typical function of cerebellum is to help provide
rapid turn-on signals for the agonist muscles and
simultaneous reciprocal turn-off signals for the
antagonist muscles at the onset of the movement
- On approaching termination of movement, cerebellum is
mainly responsible for timing and executing the turn-off
signals to the agonist muscles and turn-on signals to the
antagonist
The exact details are not fully known
 Basal Ganglia
Play an important inhibitory role in motor control
- Function of basal ganglia in executing patterns of motor
activity The Putamen Circuit
- Role of basal ganglia for cognitive control of sequences
of motor patterns The Caudate Circuit
- Function of basal ganglia to change the timing and to
scale intensity of movements:
> to determine how rapidly movement is to be
performed
> to control how large movement will be
For instance: writing letter a rapidly or slowly, or small
a on paper and large a on board; use fingers for
writing or the whole arm at another time
 Brain Stem
Consists of: medulla, pons, and mesencephalon
Serves as a way station for command signals from
higher neural centers
Providing many special control functions:
- Control of respiration
- Control of cardiovascular system
- Partial control of gastrointestinal function
- Control of many stereotyped movements of body
- Control of equilibrium
- Control of eye movements
INTEGRATION OF MANY
PARTS OF TOTAL MOTOR
CONTROL SYSTEM
 Spinal Level
Programmed in spinal cord are local patterns of
movement for all muscle areas of body, such as:
programmed withdrawal reflexes that pull any part of body
away from a source of pain
Spinal cord is the locus also of complex patterns of
rhythmical motions, such as:
- to-and-fro movement of the limbs for walking
- reciprocal motions on opposite sides of body or of
hindlimbs versus forelimbs in four-legged animal
All these programs of spinal cord can be commanded
into action by higher levels of motor control, or can be
inhibited while the higher levels take over control
 Motor Cortex Level
Motor cortex system provides most of activating motor
signals to spinal cord
It functions partly by issuing sequential and parallel
commands that set into motion various cord patterns of
motor action
It can also change the intensities of different patterns or
modify timing or other characteristics
If needed, corticospinal system can bypass the cord
patterns, replacing them with higher-level patterns from
brain stem or cerebral cortex
The cortical patterns usually are complex, they can be
learned, whereas cord patterns are mainly determined by
heredity and are said to be hard wired
Associated Functions of Cerebellum
Cerebellum functions with all levels of muscle control
Its functions with spinal cord especially to enhance stretch
reflex
Also functions to make postural movements of body,
especially rapid movements, smooth and continuous and
without abnormal oscillations
Turn-on/turn-off and turn-off/turn-on patterning by
cerebellum can be learned by experience
It helps to program in advance muscle contractions that are
required for smooth progression from a rapid movement in
one direction to the next rapid movement in another
direction, and all occurring in a fraction of a second
Associated Functions of Basal Ganglia
Basal ganglia are essential to motor control in:
- Helping cortex execute subconscious but learned
patterns of movement
- Helping plan multiple parallel and sequential
patterns of movement that the mind must put
together to accomplish a purposeful task
The types of motor patterns that require basal ganglia:
- writing letter alphabet, throwing a ball, typing
- beginning in thinking processes to provide overall
sequential steps of action for responding to each
new situation