MAE 463

Introduction to Propulsion Theory and Applications

Prof. Werner J.A. Dahm
Sample Solutions
Home Workset #1

1. Fully Rigorous Derivation of the Thrust Equation

The thrust equation
T = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe p ) Ae
is arguably the single most important equation in all of propulsion. Yet textbooks often
do not derive this equation; many simply talk about the equation and then assert it
without any rigorous derivation. Others make a feeble attempt to derive this equation,
but end up punting in the sense that their derivation stops far short of being even
remotely rigorous they basically just write the equation, but they certainly dont
derive it, and you have to wonder if they have ever actually seen this equation derived
rigorously. Some books make a more serious effort at a derivation, but along the way
they make assumptions or simplifications that are unnecessary or, in some cases, wrong.
Many textbooks show various control surfaces and then make some lofty but irrelevant
arm-waving statements that have nothing directly to do with the derivation of this
equation, yet they assert that those statements are sufficient to produce this important
result they are not! All the while, serious students are left wondering why they arent
smart enough to actually follow these derivations.
The reason for all these incomplete and disingenuous derivations is that this equation is a
bit more difficult to derive rigorously than its simplicity might suggest. Yet, given its
importance in propulsion, you should wonder if it is correct, or at least wonder what
approximations or simplifications have been assumed in this result. All this should cause
you to wonder if the equation can really be expected to apply in practical problems,
where these unstated approximations and simplifications might not be valid.
None of this is even remotely acceptable to any serious person! We will therefore derive
the thrust equation with full and complete rigor, making no unstated approximations or
simplifications in fact we will make nearly no approximations or simplifications at all.
We will also maintain full and rigorous accounting of each and every term, including all
mass fluxes, momentum fluxes, pressures, and even viscous stresses. We will neglect
nothing and we will not wish away anything. Our result will be a true derivation.
Lets start with a brief refresher on integral conservation equations, and then well use
those results to help you derive this important equation. Recall that, in its most general
integral form, the conservation of any quantity Q within any control volume V enclosed
by a control surface S can always be written as
d
( q ) dV + ( q ) u dS = Q net ,
dt V S
where q is the amount of Q per unit volume, u is the fluid velocity vector (we will use
boldface symbols to denote vectors), dS is the differential surface element vector (its
magnitude is just the area of the differential surface element, and its direction always
points outward normal to the surface S), and Q net is the rate of Q-production or
destruction within V.
So, for the mass conservation equation, Q is mass and thus q is simply the density (i.e.,
the mass per unit volume), and Q net = m net is the net rate at which mass is introduced or
removed within V. Thus conservation of mass simply becomes
d
() dV + () u dS = m net .
dt V S

Similarly for momentum conservation, Q is momentum (mass velocity) and thus q is

simply u , and since F d ( M u ) / dt we have Q net = Finternal + Fexternal ; these are the net
forces that act internally within the control volume V and externally on the control
surface S (well clarify those in a moment). So, conservation of momentum is simply
d
(u ) dV + (u ) u dS = Finternal + Fexternal .
dt V S

In our problem, there are no time-variations in any of the quantities, so the time
derivatives are zero. That leaves us with the following integral conservation equations:

Mass conservation: () u dS = m
S
net (1)

Momentum conservation: (u) u dS = F

S
internal + Fexternal (2)

Now lets look at the force Finternal . In our diagram on the following page, the thrust
T = T ( i) is the net force produced by the stress tensor ij acting on all the internal
surfaces of everything that is inside the engine. We dont need to actually integrate over
all those complex surfaces, since we know that the net result of all those integrals has to
end up giving us simply the net thrust force T i . In our engine-fixed coordinate frame,
the engine doesnt move so there must be an equal and opposite force +T i produced by
the engine on the flow passing through it. It is this force +T i acting on the fluid as it
passes through the engine that produces the increased momentum of the fluid at the exit
of the engine, as can be seen in our diagram. So, the internal force acting on our flow is
Finternal = T i . (3)
Next well look at the force Fexternal . In our diagram, this is the net force produced by the
stress tensor ij acting on the control surface S. That surface is not very complex, so we
can handle that integral fairly easily. Specifically,

Fexternal dS ( Fi )external = ij dS j (4)

S S

where we have written the dot product of the stress tensor with dS in index notation.
Now recall that the stress tensor ij is typically separated into the viscous stresses ij
and the pressure p as
 ij = ij p ij , (5)

where the Kronecker delta ij ( ij 1 when i = j , and ij 0 when i j ) is there

because the pressure contributes only to the normal stresses ( xx , yy , zz ), and where the
viscous stresses
u u
ij i + j (6)
x j xi
result from velocity gradients in the flow. From (6), ij = 0 if the velocity gradients are
zero, as applies in the free stream for instance. Using (5) and (6) in (4) then gives

( Fi )external = ij dSj p
ij dSj . (7)
S S
dSi
Now we are ready to start.

a) For the control surface S below,

use the integral form in (1) of the mass conservation equation to rigorously show that
e Ve Ae V Ac = m f .

m e m i

Simply apply (1) to the control surface S, which is composed of three parts:

1. The disc with area Ac representing the frontal area of the streamtube that is
captured by the engine inlet.

2. The disc with area Ae representing the area over which the captured streamtube
exits from the engine.

3. The streamtube surface with area As ; note that since this is a streamtube surface
u is parallel to this surface, and thus perpendicular to dS, everywhere on this
surface, with the result that u dS 0 everywhere on the streamtube surface.

Note also that the net rate of mass injection in V is the fuel mass flow rate m f that is
supplied to the engine. Thus

() u dS = u dS + u dS + u dS = m f . (8)
S

Ac

Ae

As

( V Ac ) e ( +Ve Ae ) udS0 on As
 ( ) ( )
On Ac, note that u = V + i and dS = dS i , which produced the negative sign in
the result from the first integral, while on Ae we have u = Ve + i and dS = dS + i ( ) ( )
which produced the positive sign from the second integral. Thus from (8) we have

e Ve Ae V Ac = m f

m e m i

where m i is the air flow rate entering the engine, with the further result that

(
m e = m i + m f = m i 1+ m f / m i

) m e = m i (1+ f ) (9)
f 1

b) For the integral form of the momentum conservation equation for the same S, use the
x-component of (2) remember that unlike (1) this is a vector equation to show that

e Ve2 Ae V2 Ac = T + xj dS j p dSx .
S S

Recall that (2) is a vector equation; we can write it for each vector component. Since
we want to find the thrust T, we will work with the x-component, namely

(u ) u dS = ( F )
S
x internal + ( Fx )external , (10)

and note from (3) that

( Fx )internal = T (11)
and from (4) note that
( Fx )external = xj dS j . (12)
S

Now using (5) and combining (10)-(12) we have

(u ) u dS
S
= T+
S
xj dS j p xj dS j .
S

(13)
dSx
For the integral on the left, similar to (8) we get

(u ) u dS = u u dS + u u dS + u u dS . (14)
S

Ac Ae

As

V ( V Ac ) eVe ( +Ve Ae ) udS0 on As

Using (14) in (13) then gives

e Ve2 Ae V2 Ac = T + xj dS j p dSx (15)

S S
c) Show that the left side in the result from part (b), with f m f / m i , can be rearranged as

m i (1+ f )Ve V = T + xj dS j p dSx .

S S

We first write the left side of (15) as

e Ve2 Ae V2 Ac = ( e Ve Ae )Ve ( V Ac )V (16)

m e m i
and then use m e in (9) to obtain

e Ve2 Ae V2 Ac = m i (1+ f )Ve m iV = m i (1+ f )Ve V . (17)

Substituting (17) in (15) then gives

m i (1+ f )Ve V = T + xj dS j p dSx . (18)

S S

d) In the result from part (c), show that the integral of the viscous stresses over the
surface S reduces to

S
xj dS j = xj dS j ,
As

and that the integral of the pressure over S reduces to

p dS
S
x = pe Ae p Ac + p dSx ,
As

with the result that

T + xj dS j p dSx = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe Ae p Ac ) .

As As

Recall that S consists of the three parts identified in (a) above, thus

S
xj dS j =
Ac
xj dS j +
Ae
xj dS j + xj dS j ,
As
(19)

where the first two integrals are zero because on Ac and Ae the flow is uniform and
thus the velocity gradients in (6) are all zero, giving ij 0 on Ac and Ae. Thus

S
xj dS j = xj dS j .
As
(20)
 We separate the pressure integral across the three parts of S as well, giving

p dS = p dS + p dS + p dS
x x x x . (21)
S


Ac


Ae As

p ( Ac ) pe (+ Ae )

( )
where on Ac we used the fact that dS = dS i , while on Ae we have dS = dS + i , ( )
giving

p dS
S
x = pe Ae p Ac + p dSx .
As
(22)

Inserting (20) and (22) in (18) and rearranging then gives

T + xj dS j p dSx = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe Ae p Ac ) . (23)

As As

e) The two integrals over As in the result for T in part (d) cannot be evaluated directly,
which is why many textbooks simply punt on any attempt to rigorously derive the
thrust equation. However, you can use the alternate control surface shown below,

which encloses the volume between the streamsurface As captured by the engine and a
cylindrical surface A3 located at a radius R from the centerline, to evaluate these two
integrals indirectly. Use this to show that the integrals in part (d) give

xj dS j p dSx = p ( Ae Ac ) .
As As
When doing this, on A3 note as R that u V i , however there must still be a
small radial component in u so that when integrated over the cylindrical surface A3 it
produces the needed mass flux to satisfy the mass balance between the inflow through
the annular area A1 and the outflow through the annular area A2 (in general m 2 m 1
because A2 A1 since Ae Ac ). Also, on As keep in mind that dS for this alternate
surface is dS for the original surface in part (d).

To evaluate the integrals over As in (23), begin by writing the momentum equation in
(2) for this alternate control surface, namely

(u) u dS = F
S
internal + Fexternal (24)

and note that for the new control volume V enclosed by this alternate control surface
S there are no internal forces acting on V. We can write the x-component of (24) and
use (12) and (5) to obtain

(u ) u dS = ( Fx )internal + xj dS j = xj dS j p xj dS j .

(25)
S S S S
dSx

We now split the alternate surface S into its four parts, namely:
1. The annular disc with area A1 representing the frontal area of the alternate
control volume V; note this has a hole that excludes Ac.
2. The annular disc with area A2 representing the opposite side of the alternate
control volume V; note this has a hole that excludes Ae.
3. The cylindrical outer surface with area A3 located at radius R from the
centerline.
4. The same streamtube surface with area As that we are dealing with in our
original control surface; since this is streamtube u dS 0 on it.

First lets evaluate the momentum flux integrals on the left side of (25) using these
four parts that comprise the new surface S, namely

(u ) u dS = (u ) u dS + (u ) u dS + (u ) u dS + (u ) u dS , (26)
S

A1 A2 A3

As

V ( V A1 ) V ( +V A2 ) udS 0 on As

Thus
(u ) u dS = V ( A A1 ) + ( u ) u dS .
2
2 (27)
S A3

Note it may be tempting to take the integral over A3 on the right in (27) to be zero,
for example by assuming that as R the surface A3 might also become a
streamtube. However, that integral is not zero, as can be easily shown from mass
conservation in (1), namely
 () u dS = () u dS + () u dS + () u dS + () u dS = 0 , (28)
S

A1

A2
A3

As

(
V A1 ) (
+V A2 ) udS 0 on As

where weve used the fact that m net 0 for this alternate control volume. From (28)

() u dS = V ( A
A3
2 A1 ) . (29)

Now using A to denote the total frontal area in this alternate control volume diagram
A1 A Ac and A2 A Ae , so we have ( A2 A1 ) = ( Ac Ae ) , (30)
and thus from (29)
() u dS = V ( A
A3
c Ae ) (31)

Now we can evaluate the third integral on the right in (26), namely

A (u ) u dS = V A () u dS = V V ( Ac Ae ) = V ( Ac Ae ) ,
2
(32)

3

3
from (31)
since u =V on A3

where it is clear this is not zero unless Ae = Ac . Substituting (32) in (27) then gives

(u ) u dS = 0
S
. (33)

Now that we know the left side of (25) is zero, we have

S
xj dS j p dSx = 0 .
S
(34)

Lets look at each of the two integrals in (34), splitting each across the four parts of
this new S. For the viscous stress integral we get

S
xj dS j =
A1
xj dS j +
A2
xj dS j +
A3
xj dS j + xj dS j
As
(35)

where the first three terms on the right are zero because there are no velocity
gradients in the flow on those surfaces, and thus from (6) ij 0 on them. For the
pressure integral in (34) we get

p dS = p dS + p dS
x x x + p dS x + p dSx . (36)
S

A1


A2

A3
As

p ( A1 ) p ( + A2 ) dSx 0 on A3

where we have used dS = dS ( i) on A1 and dS = dS (+ i) on A2, and on A3 the fact

that dS points radially outward and therefore its x-component dSx is zero. Thus
 p dS x = p ( A2 A1 ) + p dSx , (37)
S As

and using (30) this becomes

p dS x = p ( Ac Ae ) + p dSx . (38)
S As

Now putting together (34), (35) and (38) gives

xj dS j p dSx = p ( Ac Ae ) . (39)
As As

We have just one more important step. The alternate control surface from which
(39) was obtained has exactly the opposite outward normal dS from the original
control surface used to obtain (23), as we can see in the two diagrams, namely
( dS )A , alternate = ( dS )A , original
s s
, (40)
which means that for the original control surface in (23) we have to flip the sign we
obtained on the right side of (39), which means that in (23)

xj dS j p dSx = p ( Ac Ae ) = p ( Ae Ac ) . (41)
As As

f) Combine the results from parts (d) and (e) to obtain the thrust equation

T = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe p ) Ae .

We substitute (41) in (23), since both are now expressed for the original control
surface, and obtain

T + p ( Ae Ac ) = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe Ae p Ac ) , (42)

which we can rearrange as

T = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe p ) Ae . (43)

Note we have finally, and with full rigor, obtained the thrust equation using your
textbook authors control surface in part (a).

g) The fact that we needed both these control volumes to evaluate the viscous stress and
pressure integrals over the captured streamsurface As suggests that we could avoid
those integrals entirely if we abandon the textbook authors approach based on the
control surface in part (a) and instead work with the control surface shown below:

Apply mass and momentum conservation for this control surface to more directly and
easily obtain the thrust equation
T = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe p ) Ae .

Lets begin with the mass conservation equation in (1), namely

() u dS
S
= m f , (44)

where the fuel mass flux supplied to the engine comes from outside the control
volume and thus crosses the control surface S, as shown in the diagram above. Our
control surface S is composed of the following four parts:
1. The disc with area A1 representing the frontal area of the control volume V;
note this no longer has a hole at the center.
2. The annular disc with area A2 representing the opposite side of the alternate
control volume V; note this has a hole that excludes Ae.
3. The disc with area Ae at the back of the propulsion system.
4. The cylindrical outer surface with area A3 located at radius R from the
centerline.
Thus the left side of (44) becomes
 () u dS = () u dS + () u dS + () u dS + () u dS = m f , (45)
S

A1 A2 Ae A3

V A1( ) (
+V A2 ) e( +Ve Ae )

which gives

() u dS = m f + V ( A1 A2 ) eVe Ae = m f m e + V Ae .

( ) (46)
A3
Ae m e m i

We will save this result for later. Now lets look at the momentum conservation
equation in (2)-(7), namely

(u ) u dS = (F
S
)

+ (F )
x internal x external , (47)
T xj dS j pdSx
S S

where we used ( Fx )internal from (3) and ( Fx )external from (7). The left side of (47) is

(u ) u dS = (u ) u dS + (u ) u dS + (u ) u dS + (u ) u dS , (48)
S

A1 A2 Ae A3

V2 A1 +V2 A 2 e +Ve2 Ae V () udS

A3

where we have used u = V on A1, A2, and A3. Using (46) in the rightmost integral,
(48) becomes

(u ) u dS = V2 ( A1 A2 ) + eVe2 Ae V m i + V2 Ae , (49)
S

Ae
which can be cleaned up as

(u ) u dS
S
= eVe2 Ae V m i = m i (1+ f )Ve V

, (50)
Ve m e

where we have used m e = m i (1+ f ) as shown in (9). Now well look at the rightmost
term in (47), for which the integral over the viscous stresses becomes

S
xj dSj 0 (51)

since from (6) ij 0 on A1, A2, A3 and Ae because there are no velocity gradients on
any of these surfaces (unlike for As in our original control surface. The integral over
the pressure in (47) becomes

p dS = p dS + p dS + p dS
x x x x + p dS x (52)
S

A1

A2

Ae

A3

( )
p A1 p + A2 ( ) pe( + Ae ) dSx 0 on A3

which gives
 p dS = p ( A1 A2 ) + pe Ae = ( pe p ) Ae . (53)
S
x
! #"# $
Ae

Substituting (50), (51), and (53) in (47) then gives

T = m i (1+ f )Ve V + ( pe p ) Ae .

Note that we were able to avoid the difficult integrals of the stress and pressure over
the captured streamtube surface As that had to be dealt with in the authors approach.