Editor

Hu

of Mine Land Reclamation

Legislation, Technology and Practice
Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation contains
the proceedings of the Beijing International Symposium on Land Reclamation
and Ecological Restoration (LRER 2014, Beijing, China, 16-19 October 2014).
The contributions cover a wide range of topics:
- Monitoring, prediction and assessment of environmental damage in
mining areas
- Subsidence land reclamation and ecological restoration
- Soil, vegetation and biological diversity
- Mining methods and measures for minimization of land and
environmental damage
- Solid wastes and AMD treatment
- Contaminated land remediation
- Land reclamation and ecological restoration policies and management
- Surface mined land reclamation and ecological restoration
- Case study on mining reclamation and ecological restoration

Legislation, Technology and Practice

Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation will be of
interest to engineers, scientists, consultants, government officials and students
involved in environmental engineering, soil science, ecology, forestry, mining,
and land reclamation and ecological restoration in mining areas. of Mine Land Reclamation

Editor: Zhenqi Hu

an informa business

WANG final2.indd 1 27-08-14 17:15

 LEGISLATION, TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE OF MINE LAND RECLAMATION

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 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BEIJING INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM LAND RECLAMATION AND
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION, LRER 2014, BEIJING, CHINA, 1619 OCTOBER 2014

Legislation, Technology and Practice

of Mine Land Reclamation

Editor
Zhenqi Hu
Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration,
China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, China

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 CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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ISBN: 978-1-138-02724-4 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-73213-8 (eBook PDF)

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Table of contents

Preface xi
Organizers xiii
Organizing committee of LRER 2014 xv

Plenary session presentation

A fifty year overview of mined land reclamation research in the Appalachian coalfields, USA 3
W.L. Daniels

Part 1: Monitoring, prediction and assessment of environmental damage in mining areas

Positive impacts of mining activities on environment 7
M.M. Mobtaker & M. Osanloo
Risks and solving strategies of suitability evaluation on mining land reclamation based
on the mine scale 15
S.Q. Zhao, Y.F. Niu & X.M. Shi
Predicting the changes of surface soil organic matter contents with remote sensing inversion
model in the northern Xuzhou mining areas 23
F. Chen, S.J. Hao, J. Ma, Y.W. Zeng, S. Liang, J.F. Qu & S.L. Zhang
Analysis of the effect of mining coal on the water environment in the Panxie mining
area of Huainan 29
C. Xu, C.H. Lu & T.Y. Fan
Analysis and countermeasures of coal mining impact on agriculture production from
the micro perspective 39
J.L. Gao & X.Y. Xu
Ecological assessment and conservation measures of land for the city of Xinzheng 45
Y. Li, S.C. Ma, M.Y. Liu & X.P. Song
Analysis on deformation development of open-pit slope under the influence
of underground mining 53
N. Wang, B.H. Wan, P. Zhang & X.L. Du
Rural landscape assessment in the mining affected area: A case study
in Shandong Province, China 59
Y.H. Fu, W.Y. Li, J.Y. Zhang, S. Jiang, L. Ma & P. Zhang
Consistent handling approach on multi-temporal land use status data with various differences 65
H.B. Zhang, Y.H. Wang & Z.Z. Guo
Comments on land consolidation research priorities and perspective 71
Y. Yu, S.S. Ye, W. Xiao, Y.H. Fu, J.H. Long & J.T. Liu
GIS-based evaluation and analysis of land ecological quality and limiting factors:
A case study of the city of Sanmenxia 77
N.L. Chen, X.C. Wang, J.F. Sun & W.X. Qin

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 RS-based land use change and driving forces in a mining city 85
Y. Xu, J.J. Zhang & Y.Y. Shi
The impact of land use change on ecological carbon sequestration of mining city 91
H. Hui, J.J. Zhang, Q. Xu & G.F. Luo
Mining-induced land use cover and change in mining cities 97
Q. Xu, J.J. Zhang & H. Hui

Part 2: Subsidence land reclamation and ecological restoration

Effects of mining subsidence on niche suitability of cultivated land 105
Q.J. Chen & Q. Hao
Suitability assessment on land reclamation of subsided land by coal mining
in plain area with high groundwater level 109
J. Li, X.X. Zhao, W.Y. Li, J.T. Liu, G.B. Jing & Z.S. Liu
Suitability evaluation of abandoned mine lands supported by GIS: A case study
of Yangzhuang mining area in Huaibei 117
J. Chang & Y. Yang
Research on the characteristic of surface movement and its formation mechanism under thick
unconsolidated layer in Kailuan mine area 127
G.L. Bai, Z.D. Yang & B.Z. Huang
Influence of aquifer drainage on land subsidence in eastern Chinese coal mines 131
Q. Yu, J.R. Ma, H. Shimada & T. Sasaoka
The wetland evolution process and ecological effect analysis in coal-mining subsided land
with high groundwater 137
J.F. Qu, S.L. Zhang, K. Wang, G. Li & N.S. Bu
Scenario analysis of mining subsidence in Huaibei city and governance patterns 143
R.Y. Zhang, W. Xiao, J. Yang, J.T. Ren, S. Jiang & P.F. Wang
Study on reclamation modes of coal mining damaged land in Henan Province 149
Y.Q. Pan, C.Y. He, L.L. Ge, Z.Y. Wang, Z.Y. Gu & F.S. Liu

Part 3: Soil, vegetation and biological diversity

Utilization of river sediments as topsoil to reclaim brownfields and other sites 157
R.G. Darmody & J.C. Marlin
The relationship between plant community and soil factors in spoil bank of coal mine
under different reclamation modes 163
T.Z. Wang, X.D. Huang, Y.Y. Bao & X.R. Gan
An experimental study for assessment of soil erosion at rehabilitation area in Indonesian
coal mine 171
A. Hamanaka, N. Inoue, H. Shimada, T. Sasaoka & K. Matsui
Maintenance and construction of territorial waters in secondary wetland driven by coal mining 177
S.Z. Li, Y.J. Lu & Y. Feng
The accumulation of heavy metals by Sorghum plants cultivated in biochar present 183
P. Soudek, I.M.R. Valseca, . Petrov, T. Vank & J. Song
Effects of understory cover on tree recruitment in gold mining rehabilitation in monsoonal
woodlands in Northern Territory Australia 189
E.W. Saragih, S.M. Bellairs & P.A.S. Wurm
Santa Maria River levee ecological restoration program 199
R.W. Hobbs & R.T. MacAller
VegCover: A green coverage measure software for vegetation restoration monitoring 209
J.B. Hu & C.B. Liu

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 Effect of different machinery and rolling times on the physical property of reclamation soil
in coal area 213
X.Y. Min, X.J. Li & X.N. Huang
Effect of rocky slopes gradient on root growth and pull-out resistance of Lespedeza
bicolor Turcz. plants 219
H.Y. Xu, S. Gao, G.L. Song & L.B. Han
Research on mechanism and ecological effects of mycorrhizal inoculation
in different density soil 227
K. Zhu & Y.L. Bi
Using site appropriate pioneer species to initiate pedogenic processes which promote recovery
to stable and complex forested ecosystems 233
W.K. Chapman & R. Bravi
Effect of environmental materials on plant growth and immobilization
of heavy metal lead and cadmium 237
Z.B. Huang, P.C. Sun, J. Chen & J. Zhong
Is there any possible way of the use of industrial wastes in crop production? 243
B. Tth, L.G. Nagy, L. Nagy, Sz. Veres & L. Lvai
Effect of reclamation on diversity of soil bacterial community in mining subsidence area 247
Y.Y. Li, L.Q. Chen, T. Zhang & T.J. Zhou
Disturbance of mining activities to ecological land measured by ecological connectivity 257
Y.H. Rao & J.J. Zhang
Physiological response to Cd stress and Cd-accumulation of four herbaceous plants 263
R.H. Yin, X.M. Li & G.L. Song
Mine rock slope ecological restoration techniques 273
Y.J. Yang & W.D. Zhang
Study on the artificial revegetation succession law of the deserted quarry
of the north of China 277
H. Zhang, Q. Wang & L.B. Zhou
Ecological restoration methods research of the Haihe River Basin 283
Z.X. Li, Z.Z. Ma, L.X. Li & D.W. Wang
Application of plant fiber blanket in land reclamation and ecological rehabilitation 289
Y.J. Chen

Part 4: Mining methods and measures for minimization of land and environment damage
Development of backfill design parameters for control of surface and subsurface
mining related movements 297
R.M. Feng & Y.P. Chugh
Experimental study of feasibility of carbon dioxide storage in unmineable coal seam 305
B.S. Nie, T. Yang, W.J. Jia, X.C. Li & H.Y. Tang
Close-range coal seam mining and stowing with upper entry 311
X.L. Du
Efficient groundwater monitoring for underground and open-cast mining 317
E. Berger, D. Balmert, J. Richter & H.Y. Liu
Study on the development law of water flowing fractured zone in extremely thick coal
seam mining at oasis mining area 321
H.L. Liu, H.F. Wang, D.S. Zhang, H.C. Zhao, Y. Wang & Y.L. Yang
Modeling the Lean Limitation Criteria as a key factor for making a decision about
abandoned mines in Iran 327
S.P. Mirmoini, M. Osanloo & M. Rahmanpour

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 The method of delineation of methane release zonation on grounds of rock fabric 335
R. Khojayev, R. Gabaidullin, T. Khojayev & E. Khojayev
Research and implementation of efficient mining filling for integration technology
in coal mines of grassland area 339
C.H. Liu, J.J. Xia, Y.H. Zhao & D.Y. Bian

Part 5: Solid wastes and AMD treatment

Study on the spatial distribution regularities of coal gangue accumulation in the coal
mining area of northern Germanytaking coal gangue accumulation area of Ibbenbueren
for instance 351
C. Huang, L.J. Xu, H. Meuser & R. Anlauf
Effect of distance and wind on the temperature of spontaneous combustion coal waste piles 357
Q. Xia, Z.Q. Hu, Y.L. Zhao, Y.H. Fu & L.J. Xu
Reclamation of mine tailings using natural peat 363
A. Mikhailov
Improving the quality of recycled fine aggregates by selective removal of brittleness defects 371
T. Nawa & H. Ogawa
Pharmaceuticals in watersproblem and its solution 381
T. Vank, P. Soudek, P. Marsik, T. Hudcova & J. Syrovatka
Utilization of coal mine solid waste by phosphate-solubilizing bacteria
and its application in reclamation 385
J. Wang
Water quality simulation to predict the Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) potential
in an underground mine 391
G.J. Kusuma, D. Permata, R.S. Gautama & D. Firgiani
Adsorption performance investigation of heavy metal copper in acid mine drainage
by the Klebsiella oxytoca 397
Y.J. Zhu, L.B. Zhou, Y.B. Zhu & L.P. Ju
Comprehensive development and utilization of coal gangue in the western region 403
W.B. Sun & Y. Wang
Study on assessment system of rehabilitation on acid mine waste rock dump 407
Y.B. Zhu, L.B. Zhou, L.P. Ju & Y.J. Zhu

Part 6: Contaminated land remediation

Spatial distribution of heavy metals in the abandoned tailings pond of Chaihe
lead-zinc mine 413
Z.Y. Wei, W. Zhang, J.H. Long, M. Yang & Q. Chang
Physiological and ecological response of lorn to heavy metal toxicity under the action
of chelate and AM mycorrhira joint remediation 417
Y.Z. Wang, Z.Q. Zhao & X.N. Liu
Bioremediation of Acid-Mine Drainage contaminated with acid and heavy metals in coal
mine by Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 423
B.G. Ma & Z.Q. Hu
Phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil by selection of plant species 429
B.K.C. Chan, T. Luo & R.Y. Wang
Pollution status of heavy metals in Chinas metallic mining areas and treatment
measures concerned 435
Y. Chen

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 Simulation of lateral migration of heavy metal in Huanjiang watershed,
Guangxi province of China 443
P.W. Qiao, X.Y. Zhou, J. Yang, T.B. Chen & M. Lei
Mechanochemical stabilization of lead containing soil for contaminated site remediation 447
W. Zhang, Q. Wang, H. Zhang, L.L. Wu, W.Q. Gao & L.B. Zhou
Environmental problems and the ecological restoration of polluted land in ion-absorbed
rare earth mine: A conceptual model 451
S.W. Liu, X.D. Liu, Y.Y. Huang & X.J. Luo
Application of POPs-contaminated soil in the cement industry with high pollutant
destruction efficiency 457
Y.Q. Li, H.Z. Wang, J. Zhang & W.J. Miao
A brief review of the heavy metal pollution repair technology for mine soil 463
Q. Li

Part 7: Land reclamation and ecological restoration policies and management

Environmental planning of post-mining landscapes 471
W. Wende
Comparison and reference on the systems of reclamation of the destructed land left over
by history in China and overseas countries 475
M. Luo & Y. Zhou
Overview of international mine closure practices for capability building in China 481
Y.Q. Zhao, B. Wang, Z.X. Li, C.P. Li & L. Zhang
Recultivation and sustainable development of post-mining landscapes 489
R.U. Syrbe
Analysis of mine land reclamation regulation system from a new public
management perspective 493
X. Zhou, Y. Zhou & Z.Z. Du
Mining area land ecological restoration industrializationwith National Geopark
as example 501
N. Yang & M.C. Fu
Management hierarchy building for land reclamation of mining enterprises 507
Z.Z. Du, Z.K. Bai & Y. Zhou

Part 8: Surface mined land reclamation and ecological restoration

Development of methods for post-mining land use planning for coal mines in urban areas
in Quang Ninh, Vietnam 517
K. Broemme, H. Stolpe, C. Jolk, S. Greassidis, A. Borgmann, B. Zindler & T. Mien
Assessment of visual impact due to surface mining with the Lvi method 527
V. Dentoni, B. Grosso & G. Massacci
Fundamental study on application of fly ash as topsoil substitute for the reclamation
of mined land in Indonesian open cut coal mine 535
N. Inoue, A. Hamanaka, H. Shimada, T. Sasaoka & K. Matsui
Stability effect of water content on dominant loess dumping areas 541
D.H. Zhang, N. Inoue, A. Hamanaka, T. Sasaoka, H. Shimada & K. Matsui
Evaluation of the current system for waste rock treatment considering the rock conditions
in open pit coal mine, Indonesia 551
S. Matsumoto, H. Shimada, T. Sasaoka, A. Hamanaka & K. Matsui

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 Mine Facility Location Selection in open-pit mines using a new multistep-procedure 557
M. Fazeli, M. Osanloo & S. Naghne
Adit-strip extraction technology and numerical simulation analysis in open pit coal mine 573
Y.L. Chen, G.M. Zhang & G.R. Feng
An artificial reality for mine site rehabilitationthe industrial symbiotic approach 579
M. Yellishetty, J. Li & V. Wong
Physical modeling geomechanical stability of open-cast slopes and internal overburden dumps 583
B.R. Rakishev, K. Seituly & O.S. Kovrov
Research on the mine afforesting reclamation technology of waste dump in Shengli 1
Opencast Coal Mine site 589
D.C. Wang & Z. Shang
The revegetation of south dump in Yuanbaoshan open pit coal mine 593
Y. Wang & H.T. Yu

Part 9: Case study on mining reclamation and ecological restoration

The conception of ecology restoration and practice on minestake the goafs located
in Shenhua and Shendong Daliuda mine for an example 605
X.J. Luo, Y.B. Gao, P. Zhao, Y.Y. Ma & X. Zhang
Analysis on mining city ecological environment evaluationa case study of Wuan city 611
G.F. Luo, J.J. Zhang, S.N. Li & H. Huang
Surface regeneration of coal tips: 15 years of mine rehabilitation in a former coal mining region
in Southwest Germany 617
B.K.C. Chan, A.W.L. Dudeney & S. Meyer
Mined land use selection using a modified version of TOPSIS method, that can handle
uncertainty, by accepting inputs as D numbers 625
V. Khechadoorian & M. Osanloo
Why restore habitat? A case study on one small corner of the world: The cultural,
regulatory, and public health drivers of habitat restoration in San Diego, California, USA 635
M. Nieto & R.T. MacAller
A case study of land reclamation and ecological restoration of mine 641
F.D. Liu, X.Z. Xu, C.B. Zhao & C.X. Ji
Research on land reclamation pattern in mining cities of loess
plateau areawith Shuozhou city as an example 647
D.H. Liu & Z.H. Xu
Ecological restoration of coalmine spoils by establishing certain woody
plantations in a dry tropical environment, India: A case study 655
A.N. Singh & D.H. Zeng

Author index 667

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Preface

This book is the proceeding of Beijing International Symposium on Land Reclamation and Ecological
Restoration (LRER 2014) which is the second land reclamation international conference in China, the
first one was Beijing International Symposium on Land Reclamation (ISLR 2000), which has a profound
influence on land reclamation in China. After more than 10 years, the research concerning land reclama-
tion has improved a lot both in China and abroad, thus, the main purposes of LRER 2014 are: promoting
communication of land reclamation and ecological restoration technology and experience internationally;
advancing and renovating of reclamation and ecological restoration technology and practice; accelerating
international collaboration in this field.
The papers were presented at the symposium and addressed a range of land reclamation and restora-
tion issues reflect the current work from around the world, covering the areas of legislation, technology
and practice in mine land reclamation. 9 topics are included: Monitoring, Prediction and Assessment of
Environmental Damage in Mining Areas, Subsidence Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration,
Soil, Vegetation and Biological Diversity, Mining Methods and Measures for Minimization of Land and
Environment Damage, Solid Wastes and AMD Treatment, Contaminated Land Remediation, Land Rec-
lamation and Ecological Restoration Policies and Management, Surface Mined Land Reclamation and
Ecological Restoration, Case Study on Mining Reclamation and Ecological Restoration. The contents of
this proceeding will be interest to engineers, scientists, consultants, government officials and students in
this area.
LRER 2014 is supported by a number of organizations. As the host, China Coal Society has con-
tributed greatly. All the organizers have take great effort, including Committee of Land Reclamation
and Ecological Restoration of China Coal Society, Ecological Engineering Committee, China Ecology
Society, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources
and Safe Mining, www.ER-CHINA.com, National Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Environment
Protection in Coal Mine. The support from the co-organizers is highly appreciated. To be noted are:
International Affiliation of Land Reclamationists, American Society of Mining and Reclamation, Inter-
national Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, Kailuan Group, Huainan Mining Industry
(Group) Co., Ltd.
The organization and success of LRER 2014 is because of the effort of each authors, plenary session
speakers, session chairs and all members of the organization committee. In particular, we would like to
thank Mr. Wang Xianzheng, president of China Coal Society, and also our honorary chairs, academician
Peng Suping and Yuan Liang, they all have contributed greatly. Special thanks go to our co-chair Dr. Raj
Singhal and Prof. W. Lee Daniels, they greatly promoted this symposium.

Professor Zhenqi Hu
Chair of the Organizing Committee
China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing

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2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Organizers

HOST

China Coal Society

ORGANIZERS

Committee of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration, China Coal Society

Ecological Engineering Committee, China Ecology Society
China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing)
State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining
Chinese Ecological Restoration Network (www.ER-CHINA.com)
National Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Environment Protection in Coal Mine

CO-ORGANIZERS

International Affiliation of Land Reclamationists

American Society of Mining and Reclamation
International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment
Kailuan Group
Huainan Mining Industry (Group) Co., Ltd.

SUPPORTERS

Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation, University of Queensland

The Ministry of Land and Resources, PRC
Research Center for Eco-Environment Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science
Institute of Tangshan Branch, China Coal Technology and Engineering Group Corp.
China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Organizing committee of LRER 2014

HONORARY CHAIR

Peng Suping, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), China

Yuan Liang, National Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Environment Protection in Coal Mine, China

CHAIR

Zhenqi Hu, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), China

CO-CHAIR

Raj Singhal, International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, Canada

W. Lee Daniels, International Affiliation of Land Reclamationists, USA

COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Robert G. Darmody, American Society of Mining and Reclamation, USA

Petr Sklenicka, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
Carsten Drebenstedt, Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Germany
Peter J. Beckett, Laurentian University, Canada
David Mulligan, Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation, The University of Queensland, Australia
M. Anne Naeth, University of Alberta, Canada
Chrsitos Tsadilas, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece
Jeff Skousen, West Virginia University, USA
Y. Paul Chugh, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, USA
Toyoharu Nawa, Hokkaido University, Japan
Morteza Osanloo, Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran
Gu Dazhao, Shenhua Group of Science and Technology Development, China
Gao Jixi, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Science, Ministry of Environmental Protection, China
Chen Tongbin, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, China Academy of
Sciences, China
Li Shuzhi, Survey Institute of Tangshan Branch, China Coal Technology and Engineering Group Corp., China
Bian Zhengfu, China University of Mining and Technology, China
Bai Zhongke, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), China
Zhou Lianbi, Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, China
Xu Youning, Xian Geological Survey Center, China Geological Survey, China
Luo Ming, China Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Center, The Ministry of Land and Resources, China
Huang Jinlou, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Zhao Yanling, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), China

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 Plenary session presentation

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4
A fifty year overview of mined land reclamation research
in the Appalachian coalfields, USA
W.L. Daniels
Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
ABSTRACT
Surface coal mining has been a widespread distur-
bance in the central Appalachian (Kentucky, Ten-
nessee, Virginia and West Virginia) coalfields since
the late 1940s and early mining practices were
largely unregulated, resulting in significant impacts
to post-mining land use potentials and water quality.
Early mined land reclamation research in the 1960s
and 1970s for this region was led by West Virginia
University, including development of Acid-Base-
Accounting (ABA) to predict the acid forming
potential of overburden. The effort to develop, test
and refine ABA was led by R.M. Smith and other
researchers at West Virginia University (Skousen
et al. 2000), and they continue to validate ABA
interpretations today. The first detailed work on
the description and classification of Appalachian
mine soils was published by Sencindiver in 1974
and is summarized in Barnhisel et al. (2000). Paral-
lel work on the importance of paleoenvironmental
interpretation of overburden rock units for ABA
prediction and fundamental work on acid drainage
chemistry was conducted by Caruccio et al. (1993)
from the University of South Carolina and their
work is also summarized in Barnhisel et al. (2000).
The state of West Virginia developed more rig-
orous state coal mine reclamation standards by the
late 1960s, but regional reclamation practices and
enforcement efforts were typically limited to simple
revegetation efforts with little regard for landform
stability or long-term land use potentials. How-
ever, most Appalachian states adopted some form
of specific coal mined land reclamation regulations
by the late 1960s. Widespread social and political
pressures led to the federal Surface Mining Control
and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977 which
required many new practices including (a) return
to original contour, (b) elimination of acid water
and metal discharge to surface waters, (c) desig-
nation of a prescribed post-mining land use and
(d), no net degradation of groundwater quality, (e)
significant financial performance bonding, and (f)
a five-year vegetation performance period follow-
ing mining. SMCRA also allowed for the use of
mine spoil derived topsoil substitutes in situations
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 3
where native topsoil (A + E horizons) were thin
(<15 cm), which was quite controversial. All USA
states were required to adopt regulations that were
as stringent as SMCRA or to allow the federal U.S.
Office of Surface Mining to directly regulate coal
mining. SMCRA does not apply to non-coal min-
ing, so states and localities have developed separate
regulatory programs for sand & aggregate, metal
mining, etc.
Following the passage of SMCRA, significant
university research on water quality compliance
and revegetation strategies was supported by the
U.S. Office of Surface Mining in the 1980s and
1990s and results were applied throughout the
region. These efforts included work at the Uni-
versity of Kentucky by Barnhisel et al. (2000) on
the nature of acidic spoils in the region and by
Evangelou (1995) on the basic reaction chemistry
of pyrite and solution interactions. Parallel efforts
by the U.S. Forest Service to reclaim mined lands
to forest uses were led by William Plass and others
and they eventually spearheaded efforts that led to
the formation of the American Society of Mining
and Reclamation (ASMR; www.asmr.us).
Virginia Tech focused early research efforts in
the 1980s on mine spoil testing and placement,
reforestation with conifers, and alternative post-
mining land uses such as beef production. These
efforts were conducted under a state and min-
ing industry funded cooperative effort called the
Powell River Project (www.prp.cses.vt.edu) which
started in 1980 and still continues today. In 1982,
we (Roberts et al. 1988) constructed the Control-
led Overburden Placement Experiment to study
the effects of spoil type and surface amendments
on revegetation success and mine soil pedogenesis.
This experiment was also supported by the U.S.
Office of Surface Mining and was fundamentally
important for the validation of the concept of
topsoil substitution. We continue to monitor this
experiment today for important issues such as
C-sequestration potentials and we believe it to be
the longest continuously monitored experiment of
its type in the world.
The COPE and following soil amendment work
by the Powell River Project in the 1990s focused
8/27/2014 5:56:19 PM
 on the potential for utilization of sewage sludge
biosolids as a mine soil amendment. This work
was built upon original studies by William Sopper
and others at the Pennsylvania State University
and resulted in development of strong regional
state guidance for biosolids applications on mined
lands. In general, one-time application rates of 75
to 100 Mg ha1 have become standard practice in
most states and have been shown to produce very
positive soil building and revegetation results with
minimal risks of P runoff or N leaching (Barnhisel
et al. 2000).
Coal processing waste (refuse) stabilization
and revegetation emerged as a major water qual-
ity challenge in the 1980s. Standard SMCRA rules
required the use of 1 m of topsoil or topsoil sub-
stitute cover over all refuse facilities which was not
practical or economic for the coal mine industry.
Virginia Tech developed a system that adjusted
required minimum soil thicknesses based on ABA,
slope/aspect and availability of heavy lime and/or
biosolids amendments that significantly reduced
the expense of stabilizing and revegetating coal
refuse (Barnhisel et al. 2000).
Considerable research on the utilization of
coal combustion products (CCPs; fly ash, gyp-
sum sludge, etc.) was also initiated in the early
1990s at most regional universities due to federal
loosening of placement oversight requirements.
Large amounts of fly ash and related combus-
tion products have been back-hauled to coal mine
sites (primarily refuse piles) to presumably offset
acid drainage production. While this practice can
be quite effective, local water quality can become
degraded if appropriate ABA procedures are not
employed (Stewart et al. 2001). Researchers and
West Virginia University (Singh, Skousen and oth-
ers) have also shown that certain CCPs can also be
used as topsoil covers over acidic mine spoils and
refuse, but short-term soluble salt levels may be
limiting until full leaching occurs.
For the first 20 years following SMCRA, mined
land revegetation efforts in the Appalachian coal-
fields focused primarily on the simple stabiliza-
tion of the landscapes and their return to either
hayland/pasture or unmanaged wildlife habitat.
These landscapes then became dominated by
highly competitive non-native herbaceous species
(e.g. Festuca Arundinacea and Lespedeza cuneata)
that excluded invasion of native hardwood spe-
cies and essentially delayed normal successional
processes for decades. The local environmental
community pursued legal action to force the coal
industry to return formerly high diversity native
hardwood forested lands (e.g. Betula, Carya,
Liriodendron, Prunus, Quercus) to their original
vegetation mix. The primary research effort on
this was led by Virginia Tech (Burger, Zipper and
others) and the University of Kentucky (Graves,
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 4
Barton and others) and also focuses on the resto-
ration watershed hydrological responses.
By 2000, a large regional research program
(Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative)
focused on the return of native forest species had
emerged and resulted in fundamental changes to
regional spoil placement and revegetation strate-
gies. Additional cooperators have included West
Virginia University, the U.S. Office of Surface
Mining (Angel and others) and state regulatory
authorities. The result of these combined efforts
has been the development of the Forestry Rec-
lamation Approach (FRA) that has now been
implemented over >5,000 ha of recently reclaimed
mined lands. The FRA is based upon: (a) selection
and placement of appropriate partially weath-
ered moderate pH mine spoils; (b) minimization
of mine soil compaction via appropriate place-
ment procedures or ripping; (c) the selection of an
appropriate and diverse assemblage of tree species;
(d) use of low competitive groundcovers that mini-
mize short-term erosion losses but do not directly
compete with the trees; and (e) use of qualified and
skilled planting personnel.
Currently, the major research focus in the Appa-
lachian region is upon minimization of release of
Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) to headwater streams
and on developing methods to create new biologi-
cally viable stream channels on formerly mined
areas. More details on this topic are described in
another full paper presented at this meeting.
REFERENCES
Barnhisel, R.I.R. Darmody & W.L. Daniels, 2000. Rec-
lamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands. Agron.
Monogr. 41. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.
www.soils.org.
Carrucio F., W. Bradham, & G. Geidel. 1993. Over-
burden Analyses; Some Important Factors, WV
Surface Mine Drainage Task Force Symposium,
April 1993, Morgantown, WV, In Proc., 14th Ann.
Symp. West Virginia Surf. Mine Drain. Task Force,
Morgantown, WV. http://wvmdtaskforce.com/
proceedings/93/93car/93car.htm.
Evangelou, V.P. 1995. Pyrite Oxidation and its Control.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Roberts, J.A., W.L. Daniels, J.C. Bell, & J.A. Burger.
1988. Early stages of mine soil genesis in a South-
west Virginia spoil lithosequence. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
J. 52:716723.
Skousen, J.G., A. Sexstone & P.F. Ziemkiewicz. 2000.
Acid mine drainage control and treatment. P. 131168
In: R.I. Barnhisel et al. (ed.) Reclamation of Drasti-
cally Disturbed Lands. Agron. Monogr. #41. ASA,
CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI. www.soils.org.
Stewart, B.R., W.L. Daniels, L.W. Zelazny & M.L. Jack-
son. 2001. Evaluation of leachates from coal refuse
blended with fly ash at different rates. J. Env. Qual.
30:13821391.
8/27/2014 5:56:19 PM
 Part 1: Monitoring, prediction and assessment
of environmental damage in mining areas

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Positive impacts of mining activities on environment

M. Minaei Mobtaker
Shahrood University, Shahrud, Iran

M. Osanloo
Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: Mining operation provides essential materials for industry and it is one of the critical
aspects of economic growth in the world. It also provides jobs in the mining regions. There are many
reports published with regard to the negative impacts of mining activates, however, the environmental
beneficiations of the mining industry are ignored. The aim of this study is to investigate the positive
impacts of mining activities on the environment. The result of this study indicated that mining activi-
ties have positive impact on the environment (land, air and water), economy and society of the region.
Through the mine life cycle sustainable landscape maximizes social, economic, and ecological benefits,
provides quality of life and sustainable jobs for local communities. Possibility to access new area, water
extraction as mining by-product, tourist attraction and less global warming are some examples of min-
ings positive impact on mined land area. Afterward, using Folchi method the weight of each positive
impact was calculated. The result showed that the overall positive impacts of mining activities on the
environment are 299.6, more than social and economy. This means if mining goes right on the way of
sustainable development, positive impacts of mining are more considerable. Hopefully the result of this
investigation brings people attention through mining beneficiation especially who are against mining.

Keywords: Sustainable development, Folchi method, gear of mining industry

1 INTRODUCTION environment. There are several studies with regard

Today mining products are seen in everything we
touch. Mining industry also plays significant role in
socio-economy, land and technology development
around the world. The investment in this sector is
going to growth for example: according to reports,
the World Bank had invested USD 290 million into
mineral governance projects across seven different
African countries, including the Tanzania mineral
sector (World Bank, 2011). Mineral consumption
also is growing through the years. In 2006 world
consumption of Iron ore was 496 million tons, Alu-
minum 33.1 million tons and copper 17.4 million
tons (USGS, 2006). As a result the rate of natural
resources extraction has been increasing in order
to produce the goods and services demanded by
an increasingly affluent population. In addition,
research shows the world population will increase
to 8.3 billion by 2030 and total mineral consump-
tion (Copper, Nickel, Lead, Zinc, Aluminum and
Iron) will increase to more than 700 million tones.
This situation drives mining industry to extract
low grade ore from deeper depth (Osanloo, 2012).
The huge amount of mining activities attract atten-
tion through the negative impacts of mining on
to environmental issue of mining industry (Sind-
ing 1999, Cowll et al 1999, Warhurst and Noronha
2000, Hilson and Murlk 2000, Dutta et al, 2011).
These issues have prompted the mining and miner-
als industry to engage in the sustainability debate
and starte devising strategies for responding to the
challenge of sustainable development. At the same
time, mining contribution in socio-economy context
have depicted as positive impact of mining activi-
ties (ICMM, 2012). Nevertheless negative impacts
of mining on environment still are center of atten-
tion. It seems that the main questions in mining
industry are what sustainability really means and
whether it can ever be realistically achieved in the
context of mining as we know it, and perhaps, even
our society in its current state? (Mining, People and
environment magazine, April 2014).
To answer these questions, in this study at first,
modern mining and its contribute to Sustainable
Development (SD) is discussed. Then the posi-
tive impact of mining on environment, social and
economy are presented. Environment refers to the
condition that we live and work. Landincludes
wildlife, air and water are the most important
component of our environment which our life are

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 7 8/27/2014 5:56:20 PM

 depend on them. Afterward using Folchi method,
the weights of these environmental impact are cal-
culated. Then overall impacts of mining activities
are represented and base of this result the Gear of
mining activities is presented.
2 MODERN MINING AND ITS
CONTRIBUTION TO SD
The issues of SD changed the traditional defini-
tion of mining and bring forward the term mod-
ern mining. The overall sequence of activities in
modern mining are divided in six stages: Prospect-
ing, exploration, development, exploitation, mine
closure and mine reclamation. Mine closure is the
process of shutting down mining operations con-
sidering environmental, safety, economical, and
social issues; and refers to the final stages of min-
ing activity, after production and processing and
any subsequent activities that are directly related
to shutdown of the mine have permanently ceased.
So, a sustainable modern mine is a kind of min-
ing activity that practices these principles in today
mining. The final stage of mine life is mine rec-
lamation. The best mine began the reclamation
process of mine is before the first excavation are
initiated (Hartman 2003, Osanloo 2013). Com-
plete mine reclamation plan includes plans for
preparing mined land (pit, waste dump, tailing
dams and other areas which are affected by min-
ing operation) for establish second land use, values
equal to or better than those existing before mining
for long time. In this plan economy aspects such
as investment and job, environmental aspect like
wildlife, plant restoration and landscape need to be
considered. In economy, social and environmental
viewpoint, mine closure and mine reclamation in
the way of modern mining are best SD practice in
this industry.
3 MINING POSITIVE IMPACT
According to mining life cycle, to achieve the natu-
ral resources, mining have to change the earth con-
dition. These changes lead the situation through
the new condition that will take time to provide
profit. Management of mining changes and know-
ing how to apply them, is the key point to meet
positive impact of mining activities. Applying mine
closure and mine reclamation plan at the first stage
of mining operations will carry out economy, social
and environment risk and manage the changed
condition in sustainable way and emerge posi-
tive impacts from mining industry. These positive
impact of mining on socio-economy and environ-
ment are presented in Figure 1. Mining operations
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 8
Figure 1. Mining positive impact on socio-economy
and environment.
affect on environment which refers to land, water
and air and also society and economy of the region
which are related to gather trough out the life cycle
of mine. It means complete practice of mining
stages provides good economy condition, economy
leads to better society and the good condition of
society needs water, air and land in both quality
and quantity.
3.1 Land
Mineral deposits commonly happen where there is
notrace of life or civilization. Mining brings life to
the area and provides better life situation by mak-
ing road, power, groundwater, health centers and
schools. Due to the site preparation, landscape of
area will be improved, dumping waste materials
into valley and preparing them for second use will
provide new topography and new landscape. Dust
control and land stability are against erosion as a
result of planting and land water spray. Construct-
ing the new and good road, make it possible for
more access to other cities. After mine reclamation
and mined land preparation for second used, the
goal of landscape improvement, access and land
stability will completely achieve. For example:
Hunlunbeier mine in china and Bingham copper
mine in America achieve more land stability and
landscape improvement after mine reclamation
(Cornerstone mag, August 2013).
Figure 2 illustrates mining effect on land during
and after mining.
3.2 Air
The global warming and climate change refer to an
increase in average global temperatures. Researches
8/27/2014 5:56:20 PM
 Figure 2. Mining effects on land during and after
mining.
show that the amount of CO2 concentration is
going up in the future and when there is more
CO2, the temperature gets warmer. Climate change
consider as sustainable development problem and
it has negative on mining activates. High tempera-
ture and its effect on fuel and equipment, lack of
water and unpredictable rainare some of them.
Using renewable energy and apply agriculture
approach for mine reclamation plan, will help to
reduce CO2 concentration and carbon footprint in
mined land area. Navigant Research estimates that
less than 0.1% of power consumed by the mining
industry today is generated from renewable energy,
as a result mining industry revenue increased to
more than $6000 million in 2012, research fore-
casts the renewable energy technologies will supply
between 5% and 8% of the worlds mining industry
power consumption by 2022 (Navigant research,
2013). Renewable energy in the mining industry
anticipates that the global market for renewable
energy systems in the mining industry will grow
from US$210 million in 2013 to US$3.9 billion in
2022 (mining, people and environment magazine,
Mar 2014).
For instance wind power is one of the most
attractive renewable options for operations in the
far north of Canada. In 2012, Rio Tinto com-
pany reduce annual fuel use by 10% and the mines
carbon footprint by 6% with the wind facility in
Diavik Diamond mine (Climate change business
journal, July 2014). In Australia Mt Cattlin lithium
minecurrently uses renewable energy sources for up
to 15 per cent of its total power, using solar track-
ing panels. Using the renewable energy already
saves the company 200 tons of carbon emissions
each year (Australian mining, July 2014). African
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 9
Figure 3. Mining effects on air and water.
Barrick Gold has been actively exploring renewable
energy options for the past eight years and used grid
power for three mines in Tanzania (weekly mining,
July 2014). In Germany wind turbines in open-cast
mine in just ten months increased 20.5 MW elec-
tricity capacity. Brazilbased Vale SA, the worlds
largest iron ore producer, invested $315 million to
finance construction of two wind farms that will
have a combined capacity of 140 MW and pro-
duce clean, renewable electrical power for 20 years
(clean China, July 2014).
Mine reclamation plan such as forestry are
going to add to the earth lung and also improve cli-
mate and less global warming. For example North-
umberlandia mine in UK now set in a 19 hectares
public park after reclamation (Wikipedia, June
2014). In biosolids mine reclamation projects in
2011, biosolids stored an average of 32.47 tons of
carbon per hectares in the top of 15 CM of soil
in reclaimed site (Trilca and et al, 2011). Figure 3
illustrates the mining impacts on air.
3.3 Water
Water is fundamental resource for life. Commonly
mining operations expand into water-stressed
areas.
For example in Pilbara region in Australia due to
drought, water is an essential point for mining. And
as mentioned before due to climate change, water
resources need to managed due to lack of water.
Mining is one of the few industry that is able to use
water which is of lower quality than that desirable
for human consumption (ICMM, May 2012). As
the future challenge in the world will be due to lake
8/27/2014 5:56:20 PM
 of water, water management in mining industry is
the key way to achieve positive SD. Applying mine
reclamation at first stage will help to water man-
agement by control surface water and runoff. Mine
Water (surface and especially underground water)
use for sanitation the city near the mine area before
and after reclamation, mining operation, coal pro-
duction and environmental activities. Also water
can be recycled and reinjection to the groundwa-
ter after treatment. If there is no mining activity,
the groundwater probably never will be used. So
as water is accessible during mining operation, it
is one of mining by-products. Mine planners are
cable to prediction underground water level and
plan to extract water before it makes problem
and contaminates by coming into the pit. On the
other hand, in some mine, lake is the best way for
mine reclamation that can use for fish farming or
tourist attraction. For example, Malahleni Water
Reclamation Plan in South Africa (operated by
Anglo American in partnership with BHP Bil-
liton) treats the contaminated water from its own
and other mining operations and delivers treated
water directly into the local municipalitys drinking Figure 4. Illustrates the mining impacts on social and
water (ICMM, May 2012). This currently supplies economy.
around 12% of the citys water, created 700 tem-
porary and 57 permanent jobs, and is also helping
to provide affordable housing (Anglo American). and Enforcement, June 2014), Figure 4 illustrates
Ereen Mine in Mongolia also prepare water for the mining impacts on social.
people who lives near the mined land region after
mine reclamation (Cornerstone mag, August
3.5 Economy
2013). This arrangement is a good example of as
successful public-private partnership. The mining industry is a major force in the world
Figure 3 illustrates the mining impacts on water. economy. However, its role in contributing to the
national economies of different countries varies
greatly and is neither well documented nor well
3.4 Social
understood. According to the World Bank report
The most important impact of mining in mine area in 2012, mining contribution in GDP in countries
is providing job opportunity and livelihood and are: Iran 1.3%, Australia 7.8%, and china 1.2%.
longer life expectancy. The second land use such Total mining contribution in Americas GDP is
as park, lake, and golf provide entertainment for $230 billion (National Mining Association, 2013).
people. Training new local skills is the next positive More business and investment opportunity, tour-
impact. More health center and education oppor- ism income and increasing the value of land are
tunity will improve the culture condition in the due to miningoperations. The direct and indirect
area. Phosphate and potash mining also provide income from reclamation of Molycorp mine in
base materials for providing agriculture products New Mexico are between $640 up to $874 million
and foods. Due to road making and company and it provide 772 job opportunities for 20 years
contribution in to mine operation more effective in the area (Molycorp mine reclamation report,
communication opportunity will be available in 2001).
the area that also affect on culture in the area. For Since 1960s Foundation, trust and founds
example NorthMet Project (Canada) provides 360 (FTFs) emerged in mining industry. FTFTs can be
high-quality stable jobs per year (Polymet mining, good instrument for companies and government to
June 2014), total employment (direct and indirect) use to share the benefits of mining operation with
in mining sector in America is 2111230 peoples communities. Australia and Canada are two exam-
(National Mining Association, 2013), and Spring ple of applying this method and sharing benefit
Meadow mine in Helena, Montana, hosts about of major mining with indigenous peoples. (World
85,000 people each year to swim, fish, canoe, picnic bank, 2011) Figure 4 illustrates the mining impacts
and play. (Office of surface Mining Reclamation on economy.

10

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 4 MINERAL SUPPLY CHAIN Table 1. US mineral recycling rate in 2007 (www.
roperld.com, 2012).
Metals are reusable resources. The reusable nature of
metals contribute to the sustainability of their use. Metal US recycling rate in 2007
Recycling, a significant factor in the supply of many Iron 53%
of the metals used by our society, provides environ- Aluminum 45%
mental benefits. Primary metal production fills the Copper 30%
gap between the availability of secondary material Lead 80%
(recycled material) and total demand (The business Nickel 45%
of mining, April 2012). The major argument against Zinc 20%
mining industry is that mineral resources are finite Tin 34%
and non-renewable (Vintro et al, 2014). The mineral Chromium 33%
resources are non-renewable but they are recyclable. Magnesium 52%
In 2011, the International Copper Study Group Titanium 41%
(ICSG) estimated that more than 30% of copper
consumption came from recycled copper. As shown
in Table 1 (US mineral recycle rate), 53% of Iron Table 2. The impacting factors and mining on socio-
ore, 80% of Lead and 30% of Copper were recy- economy and environment categories.
cled in 2007. Mineral like copper does not loss their
chemical or physical properties in the recycling proc- Impacting factors component
ess. On the other hand, even though mining extracts
underground ores, it also prepares mined land for Prospecting Air
second use like forestry and agriculture which are Exploration Water
considered as renewable sources because they pro- Development Land
vide green energy (U.S. Energy Information Admin- Ore extraction Economy
istration, 2014), for example: reclaimed Phosphate Mine closure Society
land in Florida USA (Wilson et al, 2012). Addition- Mine reclamation
ally some minerals will get back to the nature after
they go through the mineral process (Fleury et al,
2012). For example: potash and phosphate ores 3. Defining the possible ranges for the magnitude
which are used in agriculture. of the variation caused by each impacting fac-
tor (Table 3).
4. Determine the environmental components whose
5 METHODOLOGY pre-existing condition may be modified due to
mining, and denoted as the mining environment.
Figure 1 illustrates the positive impacts of mining. The mining environment are parameters of envi-
In this section using Folchi method the weights ronmental and socio-economic conditions which
of mining impact are calculated based on modern would have the most significant impacts gener-
mining life cycle. Folchi method represents sus- ated due to the activities of mining (Table 2).
tainable framework for evaluating mining opera- 5. Correlating each impacting factor and each min-
tion and help mining operators to consider their ing environmental component with a weighted
contribution in modern mining. value to reflect the level of impact generated by
the impacting factor upon the mining environ-
5.1 Folchi method ment component (Table 4).
6. The assessor determines, based on the data col-
The Folchi method was first applied to a mining
lected, the specific magnitude for each impact-
operation in Sardinia, Italy in 2003. This was to
ing factor in respect to the mining environment
quantify the environmental impact of mining by
component, using the pre-defining ranges; and
drilling and blasting of a pit for gravity dam. The
7. Calculate the weighting sum of the environmen-
method consists of seven stages, as stated and
tal impact induced from the impacting factors
based on Folchi:
on each environmental component (Table 5).
1. Characterize the pre-existing environmental (Folchi 2003, Phillips 2012, Osanloo, 2013).
context in terms of geology, geotechnics, hydrol-
ogy, weather, economy etc. (Table 2).
5.2 Weighting the mining environment
2. Identify the impacting factors, which are those
components
factors associated with mining which could
change the pre-existing environment compo- Folchi stated that the impacting factor alters the
nents (Table 2). pre-existing state of a mining environmental

11

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 Table 3. Ranges of magnitude for impacting factors. Table 4. Correlation matrix with values of the weighted
influence of each impacting factor on each on socio-
Impacting economy and environmental component.
factors Scenario Magnitude
Component
Prospecting Surface water control 14 Impacting
Land clean up 48 Factors Water Air Land Economy Social
Complete Plan 810
Exploration Surface water control 13 Prospecting Min Nil Min Nil Nil
Dust control 36 0.62 0 0.52 0 0
Land clean up 69 Exploration Min Min Med Nil Nil
Complete Plan 10 0.62 1 1.05 0 0
Development Land preparation and 12 Development Med Min Max Med Max
dust control 1.25 1 2.10 1.42 2.5
Mine planning based on 25 Ore Max Med Max Max Max
mine closure and extraction 2.5 2 2.10 2.85 2.5
reclamation plan cost and Mine Max Med Max Max Max
determination of UPL closure 2.5 2 2.10 2.85 2.5
Starting the first step of 58 Mine Max Max Max Max Max
mine reclamation and reclamation 2.5 4 2.10 2.85 2.5
landscape improvement Total 10 10 10 10 10
Complete Plan 810
Ore Land stability 13
extraction To prepare for premature 35
closure Table 5. Matrix of weighted magnitudes for each
To continue mine 58 impacting factor on socio-economy and environmental
reclamation plan and component.
landscape improvement
Complete Plan 810 Component
Impacting
Mine Prevent premature closure 13
Factors Water Air Land Economy Social
closure Stable condition in both 35
geochemical and Prospecting 6.2 0 5.2 0 0
geotechnical factors
Exploration 6.2 10 10.5 0 0
Mine Decommissioning 58
Complete Plan 810 Development 12.5 10 21 14.2 25
Mine Second land use 13 Ore 25 20 21 28.5 25
reclamation Job opportunity 35 extraction
Economy contribution 58 Mine 25 20 21 28.5 25
Complete Plan 810 closure
Mine 25 40 21 28.5 25
reclamation
Overall 99.9 100 99.7 99.7 200
component. This can range from no impact to a impact
severe impact, and is represented by four levels of
perturbation: nil, minimum, medium and maxi-
mum. As highlighted in Step 5 of the outline of the Table 3 shows the scenarios related to the
Folchi method, appropriate weighted values were impacting factors. The scenarios present subse-
determined to reflect the level of impact created quences of each mining process based on effective
in Folchi. The sum of all of these levels for each modern mining. The magnitude range are based
mining environment component is normalized on importance of each subsequences through the
by ensuring that the sum is equal to 10. The level process. The complete plan of each impacting fac-
of perturbation of the impacting factors for each tors, get the high magnitude range.
environmental component, and the related numeri- Table 4 shows the correlation matrix and socio-
cal weighting factors are shown in Table 4. economy and environmental component weights
based on the importance of each impacting factors
effects on components.
5.3 Applying method for sustainable
Table 5 shows the matrix of weighted magnitudes
modern mining
for each impacting factor on socio-economy and
Table 2 shows the socio-economy and environment environmental component and their overall impact.
component which were mentioned in this paper, This table calculate the impact for the ideal SD
and modern mining life cycle sequence as impact- mine plan so for calculation of weights the range of
ing factors that effects on components. magnitude for all impacting factors are 10.

12

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 12 8/27/2014 5:56:22 PM


Figure 5. The overall impact of socio-economic and
environmental component.
Figure 6. Gear of mining industry (Relationship
between best practice of mining operation, environment
and socio-economic).
The results of Folchi method are shown in Fig-
ure 5. The overall impact of mining activities on
environment are 299.6, social 200 and economy
99.7. These results illustrate that the ideal mine plan
(based on modern mining in the way of SD), will
have more positive impactson environment. Also
the result means that while mining contribution in
economy is going to increase, the positive impact of
mining on society is more important. This results
express that the best practice of mining operations
provide better environment for better social life
alongside good economy situation, according to
the Gear of mining industry (Figure 6).
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The future of mining operation is predicted pro-
duce more than 1 million tons of low grade ore per
day. Therefore, the environmental, economic, and
13
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 13
social aspect of sustainable development must be
included in any mine design and planning (Osan-
loo, 2013). In this study, the positive impact of
mining activities are presented. Also according to
mineral supply chain, mineral can be recycled and
reused. Additionally mine land reclamation can
go through renewable and green energy. Some of
example of how mining can affect in positive and
sustainable way are present in this paper but many
other examples can be found across the sector.
Using Folchi method, the positive impact of min-
ing industry are analyzed. The results shows that
the positive impact of mining on environment and
its socio-economy benefit are more considerable in
the way of modern mining. This presented method
also can apply to any other mine and based of
result, mine design and mine plan can adapted to
the right side of Gear of mining industry.
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Fleuey, Anne-Marie., Davies. Bejamin. Sustainable sup-
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Folchi, Roberto. Environmental impact statement for
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Osanloo, Morteza. Future challenge in mining divi-
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Philips, Jason. The application of mathematical model of
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ronment impact assessment of two iron ore opencast
mines in Iran. Applied mathematical modeling. 2013.
16 Pages.
Sinding, Knud. Environmental impact assessment and
management in the mining industry. Nat. Resour.
Forum 23, 1999: 6 pages.
Talberth. John, Conn. Rachel. Berrens. Robert, McKee.
Mike. A faramework for assessing the economic ben-
efits of mine reclamation, a case study addressing
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8/27/2014 5:56:22 PM
 Trlica, A. Teshima, M. assessing soil carbon storage and www.icmm.com (Trends in the mining and metals indus-
climate change mitigation in biosolids mine reclama- try and the role of mining in national economies,
tion projects, proceeding of conference on Mine Clo- October 2012).
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ronmental sustainability in mining sector: evidence www.mpe-magazine.com
from Calatlan companies, journal of cleaner produc- www.navigantresearch.com, report of Renewable Energy
tion, Elsevier. 2014, pages 19. in the Mining Industry, 2013.
Warhurst, ALISON. Corporate citizenship and corpo- www.nma.org (The economic contribution of U.S. min-
rate social investment: drivers of tri-sector partner- ing (2011), National Mining Association, September,
ships. crop.citizish 1, 2001: 26 pages. 2013. 90 pages).
Wilson. M, E.A. Hanlon. Multiple-use landscapes: www.osmre.gov
Reclaimed phosphate mined lands. University of Flor- www.polymetmining.com
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www.icmm.com (report of water management in mining:
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14

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 14 8/27/2014 5:56:23 PM

 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Risks and solving strategies of suitability evaluation on mining land

reclamation based on the mine scale

S.Q. Zhao, Y.F. Niu & X.M. Shi

College of Land Resources and Urban and Rural Planning, Shijiazhuang University of Economics,
Shijiazhuang, China

ABSTRACT: [Objective] This paper, from the aspect of mine scale, reveals the risk of multi-suitability
selection in reclamation direction and structure, under the current preparation and presentation system
and in the link of suitability evaluation. [Method] This paper uses the method of extreme conditions
to make evaluation on suitability of intended damaged land. [Result] There is multi-suitability on the
reclamation scheme of damaged land. Reclamation obligees choose those with high economic value,
while reclamation obligors choose those with less investment and easy for reclamation. Land recla-
mation confronts the risk that the formation of reclamation scheme is dominated by those reclama-
tion obligors. [Suggestion] Establish the subjective formation system, alternative system and the public
participation system in the whole course about land reclamation and improve social, economic and
ecological benefits.

1 INTRODUCTION district, southern hills and mountains mining dis-

[Research Significance] Land reclamation is one
of the five significant contents of the work in
the National Land Renovation Plan (20112015).
Compared with the project of land exploration
and consolidation and that of restoration and
governance of mine geological environment, the
foundation of land reclamation is relatively weak.
In our country, land reclamation is the major way
to add arable land. According to the Outline of
the General Plan for the National Land Utiliza-
tion (20062020), the arable land supplied by
the reclamation of wasted land in industrial and
mining area should reach to 630000 hectares by
2020. Due to the relatively low rate in the past in
our country (Hu 2003), we face heavy reclama-
tion task in future. However, the theory, technol-
ogy, method and experience that support land
reclamation are relatively few (Li Shuzhi, 2013).
Therefore, the research on suitability evaluation
of land reclamation in mining area has practical
significance to improve the scientificity of recla-
mation plan, to evade reclamation risk effectively,
as well as to enrich the theory of land reclamation.
[Previous Research Progress] At present, domestic
researches about suitability evaluation of dam-
aged land mainly focus on the following aspects:
(1) suitability evaluation in different reclamation
districts that mainly include mining area in Loess
Plateau, northeast gentle hill and rolling hill mining
trict, Huang-huai-hai plain mining area and west-
ern sand industrial and mining district. (Zhang
1997, Shi 1999, Bian et al. Liang 2005, Zhou & Li
2007 & Liu 2008); (2) suitability evaluation of dif-
ferent industrial characteristics. For instance, the
research on bauxite was carried out by Tan Shiya
(2010) and the empirical research on coal mine
by Hu (2006) Liu (2010) Xue (2013); (3) different
types of suitability evaluation, for example, Xiang
Mingshun (2012) conducted a research on the fea-
tures and reclamation potentialities of the dam-
aged land in Wenchuan Earthquake; (4) research
on methods of suitability evaluation, mainly
including the method of extreme conditions
(Wang 2012), index method (Wang 2010), fuzzy
comprehensive evaluation method (Dou 2013),
extension method (Liu 2006), GIS method (Zhang
2012), artificial neural network evaluation method
(Xiao 2011) and so on. [Breakthrough Point] Cur-
rently, there are few analyses about the risks of
suitability evaluation based on specific mine scale.
[Key Problems to Be Solved] Take the open-pit
and new-built metal mines as study object to pre-
dict the type and extent of intended damaged land
in the process of production and conduction, then
taking the limiting factors of land itself into con-
sideration to determine the utilization structure
of reclamation of intended damaged land. And
finally Put forward targeted policy suggestions by
analyzing the evaluation results.

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 2 RESEARCH AREA SURVEY AND DATA land, garden plot, other garden plots, forest land,
SOURCES other forest land, shrub land, other grassland and
mining land (see Table 1). Open pit, dump, indus-
2.1 Research area survey trial site, transport road and overburden dumps are
involved in mining. The way about damaged land
Mengziling Nangou Ultra-poor magnetite mine is
of every type of land occupation is determined by
15 km straight from Kuancheng Manchu Autono-
the method of qualitative description and forecast-
mous County of Hebei Province, and azimuth is 240.
ing. The area of damaged land is measured by the
The center of mining area is located at 1081922
means of quantitative statistics and forecasting.
east longitude and 403122 northern latitude. On
The types of damaged land are predicted accord-
administration, the magnetite is the subjection of
ing to the land classification defined in the Current
Wangchanggou Village, Mengziling County, whose
Land Use Classification, and the field investigation
total population is 1010, per capita cultivated land is
data. The extent of land damage can be predicted
0.0333 hectares and per capita income is 1580 yuan.
by qualitative description based on analysis and
Intended recoverable reserves in the mining area
statistics. The total area of land reclamation is
are 7003780 tons. Promoted splitting and opencast
18.13 hm2. The predicting results of intended dam-
working from top to bottom, the production capac-
aged land are shown in Table 1.
ity is 800 kt/a, mine exploration life is 9.22 years. The
ore grade is TF13.95%, mFe8.95%. The mine area
is located in the eastern section of Yanshan moun- 3.2 Ecological environmental impact
tains, in which hills roll up and down. The terrain in
During the process of mining exploration, the
south is higher than that in north, elevation height
damage of the open pit to soil, crop and forest-
is between 236 m to 609.8 m, the relative height dif-
grass vegetation resources is mainly excavation,
ference is 373.8 m. The climate is semiarid and semi
where the surface soil needs completely peeling
humid continental monsoon mountain climate.
off. Therefore, vegetation is destroyed, and even it
The soil of this mine mainly from the sticky layer
does more damage to soil resources. Dump, indus-
of sandy loamy pluvial-alluvial leached cinnamon
trial site, transport road and overburden dumps
soil. The depth effective soil layer is 20 cm. The soil
are mainly damaged by cover occupation, which
organic matter accounts for 1.19%, and rapidly avail-
can lead to a variety of serious consequences. For
able potassium is 149 ppm. The pH value is moder-
instance, soil surface structure was destructed, sur-
ate, which is between 6.57.8. Besides, the content
face vegetation was damaged, the ability of soil
of soil nutrient is abundant. The vegetation coverage
and water conservation decreased. Whats worse,
in the mining area is about 90%. All of these is ben-
aboveground surface runoff caused the nutrient of
eficial to growth of many kinds of plants and devel-
soil loss with soil and water, which reduces the soil
opment of farming forestry and animal husbandry.
organic matter and causes the deterioration of soil.
With the thick soil layer, the mountain vegetation of
There is no rare and endangered species and no
surrounding areas develops better, the main types of
important eco-function region like nature reserve,
vegetation include pine, chestnut, prunus armeniaca,
scenic spot and so on in the mine area. The ecolog-
black lpcust and so on.
ical environment belongs to Non-sensitive Area.
The surface water in the mine area is undeveloped,
2.2 Data sources the amount of groundwater is low and the ore in it
mostly distributes above the base level of erosion.
In this paper, the basic data is obtained by combin-
So the mining will cause slight damage to surface
ing field investigation with statistical information.
water and groundwater aquifer.
The data of land area is obtained from the Bureau
of Land and Resources in Kuancheng Manchu
Autonomous County. Social and economic data is 3.3 Suitability evaluation of land reclamation
obtained from the Bureau of Statistics and practi-
Suitability evaluation on reclamation of damaged
cal investigation.
land is a process that is based on the prediction
to land damage and takes the combination of
nature, social and economic factors as key points
3 SUITABILITY EVALUATION OF LAND
of evaluation. This process is on the basis of the
RECLAMATION IN MENGZILING
comparison between the requirements of differ-
NANGOU ULTRA-POOR
ent lands according to various land-use types and
MAGNETITE MINE
the qualities of damaged lands in every evaluation
unit and make evaluation on the suitability and
3.1 Prediction of intended damaged land
its extent as well as restricted conditions. In other
Before exploitation and utilization of this mine, the words, whether the planned application is suitable
situation and structure of land use is consist of dry for the damaged land, the suitability degree and

16

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 16 8/27/2014 5:56:23 PM

 restricted conditions, can be evaluated by the suit-
Overburden dumps

Cover occupation
ability evaluation. By this way, people can make
connection damage and reclamation and then
form an organic system. And the specific evalua-
tion procedures mainly includes the following six

Heavy
(hm2)

0.103

0.157
0.055
0.185
aspects: the preliminary decision of the evaluation

2.7
0.5
object and reclamation direction, the division of
the evaluation units, the selection of assessment

Cover occupation
factors, the determination of classification index
and grade standards, the result analysis of assess-
Mine road

ment units, the decision of reclamation direction,

and the summary and analysis of the evaluation

Heavy
(hm2)

0.258
0.079
0.073
0.196
0.589
0.095
0.17

1.46 results.
8.0
Cover occupation 3.3.1 Evaluation units division
According to the current situation of land use,
Industrial site

the manner and the extent of land damage,

Moderate

meanwhile, combining the referential experi-

ence on measures of reclamation engineering,
(hm2)

1.515

0.043

0.592

11.9
2.15

we can divide reclamations areas into each evalu-

ation unit with similar conditions. The range
Cover occupation

of responsibility reclamation area is 18.13 hm2.

Reclamation area is consist of 6 evaluating units
among which are open pit slope, open pit plat-
form, dump, industrial site, transport road and
Dump

Heavy

overburden dumps.
(hm2)

0.259

0.157
1.024

1.44
8.0

3.3.2 The selection of evaluating index

Excavation

and grade standards

Proportion of the Open pit

Choosing the relatively stable factors which have

Heavy
(hm2)

0.802
0.817
4.704
0.061
5.468
0.028

12.58

obvious effect on land utilization as evaluation fac-

69.4
0.7

tors, so that we can decide whether the land is suit-

able or not, determined by changes in index value
of those factors. According to the field survey,
total area (%)

types of land use in this mining area are mainly

influenced by limiting factors such as the terrain
slope, soil texture, effective soil depth, drainage
14.77

33.10

34.43
6.23

5.81

1.72

0.68
3.27

conditions, soil organic matter, the content of soil

100

nutrient and the degree of road accessibility. The

land quality of evaluating units and the main limit-
(hm2)

1.129
2.678
1.053
6.001
0.312
6.242
0.123
0.592

18.13
Area
Summary of the intended damaged land area.

ing factors of land to be reclaimed on grade stand-

ards for agriculture, forestry, and grass industry
Other garden plot

can be seen in Table 2.

Other forest land
Other grassland
Mining land
Garden plot

Forest land
Shrub land

3.4 Evaluation method and results

Dry land
Second-class

3.4.1 Evaluation method

This paper use the method of extreme conditions
land type

Proportion of the total area (%)

to evaluate the suitability. The method of extreme

conditions is based on the bucket principle in
013
021
023
031
032
033
043
204

the system engineering, emphasizing the effect of

dominant limiting factor. The final results of eval-
Town, village and

The extent of damage

The way of damage

uation units lie on the quality of the worst factor,

mining land
Garden plot

that is vi min(vij ). Where vi means the final score

Arable land

Total area (hm2)

Forest land

Grassland

of the i-th evaluating unit, vij refers to the score

of the j-th evaluation factor in the i-th evaluation
First-class
land type

unit. The detailed steps are listed as follow. First,

Table 1.

we should assess each type of reclamation direc-

01
02

03

04
20

tion, and obtain some value from 1 to 3; Then,

17

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 17 8/27/2014 5:56:24 PM

 Table 2. The main limiting factor of land to be reclaimed for farming, forestry, grass industry grade standards.

Evaluation on Evaluation on Evaluation

suitability of suitability of on suitability
Limiting factors and classification index arable land* forest land* of grassland*

Terrain slope () <3 1 1 1

47 1 or 2 1 1
815 2 1 1
1625 3 2 or 1 2
2635 Not 2 2
>35 Not 3 or 2 3 or 2
Soil texture Loam 1 1 1
Clay, sandy loam 2 1 2
Heavy clay, sand 2 or 3 2 3
Sandy soil, gravelly Not Not or 3 Not
Lithic Not Not Not
Effective soil depth >100 1 1 1
(cm) 9940 2 1 1
3930 3 1 1
2910 Not 2 or 3 2
<10 Not 3 or not Not
Drainage conditions No or little drown, 1 1 1
good drainage
Short-term seasonal 2 2 2
drown, comparatively
good drainage
Comparatively long 3 3 3 or not
term seasonal drown,
poor drainage
Long term seasonal Not Not Not
drown, very poor
drainage
Oil organic matter 2.0%1.0% 1 1 1
1.0%0.6% 2 or 3 1 1
<0.6% 3 or not 2 or 3 2 or 3
Soil nutrient content Relatively high 1 1 1
Middle 2 1 1
Relatively low 3 or not 2 or 3 2 or 3
Degree of road Relatively good 1 1 1
accessibility General level 2 1 or 2 1 or 2
Relatively poor 3 2 or 3 2 or 3

*1comparatively suitable; 2barely suitable; 3unsuitable; notdifficult to use.

we should make a combination with different rec- So that it is easy for us to arrange every type of
lamation directions which are generated by the land synthetically. The mathematical relationship
method of extreme conditions, according to the is expressed as follows:
sequence of farming, forestry, and grass land. By
doing so, we can get a three-digit number equiva- Rj (V ) 10 + max (V ) 10
aij
2
biij
lent to the ternary, which could comprehensively
reflect the degree of suitability that evaluation + max (V ) (i =
cij
ci
ij n)
unit responses to diversified reclamation direction.
The evaluation results range from 111333. The Rj means the evaluation result of j evaluation unit;
smaller the value is, and the higher the land qual- Vaij means the suitability grade for farming of the
ity will be. The evaluation results not only reflect i-th evaluation factor in j evaluation unit;
the restricted degree of land reclamation, but Vbij means the suitability grade for forestry of the
also show the suitability of different directions. i-th evaluation factor in j evaluation unit;

18

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 Table 3. Nature of participating unit of the land to be reclaimed.

Open pit Open pit Industrial Transport Overburden

slope platform Dump site road dumps

Terrain slope () >35 <3 <3 <3 47 <3

Soil texture Clay/sandy Clay/sandy Clay, sandy Loam Loam Loam
loam loam loam
Effective soil 40 40 30 40 40 40
depth (cm)
Drainage Good Good Good Good Good Good
conditions drainage drainage drainage drainage drainage drainage
Oil organic 2.0%1.0% 2.0%1.0% <0.6% 2.0%1.0% 2.0%1.0% 2.0%1.0%
matter
Content of soil Relatively Relatively Relatively Relatively Relatively Relatively
nutrient high high low high high high
Degree of road Relatively Relatively Relatively Relatively Relatively Relatively
accessibility good good good good good good

Table 4. Result table of suitability evaluation on land reclamation.

No. Reclamation unit Area (hm2) Damage type Reclamation direction

1 Open pit slope 12.58 Excavation Forestry, grass industry

2 Open pit platform Forestry, grass industry
3 Dump 1.44 Cover occupation Forestry, grass industry
4 Industrial site 2.15 Cover occupation Farming, forestry, grass industry
5 Transport road 1.46 Cover occupation Farming, forestry, grass industry
6 Overburden dumps 0.50 Cover occupation Farming, forestry, grass industry
Total 18.13

Vcij means the suitability grade for animal hus-
bandry of the i-th evaluation factor in j evaluation
unit.
3.4.2 Evaluation results
According to the characteristics and the predic-
tion of intended damaged land, the main limit-
ing factors of land to be reclaimed can be seen in
Table 3. Comparing the land quality of evaluating
units with the grade standards of farming, for-
estry and grass industry by using the method of
extreme conditions, we can get the results of suit-
ability evaluation of reclaimed land in Mengziling
Nangou Ultra-poor magnetite mine as shown in
Table 4.
arable land has good quality of soil texture, low
degree of damage, convenient transportation,
and high rate of guarantee of soil source; the for-
est land has steep terrain slope, low quality of soil
texture, inconvenient transportation, and urgent
demand of taking some ameliorative measure in
the process of reclamation. We can see from the
evaluation result that the area in research area has
been destroyed badly. For instance, the earths
surface is damaged because of excavation, dra-
matic changes of the soil layer, and impacts on
transformation of soil nutrient. However, as long
as we take appropriate and scientific actions to
reclaim the land, we can readily regain the origi-
nally practical value of the land.

4.1 Analysis of reclamation directions

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSES
After implementing the project of land recla-
mation, we can obtain the conclusion that the
area of reclaimed land is 18.13 hm2 and the rate
of land reclamation is 100%. Of which, 14.02
hectares are suitable for forest or grass land,
and 3.11 hectares are suitable for arable, for-
est or grass land. Among these categories, the
As is seen in Table 4, open pit slope and open
pit platform are suitable for forestry and grass
industry; dump is suitable for forestry and grass
industry; industrial site, transport road and over-
burden dumps are suitable for farming, forestry,
grass industry. We should think over whether the
land use has maneuverability after reclamation
by considering the natural conditions of the area

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 for reclamation project, and on the basis of over- 4.2 Analysis of reclamation structure
all plan for land utilization and for ecological
Both the combination of reclamation direction
environment. Next, we should take the opinions
and that of reclamation structure is diversified.
of local competent departments, the public, and
For example, we can define (X1, X3, X6) = (4.11,
the proprietors into account adequately. Finally,
12.58, 1.44); or (X2, X6) = (12.58, 5.55); we can also
we can make a preliminary decision on the direc-
have all the intended damaged land reclaimed to
tion of land use, such as suitable for farmingdry
grass land. However, there are great differences
land (X1), suitable for forestryforest land (X2),
among farming land, forest land and grass land
shrub land (X3), other forest land (X4), suitable
in the reclamation measures, technical scheme and
for grass industryartificial grassland (X5) and
technical standard, especially in the reclamation
other grassland (X6).
investment. Generally speaking, the cost of arable
Selecting a random combination from X1 to X6,
land to reclaim is higher than that of forest land,
we can reclaim the land to be reclaimed to a single
grass land and other faming land. And the com-
type, or separate it into two or several combinations
pilation and regulation of the reclamation scheme
(see Table 5 for more information). Every combi-
only stipulates the qualitative selection standards
nation mentioned above can meet the requirement
such as the principle of the best comprehensive
of the Land Use Planning of Kuancheng County.
benefits reclamation, of sustainable use of land
Meanwhile, they also coordinate with the status
after reclaimed, of economic feasibility and tech-
quo of land use, corresponding to the principle
nical rationality principle, as well as that of com-
of adjusting measures to local conditions, and are
bining social and economic factors. Without giving
harmonious with the natural condition and scen-
quantitative optimization schemes of reclamation
ery of the surrounding land.
structure specifically, it provides an opportunity
However, there is no doubt that there exist dif-
for reclamation obligor about choosing an easier
ferences among different types of combination as
reclamation plan to diminish reclamation respon-
to their comprehensive benefits and influences for
sibility legally. Besides, it is possible that their
the society, economy and ecology. For instance,
unreasonable choices on reclamation structure
plan 1, the combination of X1, X3, X increases
leads to re-reclamation. As a result, land reclama-
the area of arable land; Plan 2, combination of
tion will have risks at social, economical and eco-
X2, X6, increases the area of forest land in the
logical benefits.
mine; and Plan 3, combination of X5, X6, mainly
increases that of grassland. Because the plan of
land reclamation only focuses on establishing
4.3 Analysis of reclamation scheme
some encouragement policies for arable land,
rather than provides necessary selection criteria In China, the government has stipulated systems
for other multi-suitability. It only offers the land of preparation and presentation, review system
obligees an opportunity about about the land rec- and public participate system, for the reclamation
lamation scheme to pursue a high economic value of land that is damaged in the course of produc-
legally but at the cost of causing ecological prob- tion and construction. However, as the highly
lems. Therefore, this makes the scientificity of rec- professional technology of the reclamation stand-
lamation plan confront with the risk of selection ards and the unique characteristics of every recla-
about multi-suitability. mation responsibility area, seeking optimum one

Table 5. Land use structure adjustment table before and after reclamation (Unit: hm2).

Before Reclamation Reclamation Reclamation Reclamation

No. Name reclamation structure scheme 1 scheme 2 scheme 3

013 Dry land 1.129 X1 X1

021 Orchard 2.678
023 Other garden plots 1.053
031 Forest land 6.001 X2 X2
032 Shrub land 0.312 X3 X3
033 Other forest land 6.242 X4
042 Artificial grassland X5 X5
043 Other grassland 0.123 X6 X6 X6 X6
203 Mining land 0.592
Total 18.13 18.13 18.13

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 20 8/27/2014 5:56:26 PM

 from multiple schemes on suitability evaluation is
not required by the preparation and presentation
system, though the results of suitability evaluation
mentioned above indicates that there are many
feasible schemes meeting the reclamation condi-
tions of this mining area. As a result, as long as
the single plan committed by the reclamation
obligor is rational, once it is formulated, whether
the intended design for reclamation project is the
best or not, it will be implemented. It also leads
to insufficient supervision of government review
system and public participate system, which makes
land reclamation face the risks that reclamation
plan is dominated by reclamation obligors and the
phenomenon that obligors pursue different values
from government and the public.
5 SOLVING STRATEGIES
Suitability evaluation is an important basic work
of land reclamation. The accuracy and objectiv-
ity of evaluation results will affect the decision-
making of land reclamation. In order to perfect the
suitability evaluation of land reclamation, some
suggestions are presented as follows:
5.1 Establish the subject system of compiling
reclamation plan
Organizations for special reclamation plans are
suggested to promote, so as to avoid damage to
the objectivity and rationality, due to profit-driven
nature of the reclamation responsibility parties.
Besides, a special audit organization set by the
government is recommended. The organization
is composed of experts, scholars and officers and
everyone of them should bear the corresponding
legal liabilities and ensure the justice and objectiv-
ity during the audit process.
5.2 Establish land reclamation alternative plans
In order to reach the expected states that land can
be utilized after restoration, a land reclamation
plan is the very specific one made by the Govern-
ment Department in Charge of Land Resources,
land reclamation obligees and obligors. And it is
approved by scientific demonstration and is up to
the industrial standard and is used to guide and
formulate the concrete steps in the reclamation
practice. Alternative plans can not only strengthen
the plans competence but also supervise and urge
editors of different values to optimize their plans
and reduce the risks of single plan. Meanwhile,
setting multiple plans helps the public to have a
deeper understanding of reclamation plan and
their interests demand.
21
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 21
5.3 The system of public participation
The model of public participation has become a
basic model used in many fields in the world such
as watershed management, development of moun-
tainous area, forestry and agricultural development
and so on. Whats more, it is always carried out
through the whole process of confirmation, design,
planning, executing, monitoring and evaluating.
Along with the unprecedented social consensus
and cognition and significant improvement of
regulatory environment, it is accepted that land
reclamation is a good thing beneficial to the nation
and people. Land reclamation is a long-term work
to reclaim and exploit responsibly, to develop and
utilize damaged land, to protect cultivated land
and to improve ecological environment. Therefore,
carrying out the public-participation management
entirely is extremely significant to the sustainable
development of our countrys land resources.
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Suitability Evaluation of Land Reclamation of the
Chensilou Coal Mine in Yongcheng. Chinese Agricul-
tural Science Bulletin, 29(17): 192197.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Predicting the changes of surface soil organic matter contents

with remote sensing inversion model in the northern Xuzhou
mining areas

F. Chen, S.J. Hao, J. Ma, Y.W. Zeng, S. Liang, J.F. Qu & S.L. Zhang
Low Carbon Energy Institute, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, China
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Resource and Environmental Information Engineering,
China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, China

ABSTRACT: Soil organic matter, the core index of soil fertility, is the effective monitoring indicator
of ecological restoration and mine land reclamation. The traditional methods need more time and labo-
rious consuming, low in efficiency. This study has proved to be effective with remote sensing inversion
model and GIS to detect the changes of mining subsidence areas in northern Xuzhou city. Remotely
sensed multispectral LANDSAT ETM+ images were used to analyze the spatial pattern of surface soil
organic matter across the coal mining area. Through the correlation analysis between organic matter and
ETM+ reflectance variation, sensitive wave bands on organic matter selected, a remote sensing inversion
model of surface soil organic matter was established. The results were shown as follows: (1) The surface
soil organic matter in northern Xuzhou mining areas had a strong negative correlation with the reflect-
ance values of ETM+ 5 and ETM+ 7 (r = 0.585 and 0.543, P < 0.001). (2) The binary regression with
the reciprocal of the reflectivity logarithm of ETM+ 3 and the reciprocal of the reflectivity of ETM+
5 (R2 = 0.6162, P < 0.001), has a reliable prediction of the spatial pattern of surface soil organic mat-
ter (R2 = 0.6162, RMES = 0.89). (3) Organic matter content in the study area is mostly distributed in
1015 g/kg. Surface soil organic matter decreased with mining subsidence slope and the disturbing effect
on surface soil organic matter by the mining activity is carbon losing effect.

1 INTRODUCTION of biodiversity, amenity, and economic wealth

Mining activities have contributed greatly to
Chinas economic development. However, they have
brought great damage to the eco-environment. Soil
organic matter, one of the core indicators for soil
fertility, is the most important component of soil.
Although soil organic matter accounts for only a
small percentage of the total weight of soil, it plays
an indispensable role in environment protection,
plant growth and agricultural production activities
(Zhang 2004, Singer 1996 & Huang 2000). At the
same time, in China about 2.88 Mha of land has
been destroyed by mining (Zhang 2004), and the
figure is increasing at an alarming rate of 46,700 ha
per year (Li et al. 2008). In general, opencast min-
ing degrades 2 to 11 times more land than under-
ground mining (Huang 2000). Opencast mining
excavations (1) eliminate vegetation; (2) changes
topography permanently; (3) alters soil and sub-
surface geological structure permanently and
drastically, and (4) disrupts surface and subsur-
face hydrologic regimes (Zhao 2003). The process
transforms fertile cultivated land into wasteland
and causes serious environmental pollution and
ecological degradation, which can lead to the loss
(Zhang 2004, Ren et al. 2006).
Adverse properties of spoil material, such as lack
of organic matter, sensitivity to erosion, toxicity,
unsuitable water regime and nutrient deficiency, com-
monly reduces bio-productivity in post mining land-
scapes (Wu et al. 2009). However, these effects can be
mitigated by ecological restoration and reclamation.
The establishment of a plant cover on mine spoils
is only part of the revegetation objective. The main
aim of any restoration process is to create sustainable
plant communities representative of the composition
and diversity of the surrounding natural plant com-
munities (Mccarty 2002). Successful revegetation
is dependent on many factors, but one of the most
important issues for the restoration of functional
ecosystems in post-mining lands is soil formation
because most sites have unfavorable soil physical and
chemical properties (Zhang 2004, Li et al. 2008). Soil
properties, identified as indicators of soil quality,
include soil organic matter, total organic nitrogen,
total organic carbon, nutrient availability, pH, and
electrical conductivity, etc. (Li et al. 2011). However,
most critical is the accumulation of organic matter in
the surface layers of the spoil material because this
results in positive changes in physical and chemical

23

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 23 8/27/2014 5:56:26 PM

 soil properties, such as water holding and sorp-
tion capacities, nutrient content and availability,
soil bulk density, buffering capacity, etc. Moreover,
such organic matter is an energy source for the soil
biota, which drives decomposition and mineraliza-
tion of plant residues, thereby releasing nutrients.
Soil formation and organic matter accumulation in
post-mining lands depends on the development of
vegetation cover and litter productivity.
A further acquaintance to surface SOM con-
tents, especially the spatial pattern, can provide
theoretical foundation for developing precision
agriculture and reducing farming costs. In spite of
high accuracy spatial distribution map of surface
SOM contents by means of the common sampling
method at present (Grid sampling method and
Zone sampling method), long natural cycle and
high demand for manpower and material resources
bring down the guiding significance, let alone eas-
ily restricted by geographical location.
RS is an emerging and comprehensive detec-
tion technology, which can conduct repeat obser-
vations for the same district, acquire lots of
synchronous data and reflect soil characteristics
by RS information, providing a new technology
for SOM monitoring. The existing research had
confirmed that there is a strong negative correla-
tion between and SOM content and soil spectral
reflectance reflects SOM content to some degree,
as a result, RS images can be used in space inver-
sion of the organic matter contents based on the
quantitative relation. But soil spectrum characters
depend greatly on soil parent materials. In a large
area, SOM shows weak correlation with spectral
reflectivity because of parent materials, so the
limited areas of SOM RS inversion, adding veg-
etation cover, lead to various study results. On the
basis of previous researches and Landsat 7 ETM
images taken as data source, in this paper images
are preprocessed by geometric correction, radia-
tion correction and atmospheric correction, and
correlation analysis is conducted between spectral
reflectivity and its mathematical transformation
form with organic matter. Inversion model of sur-
face SOM is constituted by use of sensitive band
or transformation form to realize spatial pattern
inversion surface SOM in the whole study area and
expected to provide the scientific basis for agricul-
tural management and sustainable utilization of
soil in coal mining subsidence areas.
2 SITUATION OF RESEARCH AREA
AND STUDY METHOD
2.1 Situation of research area
The research area is located in Jiahe coal mine,
Pangzhuang coal mine and Zhangxiaolou well of
24
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 24
Jiuli district, Xuzhou with an area of 59.74 km2.
The landscape id mostly flat with the average
annual temperature of 14.2 C and average annual
precipitation of 834.7 mm. Yellow meadow soil is
the major soil type and the soil is deep and thick.
After several decades mining of the 3 coal mines,
there has been subsidence areas since 1980s, whats
more, subsidence range continuously expands with
passage of time forming several large-scale subsid-
ence lakes, which leads to river system with com-
plicated boundary, at present some used for fish
ponds. As the on-going mining in these coal mines,
subsidence areas will further expand in the future
decades.
2.2 Soil samples collection
At the end of October, 2010, 33 samples were col-
lected from the surface soil in the subsidence area
using handheld GPS. 5 point sampling method
was taken in a range of 30 30 m, which referred
to each sample consists of a mix of 5 soil samples
from sampling center and surroundings. In the
laboratory, air dried, grinded and sifted, samples
were measured for SOM contents by means of
potassium bichromate titrimetric method-external
heating method (Fig. 1). Variation coefficient is
27.37%, demonstrating that SOM contents belong
to middle-level spatial variability.
2.3 Image data processing
ETM+ image of 21, Oct, 2010 was selected with
a space resolution of 30 m, the same time with
ground sampling. Map number id 121/36. The sur-
face real reflectance was obtained after preprocess-
ing by geometric correction, radiation correction
Figure 1. Surface SOM content changes between
different subsidence slope.
8/27/2014 5:56:26 PM
 Table 1. Descriptive statistics of soil organic matter.
Maximum value Minimum value Average value
(g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg)
19.50 7.87 11.91
and atmospheric correction. Vector boundary of
the study area was used to tailor the image, in
order to eliminate micro-topography and noise
in the processing, image was processed by 3 3
template LPF. Autumn harvest was finished at the
end of October, soil surface was bare and the sky
was cloudless when acquiring image, as a result RS
image can directly reveal reflection spectral charac-
teristics of surface soil.
2.4 Model establishment and inspection
Through reciprocal transformation, logarithm
transformation and reciprocal transformation of
logarithm to each band reflectance, correlation
analysis was conducted between SOM contents
with corresponding surface reflectance and math-
ematical transformation form, whose result was
undertaken regression analysis, finally leading to
RS inversion model of SOM content. The model
was inspected from different aspects including
stability, prediction ability and precision. Deter-
mination coefficient R2 reflects stability of the
modelthe larger R2 is, the more stable model
is. RMSE reflects prediction abilitythe smaller
RMSE is, the more accurate and higher prediction
ability are.
3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
3.1 RS inversion model of surface SOM
Correlation analysis was conducted between SOM
contents with corresponding reflectance. The result
showed that the surface SOM contents in the study
area strongly negatively correlated with reflectance
values of ETM+ 5 and ETM+ 7 (R = 0.585 and
0.543, P < 0.001) (Fig. 2). Reciprocal transfor-
mation, logarithm transformation and reciprocal
transformation of logarithm taken in this study all
improve correlation, especially ETM+ 5 and ETM+
7 up to 0.0680 and 0.599.
Correlation between variables must be taken
into consideration before regression analysis, since
high correlation causes errors to the final result.
Table 3 shows correlation analysis results between
different bands. Although band 5 and band 7 have
a significant correlation with organic matter, there
is strong correlation between reflectance of the
25
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 25
Standard deviation Variable coefficient
(g/kg) (%) Skewness
3.26 27.37 1.19
two bands and data overlaps a lot, so reciprocal
of band 5s reflectance was selected as regression
variable. Researches claimed organic matter had its
special features at visible spectrum. Though cor-
relation between band 1 and organic matter did
not reach significant level, p was 0.127 and small,
besides after reciprocal transformation of loga-
rithm, correlation is 0.324 and p, with a value of
0.066, almost reached significant level.
As a result, reciprocal of band 5s reflectance
and logarithm of reciprocal of band 1s reflect-
ance were selected as regression variables to con-
duct binary regression. Regression equation was as
following:
y = 101.349 2578.869x11 + 6.185x22
+ 17523.931x12 (1)
ySOM contents (g/kg); x1reflectance of
band 5; x2logarithm of band 1s reflectance.
In the equation R2 = 0.6162 and P < 0.001).
Table 4 showed coefficient test results of the regres-
sion equation. Coefficients of intercept, first term
and quadratic term all reached statistical signifi-
cant level by testing (P < 0.05).
3.2 Precision test for organic inversion model
Prediction accuracy was estimated through correla-
tion coefficient R of measured value and predicted
value of organic matter contents and its RMSE
from 9 verification points not included in model
(Formula 2). Accuracy increased with R and the
decrease of RMSE.
1 n
RMSE = (xi yi )2
n i =1
(2)
RMSEroot mean square error of organic mat-
ter measured value and predicted value; nsample
number; xi, yiorganic matter measured value and
predicted value of sample i.
Linear function of organic matter measured
value and predicted value was y = 0.909x + 1.055,
in which R was 0.909 up to 1, R2 = 0.931 and
RMSE was 0.89, reflecting the predicted result can
perfectly reproduce spatial distribution of surface
soil organic matter.
8/27/2014 5:56:27 PM
 Table 2. Correlation coefficients and significant test between surface SOM content and reflectance values.

Variables B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B7

r 0.271 0.213 0.166 0.127 0.585** 0.543**

p 0.127 0.233 0.355 0.481 0.001 0.000

*P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.

Table 3. Correlation coefficient of reflectance values of Table 4. Test for coefficients of the regression
the ETM+ bands in the study area. equation.

Items B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 Standard
Coefficient Value error T-test Probability
B2 0.673**
B3 0.665** 0.781** b0 101.349 46.500 2.180 0.038
B4 0.100 0.079 0.089 b1 2578.869 1176.248 2.192 0.037
B5 0.333 0.207 0.290 0.516** b2 6.185 3.222 1.919 0.045
B7 0.514** 0.446** 0.551** 0.154 0.839** b3 17523.931 7323.461 2.393 0.023

*P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.

Table 5. Single factor analysis of variance on the influence of subsidence slope to SOM.

95% Confidence interval

Mean difference
(I) Group (J) Group (I J) Std. error Sig. Lower bound Upper bound

1 2 5.494* 0.736 0.000 3.989 6.999

3 7.003* 0.736 0.000 5.498 8.508
4 7.399* 0.884 0.000 5.591 9.207
2 1 5.494* 0.736 0.000 6.999 3.989
3 1.509* 0.694 0.038 0.091 2.928
4 1.905* 0.849 0.033 0.168 3.642
3 1 7.003* 0.736 0.000 8.508 5.498
2 1.509* 0.694 0.038 2.928 0.091
4 0.396 0.849 0.645 1.341 2.133
4 1 7.399* 0.884 0.000 9.207 5.591
2 1.905* 0.849 0.033 3.642 0.168
3 0.396 0.849 0.645 2.133 1.341

*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

3.3 Spatial pattern of surface soil organic

matter contents in the research area
Regression equation applied in reflectance map,
organic matter contents were divided into 5 levels
(Attached Fig. 5). Organic matter contents rang-
ing from 1015 g/kg occupied the largest area
30.13 km2, accounting for 50.44% of the study dis-
trict; 710 g/kg occupied the second largest area
10.33 km2, accounting for 17.29% of the study dis-
trict; 2030 g/kg occupied the least area 2.57 km2,
accounting for 4.30% of the study district, and the
other was 9.33 km2 for water area and building.
Besides, in the study area surface soil organic matter
contents decreased with mining subsidence slope.
In order to examine spatial variability of surface
soil organic matter contents changing along with
mining subsidence slope, subsidence slopes of the
measured 33 samples were divided in to 4 groups
to draw box charts (4.00%5.00%, 5.00%7.00%,
7.00%10.00%, and 10.00%11.00%). There
existed 8, 10, 10 and 5 variables in the 4 groups
(Fig. 1). The top and bottom boundaries of the
box represented 75% and 25% points in each
group, black line across the box represented mid-
dle value and lines floating around the top and
bottom boundaries represented borders. It could
be figured out in Figure 1 that surface soil organic
matter evidently reduced with mining subsidence

26

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 26 8/27/2014 5:56:28 PM

 slope, whats more, organic matter contents in
group 1 were obviously higher than others.
One-way analysis of variance was conducted
for all data to test difference significance between
organic matter data (Table 5). Through Table 5,
significant difference of organic matter contents
existed between group 1, group 2 and group 3, as
well as group 1, group 2 and group 4, while not
clear in group 3 and group 4. Mining subsidence
slope can reflect frequency of coal mining activity
to some extent, showing a positive relation, which
suggested that influence caused by coal mining
subsidence to soil organic matter belong to car-
bon loss effect, furthermore, this trend improved
with coal mining going. However, there existed a
limit.
4 CONCLUSIONS
1. In the study area organic matter contents and
spatial variability were significant. Autumn
harvest was finished at the end of October,
soil surface was bare and the sky was cloudless
when acquiring images, as a result RS inversion
matched this district.
2. Correlation can be improved between reflect-
ance and organic matter content after math-
ematical transformation, especially reciprocal
transformation. Regression equation based on
reciprocal of band 5s reflectance and logarithm
of reciprocal of band 1s reflectance can per-
fectly predict surface soil organic matter con-
tents in the research area.
3. Surface soil organic matter evidently reduced
with mining subsidence slope. Influence caused
by coal mining subsidence to soil organic matter
belonged to carbon loss effect, however, there
existed a limit to this influence.
4. Inversion results of surface soil organic mat-
ter contents can be applied in soil degradation
monitoring, cultivated land quality evaluation
and soil organic carbon estimation, as well as
provide data for soil protection and soil sustain-
able utilization.
5. The model was founded on bare soil, not plant-
covered soil, which restricted its wide applica-
tion in a larger area, so how to remove influence
of plants would be an important subject. On
the other hand, RS image spatial resolution of
ETM+ only up to 30 m and low spectral reso-
lution affected the study result with no doubt.
High spatial resolution and spectral resolution
combined with measured spectral data should
27
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 27
be taken into consideration in surface soil
organic matter contents inversion.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Analysis of the effect of mining coal on the water environment

in the Panxie mining area of Huainan

C. Xu & C.H. Lu
National Engineering Laboratory of Coal Mine Ecological Environment Protection, Anhui, China

T.Y. Fan
Anhui University of Science and Technology, Anhui, China

ABSTRACT: Large areas of dynamic ground subsidence, caused by mining activities in Huainan,
results in corresponding changes in the surface waters. The horizontal and vertical flow relationship had a
fundamental change on the water quantity and quality. More surface water areas and shallow groundwa-
ter were caused by the ground deformation and vertical subsidence. The Panxie mining area of Huainan
was chosen as research object and 13 observation wells were set. Through the open and closed plain
subsidence area model, and the shallow groundwater observation system which conform to the reality, the
field real-time and dynamically observation data have been obtained, and the reciprocal transformation
between surface and underground water quantity has been calculated by finite element and vibration wave
method. The results showed that in an enclosed subsidence area, the relationship between surface- and
groundwater is the ground recharge of surface water with a relatively small quantity. While in open subsid-
ence areas, they recharge through each other.

1 INTRODUCTION area is less than 20 m depth of the shallow ground-

Huainan mining area has one hundred years of
mining history, since the last century 50 years
large-scale mining, has more than 60 years. Huaihe
river as the boundary, formed the different pat-
terns of the ground subsidence area, and has its
different forms of water characteristics. The hori-
zontal and vertical flow relationship had a funda-
mental change on water quantity and water quality
between water area, the other surface water and
shallow groundwater caused by the ground defor-
mation and vertical subsidence, also a fundamen-
tal reason of water environment change of mining
area [1, 2]. Therefore, this article start with the
varies of water amount of surface water of sub-
sidence, the vadose water, shallow groundwater
with mining subsidence conditions and surface
microtopography conditions, studied the resources
transformation between surface water and ground-
water water.
The definition of shallow groundwater have not
unified in the world, the definition of the shallow
groundwater is usually underground within 0 to
30 m, according to the hydrogeological character-
istics of this area, among them, including perched
water, phreatic water and confined water. Through
the reveal conditions of aquifer drill in the study
area, the shallow groundwater part in the study
water, belongs to the holocene (Q4) layer, the first
micro-confined aquifer of the layer from surface
maintained water hydraulic connection with sur-
face water of subsidence area, through the vadose
zone and mining subsidence microcracks.
2 PRESENT SITUATION INVESTIGATION
Cenozoic aquifer groundwater of Huainan pan-
xie mining area belongs to the pore water of loose
rocks, occurs in tertiary and quaternary unconsoli-
dated sediments, aquifer is a set of fluvial, alluvial-
honghu, lacustrine sand, gravel and sand or sandy
loam layer, the total thickness is 5~300 m. The
research area belongs to warm temperate humid
monsoon climate. Whose characters are: the
quantity of heat is rich, plenty of sunshine, mild
climate, moderate rainfall, four seasons, monsoon
significantly, rainy summer, winter drought, frost-
free period is long (an average of 230 days). Annual
precipitation change is big, uneven distribution of
season, easy to form the drought and flood dis-
asters, the spring and autumn period when cold
when hot, the temperature is not stable. The annual
average temperature 15.3C. The highest temper-
ature in July, average of 28C~28.4C, the mini-
mum temperature in January, an average of 1.2C.

29

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 29 8/27/2014 5:56:28 PM

 The average annual rainfall is 939.3 millimeters,
the daily maximum rainfall is 145 mm, 1 hour
maximum rainfall is 77.5 mm, the average annual
precipitation day is 107 days, annual evaporation
is 1612.8 mm, the year maximum is 2157.1 mm
(1988), year minimum is 1570.0 mm, evaporation
is greater than rainfall [3, 4, 5].
3 SELECTION AND MONITORING
OF THE STUDY AREA
Subsidence area is divided into two types, on the
basis of the relationship between subsidence area
and the surface rives, each choose one place as
the research object, two of the study areas belong
Figure 1. Observation hole layout of Houhu subsidence waters in the east of the Panyi mine.
Figure 2. Observation hole layout of subsidence waters in the Panyi and Pansan mine.
30
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 30
to the non-steady subsidence area, subsidence
boundary will gradually extend outward with coal
mining, the maximum depth is 8 meters, water area
is basin, the middle of the area is depth and the
edge of is shallow. Subsidence shape and boundary
are related with planning of mine exploitation, as
shown in Figures 1 and 2.
First type is the enclosed subsidence area:
around only surface planar runoff import, no
linear flow supply and drainage, pollution type is
non-point source pollution, has certain hydraulic
connection with groundwater, the research object
is houhu subsidence area in the eastern part of
panyi mine.
The second type is open subsidence area: con-
tact with the groundwater and ambient surface
8/27/2014 5:56:28 PM
 Table 1. Basic information of observation wells in subsidence area.

Hole depth Ground elevation Filter length Caliper

Observation area Observation hole (m) (m) (m) (m) Note

Houhu subsidence P6# 4.0 20.0 1.2 0.025 Man-made

area P12# 6.5 21.2 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P14# 9.0 19.4 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P15# 11 20.5 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P16# 9.0 19.9 1.2 0.025 Man-made
Panyi and pansan P1# 6.5 20.5 1.2 0.025 Man-made
subsidence area P2# 6.5 20.7 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P3# 6.5 19.1 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P4# 6.0 20.0 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P7# 7.0 20.3 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P8# 8.0 19.1 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P9# 6.5 19.5 1.2 0.025 Man-made
P11# 7.0 19.5 1.2 0.025 Man-made

water. River or lake through its interior, in addi- 4 OBSERVATION ANALYSIS

tion to ambient trench runoff supply, therefore,
there is a river inflow and outflow water, the
research object is subsidence area in panyi and
pansan mine.
According to the scene reconnaissance, hydro-
logical observation hole layout in the study area,
and its layout diagram is as follows:
Observation holes of P6 #, P12#, P14#, P15#
and P16# distributed in the subsidence area near
the houhu, for a coal winning total subsidence
area of panyi and paner mine, mostly surrounded
by farmland. Observation holes of P1#, P2#,
P3# distributed near the panbei road, located in
the subsidence waters of panyi mine, among them
P1#, P2# observation holes side in the subsid-
ence area, surrounded by the basic farmland; P3#
observation hole in subsidence edge. P4# obser-
vation hole is located in the subsidence waters of
pansan mine, pansan mining subsidence water
area is larger, but the depth of the water is shal-
low, the deepest for 3 m. The subsidence area in
the north of Nihe, greatly influenced by river level.
P7#, P8# observation holes are located between
the panji town and panbei road, shallow subsid-
ence for farmland. P9# and P11# are located on
the left side of the panbei road, belongs to the sur-
rounding of the pansan mining subsidence waters,
the subsidence breeding wild fish. The depth of
observation holes is 6~8 m, observed horizon is
the first aquifer of quaternary system, the water
levels in observation holes are higher than the
ground elevation in actual observation, the vadose
zone is negative pressure, explain impermeability
is good of its upper clay layer, sand layer dont
connect to the atmosphere, the first aquifer and
its upper clay layer of quaternary system can see
as a confined aquifer.
From September 25, 2012 to September 1, 2013,
conducted 16 times observation (in October 2012
and June 2013 observation encryption), the result
of change curve of water level of 13 observation
holes is shown in Figures 3 and 4. Water level
change of P4#, P6#, P9#, P12#, P14#, P15# and
P16# observation holes is more gentle, P1#, P2#,
P3#, P7#,P8# and P11# has obvious water level
change over time, the ups and downs is bigger.
Groundwater supplies mainly is precipitation
recharge in the study area, through the weak per-
meable layer composed of clay supplies strong
permeable layer of fine sand, in addition, the
groundwater of fine sand layer accept recharge
from deep groundwater, and in different months
and different location, open subsidence waters
also accept supplies from the river. Discharge way
mainly includes water evaporation, residential
water and excretion to the river, the groundwater
flow from the northwest to southeast.
According to the soil layer structure analysis
of observation holes, studies the main lithology
is silt and clay, clay layer of weak water perme-
ability is the weak permeable structure; Aquifers
permeability of sand-mud interbed consists of silt
and fine sand is bigger, hydraulic conductivity is
strong, is micro confined aquifer structure; On ver-
tical particle size from top to bottom is from sandy
clay to fine powder sand layer, its permeability also
increased. Through the mechanical analysis can be
concluded that granularity of shallow groundwater
aquifer mainly is coarse sand and medium sand,
mixed with a small amount of silt and fine sand,
the lithology of shallow groundwater aquifer of
open and closed subsidence area are similar, on the
vertical distribution, from the surface to shallow

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 31 8/27/2014 5:56:33 PM


Figure 3. Water level curve of P4#, P6#, P9#, P12#,
P14#, P15# and P16# observation holes.
Figure 4. Water level curve of P1#, P2#, P3#, P7#,
P8# and P11# observation holes.
groundwater aquifer, soil particle size showed a
trend of increase, intermediate slightly fluctua-
tions, also with fluctuation and reduce of particle
specific surface area. The permeability coefficient
of clay soil in the study area is lesser, generally for
106~108 cm/s, and the permeability coefficient of
powder soil or sand is larger, 103~106 cm/s.
By water level observation data of artificial
observation well of panji can be concluded that the
the lowest water level of observation wells in obser-
vation period are higher than the aquifer (silt layer)
roof elevation in the study area, shallow groundwa-
ter aquifer is under pressure, so the shallow ground-
water can be generalized into pressure aquifer.
5 THE AMOUNT OF WATER
TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN
SURFACE WATER AND SHALLOW
GROUNDWATER
5.1 Calculation method
Based on the groundwater dynamics model, we use
the finite element method to calculate the amount
of water transformation, which is based on a
limited number of units with an aggregate instead
32
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 32
of the vadose zone. The analysis process generally
includes the following steps:
1. Discrete aquifer system. The regional split of
solving a finite number of units, instead of solv-
ing the region contiguous with a finite number
of grid points, for non-steady flow, it must be
time for solving a discrete area.
2. Selecting a function to indicate head of water
distribution unit. We usually use polynomial
interpolation, if necessary, logarithmic inter-
polation can also be used. But the simplest and
most commonly used is linear interpolation.
3. We use variational principle to deduce finite ele-
ment equations and establish matrix permeabil-
ity units.
4. Formating the entire collection of discrete alge-
braic equations of continuum. Each unit per-
meation matrix forms a total penetration of the
matrix of vadose zone [A]. Algebraic equations
is formed:
[A] {H} = {F}
where, {H} represents the column vectors in the
vadose zone, i.e., {H} = [H1, H2, ......, Hn]T, n is
unknown nodes, {F} is column vectors consisting
of the known item, i.e. {F} = [F1, F2, ......, Fn]T.
5. Solving the unknown water head of each nodes.
6. Flow calculated by nodes water head.
Finite element method deals with complex
boundary conditions easily for the second and third
boundary does not have to be specially treated.
5.2 Calculation process
Use VB language to solve the mathematical model
of groundwater and calculate the amount of con-
version at different times subsidence surface water
and groundwater. The program flow chart shown
in Figure 5.
5.3 Meshing
Enclosed subsidence is meshed into 226 grid points
and 385 units, with 226 grid points instead of the
entire enclosed subsidence. Due to non-steady flow
of movement, subsidence area need to be discrete.
Open subsidence can be divided into 151 grid
points and 247 units, with 151 grid points instead of
the entire open subsidence. Due to non-steady flow
of movement, subsidence area need to be discrete.
5.4 The amount of water transformation
between surface water and shallow
groundwater in enclosed subsidence
Figures 8 to 17 is surface water and shallow
groundwater flow field of enclosed subsidence dur-
ing observation period.
8/27/2014 5:56:33 PM
 Figure 5. The flow program.
Note: Time is the time variable, DT is the time step, Kelem is unit variable, Item is water level projections variable.
Figure 6. Enclosed subsidence area units.
Area S = 2.1354115189365 km2, subsidence
depressions water head H1 = 19.0 m. points level
on January 12, 2013 are as the initial level, flow
Qf = 334.999 m3/d, an average of flow per unit area
Qf = 1.569 104 m3/d. At that the time, confined
aquifer water level is higher than the average level
subsidence depressions, upper confined aquifer
33
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 33
Figure 7. Open subsidence area units.
recharge subsidence depressions, but recharge is
small.
From Table 2, from January 12 to September 1,
2013, the relationship between surface water and shal-
low groundwater is shallow groundwater recharge
surface water in enclosed subsidence. March
to May, 2013 is period of flat water, flow is
8/27/2014 5:56:34 PM
 Figure 8. Groundwater flow field on Jan 12, 2013.
Figure 9. Groundwater flow field on May 5, 2013.
Figure 10. Groundwater flow field on June 12, 2013.
Figure 11. Groundwater flow field on July 12, 2013.
2.288 104~2.571 104 m3/d; May to Sep is rainy
season, June to August is the flood season, heavy
rains often appears. At this point, groundwater
recharge surface water is 1.3968 104~2.477 104
m3/d, the end of July and August has highest rainfall,
34
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 34
Figure 12. Groundwater flow field on Aug 21, 2013.
Figure 13. Groundwater flow field on Oct 1, 2013.
Figure 14. Groundwater flow field on Sep 25, 2012.
Figure 15. Groundwater flow field on Oct 2, 2012.
groundwater recharge surface water is 1.788 104
and 1.3968 104 m3/d, relatively flat water of more
flow decreases. Seasonal rainfall and evaporation
have an impact on the amount of conversion of sur-
face water and groundwater, especially rainfall.
8/27/2014 5:56:36 PM
 Figure 16. Groundwater flow field on Oct 25, 2012. Figure 17. Groundwater flow field on Nov 9, 2012.

Figure 18. Groundwater flow field on Jan 12, 2013. Figure 19. Groundwater flow field on May 5, 2013.

Table 2. Enclosed subsidence flow statistics for each period.

Flow Subsidence The average flow rate

Time/2013 (m3/d) area (m2) per unit area (m3/d) Supply

Jan 12 to Apr 3 334.999 2135411.5185 1.569 104 Groundwater recharge

Apr 3 to Apr 13 488.492 2135411.5185 2.288 104 Groundwater recharge
Apr 13 to May 5 549.059 2135411.5185 2.571 104 Groundwater recharge
May 5 to June 4 514.386 2135411.5185 2.409 104 Groundwater recharge
June 4 to June 12 528.947 2135411.5185 2.477 104 Groundwater recharge
June 12 to June 29 474.801 2135411.5185 2.223 104 Groundwater recharge
June 29 to July 27 381.845 2135411.5185 1.788 104 Groundwater recharge
July 27 to Aug 21 462.269 2135411.5185 2.165 104 Groundwater recharge
Aug 21 to Sep 1 298.166 2135411.5185 1.3968 104 Groundwater recharge

5.5 The amount of water transformation between

surface water and shallow groundwater in
open subsidence
Open subsidence area S = 6.5562045781 km2,
with each point level September 25, 2012 as the
initial level, the upper initial subsidence depres-
sions water head H1 = 19.1 m, the initial moment
flow Qk = 0.0081198 m3/d, the flow per unit area
Qk = 0.0081198 m3/d, the moment the average water
level is higher than the upper confined aquifer
water level subsidence, the more flow through the
confined aquifer recharge subsidence surface water
recharge and smaller, but due to the subsidence
after near rivers, surface subsidence greater impact
on the level of the river, surface water and ground-
water exchange capacity with respect to a large
enclosed subsidence.
Transforming relationship between surface water
and groundwater is more complex in open subsid-
ence. Because surface water subsidence influence
by Nihe water level, and mostly subsidence surface
water supplies Nihe, surface water level changes
in the larger. September 2012 to September 2013,
the subsidence area many times by the agricul-
tural irrigation and drainage pondfishing, the
area of surface water by the human impact is

35

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 35 8/27/2014 5:56:42 PM

 Table 3. Open subsidence flow statistics for each period.

Flow Subsidence The average flow rate

Time/2012 to 2013 (m3/d) area (m2) per unit area (m3/d) Supply

Sep 25 to Oct 2 53750.69 6556204.578 8.1198 103 Groundwater recharge

Oct 2 to Oct 11 30993.80 6556204.578 4.727 103 Surface water recharge
Oct 11 to Oct 25 43238.80 6556204.578 6.595 103 Groundwater recharge
Oct 25 to Nov 9 9487.00 6556204.578 1.447 103 Groundwater recharge
Nov 9 to Nov 15 3068.39 6556204.578 4.68 103 Surface water recharge
Nov 15, 2012 to Jan 12, 2013 7446.91 6556204.578 1.136 103 Groundwater recharge
Jan 12 to Apr 3 11238.06 6556204.578 1.714 103 Groundwater recharge
Apr 3 to Apr 13 19441.74 6556204.578 2.965 103 Groundwater recharge
Apr 13 to May 5 26111.89 6556204.578 3.983 103 Groundwater recharge
May 5 to June 4 23139.55 6556204.578 3.529 103 Groundwater recharge
June 4 to June 12 42376.07 6556204.578 6.464 103 Groundwater recharge
June 12 to June 29 35319.90 6556204.578 5.387 103 Groundwater recharge
June 29 to July 27 6755.13 6556204.578 1.03 103 Groundwater recharge
July 27 to Aug 21 23226.27 6556204.578 3.543 103 Groundwater recharge
Aug 21 to Sep 1 2026.74 6556204.578 3.091 104 Groundwater recharge

more serious. Huainan maximum summer rainfall

region, accounting for 50% of the annual precipi-
tation annually from May to September is the rainy
season, which is from June to July rainy season,
from June to August as the rainy season ( usually
heavy rains), July 2013 and August Up to the end
of rainfall, surface water, groundwater recharge
water were 1.03 103 and 3.091 104 m3/d, the
conversion between the amount of surface water
and groundwater is relatively small.

5.6 Analysis of recharge and discharge

relationship of surface water and groundwater
Figure 20. Enclosed subsidence total flow curve.
Figures 20 and 21 are the computing time two
more traffic subsidence area chart change over
time (positive value indicates that groundwater
recharge ground water, surface water, groundwater
recharge negative value indicates).
Figure 20 shows recharge relationship between
surface water and groundwater in enclosed
subsidence from January 12 to September 1,
2013. The regional groundwater recharge is
97362.12 m3. Plentiful rainfall increases and
flow decreases, the larger the amount of rain-
fall and evaporation effect on the conversion of
the amount of surface water and groundwater.
And Figure 21, the conversion of open surface
water and groundwater subsidence is more com- Figure 21. Open subsidence total flow curve.
plex, both surface water recharge groundwater,
surface water, groundwater recharge there, this
is mainly due to the surrounding rivers (NiHe), subsidence of groundwater recharge groundwa-
human factors (agricultural irrigation and fish ter based, a total of 5363359 m3. But the most
pond fishing, etc.) as well as the combined effects rainfall in July, subsidence, surface water and
of rainfall, evaporation. From September 25, groundwater converted two types of relatively
2012 to September 1, 2013, open to the general slow, the more traffic is relatively small.

36

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 36 8/27/2014 5:56:45 PM

 6 CONCLUSION
1. Through the study of coal mining subsidence
surface water and shallow groundwater dynamic
characteristics, we find that Subsidence surface
water are not only related to the precipitation
and evaporation, but also interacts with shallow
groundwater.
2. Surface water and groundwater level dynamic
change in coal mining subsidence area is a
decisive factor which affects their mutual trans-
formation. However, precipitation and evapora-
tion in different seasons determine their mutual
transformation, in addition to its size correlated
with the amount of water, but also with the
vadose zone thickness and permeability.
3. Supply relationship of enclosed subsidence
is that groundwater recharge surface water,
recharge is relatively small. During the rainy
season, although surface runoff increased, the
flow decreases. By the NiHe river and agricul-
tural irrigation, recharge and discharge relation-
ship between surface water and groundwater in
37
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 37
open subsidence show mutual supplement and
discharge characteristics.
REFERENCES
Fang. C.L., Mao. H.Y. 1998. Mining subsidence dynamic
evolution and comprehensive treatment Yan Teng
Lianghuai region. Geographical Journal. 53(1):2431.
Gui H.R., et al. 2001. Shallow Groundwater Resources
mining cities: Huainan city shallow groundwater
resource evaluation and development[M]. BeiJing:
Coal industry press 28.
He C.G, Liu H., and Gui H.R. 2005. Environment
evaluation on typical water area resulting from coa1
mine subsidence in Huainan[J]. Journal of China coal
society. 30(6):754758.
Tong L.H., et al. 2009. Water quality Evaluation of sub-
sided water area and its comprehensive utilization
in panji mining area[J]. Environmental monitoring in
China. 25(4):7680.
Wang. Z.L., et al. 2009. Study on rain-flood resources
comprehensive utilization and ecological restoration
technology of coal mining depressed area. 24(7):
11551162.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Analysis and countermeasures of coal mining impact

on agriculture production from the micro perspective

J.L. Gao & X.Y. Xu

School of Management, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, China
Center for Resources and Environmental Policy Research, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing),
Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: In China, the area where the farmland and coal reserve overlap takes account 42.7% of
the cropland area. Coal production inevitably has an impact on agricultural production. It is impera-
tive to handle the relationship between them properly to reduce or avoid the coal mining impact on the
agriculture production. Most research focus on the coal mining impact has traditionally on the broad
macro-economic level. The paper keeps silent on the micro impacts generally at household level. However,
understanding the mechanism is the premise to solve the problem, so it is critical to clarify the mechanism
of coal mining impact on the agriculture production from the micro perspective. As to solve this problem,
we analyze the coal production impact on agriculture from two aspects: the means contradictory between
coal production and agriculture, and farmers decision making based on household model. After under-
standing the impact pathways, we proposed the countermeasures from the technology, land reclamation
and government support respectively.

1 INTRODUCTION related with the security of food security. Both of

Coal has been, and will continually to be the main
energy for the economic development in China.
But the rapid growth of coal production also raises
questions about sustainability. While it is often
recognized that coal is a major threat to air qual-
ity and green gas emission in china, less under-
stood is the impact on the other activity. The coal
mining activity has come into direct competition
with agriculture, Coal mining and agriculture are
directly linked through agricultures dependence
on the inputs of coal mining, water, land, labor
and capital. Despite their linkages, the problems
involved with both of them have not been exten-
sively studied. What makes the thing worse is that
the overlapped areas of coal reserve and cropland
takes account more than 40% of the total cropland
in China. In the last 20 years, the cropland areas
destroyed by coal mining have reached 6.92*105 ha.
(Hu, Z.Q et al. 2006). Some research shows that in
the last 10 years, due to the coal mining activity,
the cropland where is irrigated land changed into
dry land has reached 2.67*105 ha in Shanxi prov-
ince, the yield per ha decreased 250 kg. The annual
loss has reached 117 million kg (Wang S.K et al.
2005). The coal production is related with the secu-
rity of energy. In China, Due to the endowment
of resources, the coal plays an important role in
the economic development. However agriculture is
them are the basic industry in china, it is impera-
tive to coordinate the development between them.
In the past time, many researchers have pay atten-
tion to them respectively; less attention was paid on
the problems related with both of them. Most of
them focus on the destruction of land and water
resources from the macro level. Linda, L.H (1982)
has done an assessment of future economic trade-
offs between coal mining and agriculture in Illinois.
Since the 1990s, Australia has been the major coal
export country in the world, but as the expansion
of coal industry, more and more people realize the
destruction on the environment, they are thinking
of trade-offs between coal mining and agriculture,
particularly in Queensland and the Wales which
are the two coal mining states (Andrew, F 2011).
In South Africa people in Mpumalanga are also
worrying about the loss of agriculture due to the
expansion of coal mining. They are requiring the
government to investigate and assess the impact
on agriculture from coal mining. As shown in a
recent report by the Food and Agriculture Policy
Council in South Africa, the barley production has
reduced 440,000 tons per year (AEDT 2013). Mon-
tana State in Canada is facing the same problem.
(Harvest 2013). Based on the above description, we
can draw a conclusion that many people consider
the coal mining and agriculture cant develop in
the same time. Since 1990s, Chinese scholars have

39

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 39 8/27/2014 5:56:46 PM

 proposed the theory thriving agriculture by coal
(Fan, L.H 1991, Zhao, Y.M 1995). The main idea is
to support the agriculture by coal industry through
the improvement of infrastructure and technology
from the funds supported by coal industry. Some
scholar also mentioned the theory subsidizing
agriculture by coal industry. The main idea of
this theory is to increase the investment on the
rural construction and accelerate the development
of agriculture and rural areas (Li, Q et al. 2009,
Zhao 2011). Some of Chinese researchers has rec-
ognize the coal mining impact on the agriculture,
but Most of research focus on the macro level (Hu,
Z.Q 2008, Chen, J.J 2007, Wei, X.J 2008). However,
the literature is silent on the micro level analysis on
impact pathways which can help us to better under-
stand the mechanism of coal mining impact on the
agriculture. We analyze this from two aspects: the
production means of contradictory between coal
production and agriculture, farmers decision mak-
ing based on household model.
2 MECHANISM ANALYSIS
OF THE IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE
GETTING STARTED
Coal production and agricultural production are
both depend on the natural resources. Overall,
there are two types of impacts on agriculture from
coal mining: the means of production contradic-
tory between coal production and agriculture
and farmers decision making. The mechanism is
shown in Figure 1.
As we can see from Figure 1, the impact on
agriculture from coal mining works through pro-
duction means and producer. Among them, the
means contradiction include: labor, capital, water
resources, and land resources. As the capital is
driven by profit, Coal mining activity has extru-
sion effect on the agriculture. The impact on the
producer is because of the negative external effects
Figure 1. Mechanism of the coal production impact on
the agriculture production.
40
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 40
of environmental pollution caused by coal mining
activity which can decrease the yield of cropland
and do harmful on the local farmers health. On
the other hand, due to the high compensation from
coal enterprise this can decrease the enthusiasm of
farmer on agriculture, that is the reason why lots
of farmer gives up the agriculture production.
2.1 Means contradictions
The means contradictions between coal mining
and agriculture are land resources, water resources,
capital and labor.
2.1.1 Land resource
Since 1976, the cropland has decreased from
1.32*108 hm2 to 1.21*108 hm2 in China. In 2011,
the per capita cropland is only 0.092 hm2, less than
the 2/5 of the world average value. The shortage
of the cropland is the main problem of agricul-
ture production. The World Bank shows that in
China, the cropland area took account of 55.7%,
the coal mining area took account of 1.4% in 2013.
Although, from the macro level, with respect to the
cropland, the coal mining land use is scarce, but
from the region, especially the rural area. The land
use for coal mining and agriculture becomes very
prominent. It is estimated that the overlap area
between the coal mining area and agriculture area
accounts for 42.7% of the cropland area (Song, Y
2008). According to incomplete statistics, the sub-
side area caused by coal mining has reached 70,000
ha each year. This number will rapidly increase as
the expansion of the coal production. The crop-
land destroyed by coal mining has reached 511,400
ha from 1976 to 2008 (He, Y.W et al. 2011). The
land reclamation is getting more and more atten-
tion from the government, but the current land
reclamation rate is 25%, compared with Australia,
Germany and United States and other develop-
ment countries where the land reclamation rate has
reached 80%, Thus, future efforts will mainly focus
on the land reclamation.
2.1.2 Water resource
The land can be recovered through the reclama-
tion but the damage from coal mining on the
water resource is irreversible. In China, most of
the coal reserve area located in the arid and semi-
arid regions, 70% of the coal mining areas face the
crisis of water shortage. Both of coal mining and
agriculture are water intensive activity. The water
requirement of agriculture takes 62% of total water
in China. Water is essential for the growth of crops.
The available of water determines the level of yield.
Coal mining activity damages the aquifer which
can result in the significant loss of water resources.
The loss of water resource can lead to the decrease
8/27/2014 5:56:46 PM
 of soil moisture which affects the growth of crop;
on the other hand it will cause the failure of irriga-
tion system. According to the research, in Shanxi
every ton coal production will cause 2.49 m3 water
losses (Liu. Y 2008).
2.1.3 Capital and labor
Compared with agriculture activity, the coal min-
ing has a higher economic efficiency, it can promote
local industrialization and urbanization, at the
same time it has the extrusion effect on labor and
capital in agriculture production. Some researchers
have conducted field research which found due to
the increase salary from coal industry, more and
more people abandoned agriculture activity in coal
mining area. Due to the profit-driven capital, the
transfer of funds from agriculture to coal mining
and relative industries is getting more and more,
and then the investment to the agriculture will
drop accordingly. However for modern agriculture,
the capital investment is an indispensable factor for
the development of agriculture.
2.2 Farmers decision making
In the mid-20th century, under the effects of
Keynesian theory, most of countries promoted the
process of industrialization and ignored the coor-
dinated development of agriculture and industry.
At the end of last century, economist start to think
about this phenomenon, then the farmers behav-
ioral economics has been studied by many econ-
omists. More and more scholar has applied the
household model to analyze the farmer reaction at
market, policy, society and so on (Taylor, J 2003,
Thomas, A 2001, Yshihiro, M 2011).
We assume households are both consumers and
producers of an agricultural good with price p = 1.
They maximize utility U (c; l) over consumption
c and leisure l, subject to a budget constraint that
accounts for households production and income
generated by market activities. Households use labor
(L) and land (M) to produce the agricultural good
and have an idiosyncratic productivity A, i.e. Q = F
(A; L; M). A households labor endowments EL can
be split between agricultural productions (Lf), leisure
(l) and market work (Lm) at a wage . additionally,
households can hire labor at the market wage (Lh).
A households land endowments EM can be used for
agricultural production (Mf) or supplied to the land
market (Mm), at a price r. Additionally, households
can rent land (Mh). We assume Cobb-Douglas util-
ity and production functions: U (c; l) = c l1 and F
(L; M) = AM L . In brief, the household problem
can be written as follows
Max U (c; l)
Subject to
41
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 41
c + Lh + rMh F (A; L; M) + Lm + rMm
L = Lf + Lh, M = Mf + Mh
EL = Lf + Lm + l
EM = Mf + Mm
Farmers are heterogeneous in their access to
markets for inputs. In particular, there are two
types of farmers: a fraction t of households that
are never-constrained, i.e. they operate as in per-
fectly competitive markets and a fraction 1t that
are fully-constrained, i.e. they cannot buy or sell
inputs. In the case of land, for example, this is a
reasonable assumption in the context of weak
property rights in China; some farmers have lim-
ited rights to transfer property of land, for never-
constrained farmers, by adding Lf + l + rMf.
On both sides of the budget constraint and replac-
ing, we obtain
c + l F (A; L; M) L rM + EL + rEM (1)
Using the above-defined Cobb-Douglas func-
tions and defining disposable income
W = F (A; L*; M*) l* rM *+ EL + rEM (2)
we can find optimal levels of inputs, consump-
tion and leisure L*(A, , r, , ), M*(A, , r, , ),
C*(,W), l*(,W).
In the case of land, this is straightforward:
because the marginal cost of land is zero, this type
of farmers uses it all. In the case of labor, now
farmers face a trade-o between leisure and income.
The binding budget constraint now becomes
c = F (ELl; EM), and the optimization problem is
reduced to the choice of leisure that maximizes the
expression
U (c; l) = c l1 = [A(EM) (ELl) ] l1 (3)
Solving, we obtain
1
l* E (4)
1 ( )
L* EL (5)
1 (
( )
From (4) (5), we can see, for the constrained
farmers, input use depends on the endowments. In
particular, all the land endowment is for the land
use and labor use depends on the preference of lei-
sure, technical labor needs and labor endowment.
mean the efficiency of the labor. The labor input
on farming is proportional to the productivity of
the labor. The coal mining activities decrease the
efficiency of the labor, that mean the farm will
decrease the labor input in farming.
8/27/2014 5:56:47 PM
 Output could decline due to a reduction in input
use, for example, if prices for L and M increases
because of a greater demand from mines or a
reduction in endowments caused by land pollu-
tion and land subsidence. Consider the mining
company expropriate the land at the price r > r,
and the farmer can supply the labor for the min-
ing company at wage > , the competition for
inputs would reduce agricultural output, even if
productivity remains unchanged. The productivity
of the land is the main driver which determinate
the farmers decision making. The effect of the rec-
lamation will directly work on the farmers deci-
sion making.
3 COUNTERMEASURES
3.1 Green technology
Firstly, from the means of the production we need
to promote implement of green coal mining tech-
nology which can reduce the damage on land and
water resources. With the increase of environment
awareness, the government has invested much on
the green mining technology. Currently we have
a large number of mature green technologies. In
terms of land subsidence, we need to implement
the filling back mining and strip mining which can
reduce the subsidence effectively. At the same time,
filling back mining can reduce the gangue pile. The
water conservation mining technology can reduce
the damage to the water resource. The government
should support the practice of green coal mining
technology by tax policy and subsidy.
3.2 Land reclamation
Considering the special circumstances in China,
the per capita cropland area is very low. We need
to pay more attention to the land reclamation to
restore or even improve the original productivity
of the cropland. Australia is always adhere to the
principle of exploitation and conservation simul-
taneously and has made remarkable achievements
on land reclamation. China should also improve
the land reclamation system, including reclamation
programs, reclamation funds management, the laws
and regulations for the land reclamation. The land
reclamation should be encouraged to be planed
before the mining activity. We need to design the
reclamation plan in advance which should be
dynamic with the coal mining. The laws and regu-
lations should be easy to implement. China should
make real use of reclamation funds to improve the
feasibility and relevance of reclamation. In term
of the science and technology of reclamation, the
42
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 42
government should increase the R&D investment
and improve the communication with the other
countries. Pay more attention on cross-disciplinary
research such as geology, ecology, soil science, and
economics and so on.
3.3 Support from government
The government should support the development
of local agriculture from the coal industry. Because
capital is driven by profit, the development of
agriculture must be supported by government. We
should use the fund from coal industry to improve
the infrastructure and technology in agriculture.
At last from the perspective of the decision-making
point, the local government should increase the
farmers enthusiasm. Productivity of cropland
directly affects the enthusiasm of farmers. The
local government and coal enterprises should
actively participate in work of land reclamation to
increase the productivity of cropland.
4 CONCLUSION
The coal has made a great contribution to the
economic development, at the same time it also
brought a considerable damage to the agriculture;
agriculture production related to the issue of food
security. The food dependence has more than one-
third, in the near future it will be close to or even
more than half. China is facing severe food security
problems. Energy security cant be at the expense
of the food security. From the impact pathway we
can better understand how to reduce and avoid the
impact on agriculture. Based on the above analy-
sis, we can see the impacts on the agriculture from
coal mining are mainly through means of pro-
duction: land resource, water resource, labor and
capital. Among them the land resource is the key
element to affect the decision making of farmers.
So the land reclamation is a urgent work in China
which related to the food security. While the coor-
dinate development of coal mining and agriculture
is a long term and systematic project which needs
multi-disciplinary and multi-agent participation to
practice in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support from the Ministry of education Fund
for Humanities and Social Sciences Research and
Planning under the grants nos. 12YJA630161, and
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
under the grants nos. 70941035.
8/27/2014 5:56:48 PM
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threatens $22bn in coal-seam gas projects [EB/OL].
http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/battle-be-
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Chen, J.J. & Zhu, L.J. 2007. The impact on agriculture
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Fan, L.H. 1991. The research on the coal and agriculture.
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Harvest. 2013. Mining versus agriculture, these two indus-
tries in Mpumalanga are at war. [EB/OL]. http://www.
harvestsa.co.za/articles/mining-versus- agriculture-
7078.html(2013/5/28).
He, Y.W. & Ding, Z.Y. 2011. The protection of cropland
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China Coal 34(2):1923.
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the water resources in Shanxi. Shanxi Coal 28(2):13.
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information system construction of land evolution
in the overlap area between coal and cropland, Coal
Engineering (2):123127.
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water resource and agriculture from coal mining in the
overlap area. Mental Mines (5):129135.
Yoshihiro, M. & Tadashi, S. 2011. A Theory of the
Producer-Consumer Household, Palgrave Macmillan,
Tokyo: 128.
Zhao, K.J. 2011. The development of agriculture in
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Ecological assessment and conservation measures of land

for the city of Xinzheng

Y. Li, S.C. Ma, M.Y. Liu & X.P. Song

Field Scientific Observation and Research Base of Land Use, Ministry of Land and Resources, School of
Surveying and Landing Information Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, Henan, China

ABSTRACT: Survey and assessment of land ecological status is fundamental for the efficient use of
land resources and effective protection of the environment. In this study, we constructed an evaluation
system for land ecological status for the city of Xinzheng, using 21 indexes selected from 4 aspects related
to natural fundamental factors that affect land conditions, structural factors, pollution and degradation
factors, and comprehensive factors that contribute to ecological construction and conservation. The
comprehensive scores were calculated using maximum difference normalization method and the entropy
method to determine the weight. The city was classified into 5 levels according to the score, and maps of
estimated values for land ecological status were constructed using the ArcGIS software. The results show
that land ecological conditions in the city was overall good, with excellent and good areas accounting for
74.62% of the total land area. These areas were mainly located in lower elevation and flat areas. On the
other hand, areas with a poor ecological situation were mainly in the central and northern areas, where
there is greater human activity, resulting in a great impact on land ecology.

1 INTRODUCTION sensitivity and quality assessment) (Liu, J.G., et al,

Land is the material basis for human survival. Land
ecological conditions determine human survival
and development. With the rapid development of
economy, and accelerated urbanization and indus-
trialization, the scope and strength of human activ-
ities on land use continue to expand, causing more
and more environmental problems, such as land
degradation, environmental pollution and ecologi-
cal imbalance, etc. (Wu C.F. and Xu, B.G., 2003).
With land management changed from quantity
management to quantityqualityecology man-
agement, investigation and assessment of the land
ecological status have become hot topics. Scientific
assessment of land resources is fundamentally
important to achieve regional ecological and eco-
nomic benefits, to provide more land products
and favorable ecological environment. It is also an
important basis for land planning and rational use
(Fu, B.J.,1990).
There are extensive studies on land ecology in
China, such as regional land ecological evalua-
tion (Dai, L., et al, 2013), land ecological degra-
dation assessment (Cheng, J.N., et al, 2008), land
ecological environment evaluation (including risk,
This research is supported by the National Sci-
ence & Technology Support program of China
(2012BAJ23B04-2).
2001; Cheng, J.N., et al, 2008; Yu, Y., et al, 2008),
assessment of land ecosystem (including structural
and functional evaluation, stability and sustainabil-
ity assessment, service function evaluation), land
ecological risk assessment (Yang, Y.Y., et al, 2008;
Zhang, Z.H., et al, 2005). However, little has been
done to conduct a comprehensive ecological assess-
ment based on extracted information and data. In
this paper, we selected 21 elemental indexes that can
completely represent the land ecological status for
the city of Xinzheng City, and assessed the land
ecological status of the city to find out its ecological
status. The results are expected to provide strong
informative and scientific support to the manage-
ment of land resources and construction of green
land structure for the city as well as the province.
2 STUDY AREA
The city of Xinzheng is located in the central Henan
province, at a latitude of N34 16 to 34 39, lon-
gitude of E 113 30 to 113 54. The total area is
873 square kilometers with higher elevation from
east to west, and from south or north to central.
The city areas have various landscapes, namely three
distinct ecological zones, such as flat fertile paddy
area, hilly upland area and low-lying sandy hilly
area. The city is known as Henan microcosm,
and is under warm temperate continental monsoon

45

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 45 8/27/2014 5:56:48 PM

 climate. Temperatures are moderate, with four dis-
tinct seasons. The annual average temperature is
14.3 C, the average annual rainfall is 735 mm with
an annual frost-free period of 208 days.
Basic data used in this paper were obtained
from the official cadastral surveys, 1 km resolu-
tion SPOT remote sensing image data of 2009 and
2011, 2011 NPP data, 30 m resolution DEM data,
2011 monthly rainfall data from the weather sta-
tions, soil surveys and soil type maps.
3 LAND ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
3.1 Construction of evaluation index system
for land ecological status
Evaluation of the ecological status of the land,
and also the key yardstick of land ecological sta-
tus assessment. The system has a direct impact on
rationality and reliability of evaluation outcomes.
In this paper, we selected a number of indexes for
the use characteristics, and the theory and practice
of land evaluation by taking into consideration
of the citys land ecological studies in China, with
reference to relevant studies worldwide. The prin-
ciples were that these indexes represent the main
content of ecological status, their data are acces-
sible, sensitive and quantifiable (Table 1).
3.2 Standardization of evaluation index
Since the values of the different indexes are not
always within the same range, and some indexes
are at high score when the values are small or at
low score when the values are large, it is therefore
necessary to standardize the index. In this paper,
the standardization was made using maximum dif-
ference normalization method as follows (positive
and negative indexes are classified in Table 1):
X i X miin
X (X i )
max X min
Aij =
1 X i X miin (
X max X min
)
(1)

Table 1. Evaluation index system for land ecological status.

Obstacle
Rule layer Index layer Element index layer Weight degree (%)

The natural Climatic conditions (+) The annual rainfall 0.0548 0.82
fundamental Seasonal distribution of rainfall 0.0587 1.98
indexes Soil conditions (+) Soil organic matter content 0.0767 2.05
Effective soil depth 0.0721 0
Soil carbon accumulation 0.0376 1.47
Site conditions () Slope 0.0484 0
Elevation 0.0538 0
Vegetation coverage (+) Vegetation coverage 0.0477 2.48
Biomass 0.2078 2.76
Structural index Landscape diversity Diversity index of land use type 0.0443 6.17
index () Diversity index of land use pattern 0.0350 7.26
Land use/vegetation Proportion of urban green space 0.0520 13.66
coverage index (+) Proportion of unpolluted and high 0.0409 7.50
level cultivated land
Proportion of unpolluted water 0.0239 9.98
Proportion of urban land used 0.0479 11.58
for the ecological infrastructure
Proportion of urban non-permeable 0.0286 2.49
surface
Soil pollution Soil pollution and Proportion of the soil pollution 0.0093 0
and degradation degradation index () Soil pollution index 0.0450 6.32
The annual reduction rate of the waters 0.0308 2.06
Combined effects Combined index of The elasticity index of increased land 0.0246 0.04
of the ecological ecological construction for human and ecological use
construction and and protection () Contribution of increased land 0.0220 0.95
protection for human and ecological use
Shelterbelt index 0.0165 3.90
Constructive index Annual increase rate of development of 0.0115 2.87
of ecological (+) unused land and improved acreage

46

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 46 8/27/2014 5:56:48 PM

 where, Aij is the standardized value of the ith index analyzed using factor contribution, index devia-
for the j index, Xi is the original assessment value, tion and obstacle degrees, as follows:
Xmin is the minimum value of the index, and Xmax is
the maximum value of the index. Pj 1 Aij (6)
n
3.3 Determination of index weight Aj ( j Wij ) (Pj W
Wij ) % (7)
i =1
The weight of an index was calculated using the
entropy method as follows: where, Pj is the index deviation, Aj is the obsta-
1. The proportion of each index cle degree, Wij is the factor contribution, namely
the weight contrition of single index to the total
Yij weight.
Pij = n
(2)
Yij
i=1 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
where, Yij 1 Aij , Pij is the proportion of the According to the actual needs of the regional
ith evaluation index in the index, n is the number assessment, the areas were artificially classified
of the index; into five levels according to their scores, namely,
2. The entropy value excellent, good, moderate, fair and poor.
n
eij k Pij l Pij (3) 4.1 Rule layer evaluation
i =1
4.1.1 Natural fundamental index
where, k / n; The natural fundamental indexes assessed included
3. The weight climatic conditions, soil conditions, site condi-
iij tions and vegetation coverage. The scores of these
Wij = m
(4) indexes were calculated and mapped to adminis-
iij trative villages (Fig. 1) to show their land ecologi-
cal conditions. As shown in Figure 1, the natural
j=1
and fundamental ecological status over the city
where, ij = 1 eij , m is the number of index.
The weights for each index were calculated from
the above formula and are shown in Table 1.

3.4 Calculation of comprehensive

assessment score
The following formula was used to calculate the
comprehensive assessment score for the land eco-
logical security:

4 m n
S Wk W j (Wi Ai ) (5)
k =1 j =1 i =1

where: S is the comprehensive assessment score,

Wk is the weight of rule layer, m is the number of
index layers, Wj is the weight of index layer, n is
the number of elemental index, Wi is the weight of
elemental weight, Ai is the score of element index.

3.5 Diagnosis of obstacle degree

To better plan land use and policy adjustments,
it is necessary to find out the factors limiting the Figure 1. Map of natural and fundamental indexes
land ecological conditions. For this purpose, the measuring the land ecological status in the city of
obstacle degrees of land ecological status were Xinzheng.

47

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 47 8/27/2014 5:56:49 PM

 declined from south to north. The indexes were
good in southwest area, such as in the Xindian,
Guanyinsi and Lihe towns. In these regions, there
are abundant rainfalls with the higher level of soil
organic matter content and soil carbon accumula-
tion. This was followed by the Baqian, Hezhuang,
Longwang and Xuedian towns in the east areas. In
comparison with the Xindian, Guanyinsi and Lihe
towns, these areas had less vegetation coverage and
biomass. The natural and fundamental ecological
situations in the Longhu and Mengzhuang towns
in the north areas were relatively poor.
Limiting analysis showed that the number one
factor limiting the land natural and fundamental
ecological conditions was biomass (Table 1) in
the city areas. It had an obstacle degree of 2.76%,
followed by vegetation coverage with an obstacle
degree of 2.48%, and the soil organic matter con-
tent with an obstacle degree of 2.05%.
4.1.2 Structural index evaluation
Structural index has been used to characterize the
proportions of land use/vegetation coverage and
landscape patterns. The indexes include land use/
vegetation coverage index and landscape diver-
sity index. By calculating the structural indexes of
administrative villages in the city, a score map indi-
cating the ecological status of the land was gen-
erated (Fig. 2). As shown in Figure 2, the indexes
were higher in the southern areas such as the
Guanyinsi, Chengguan, Lihe, and Baqian towns.
In these areas, arable land was the main land type.
Figure 2. Map of structural indexes measuring the land
ecological status in the city of Xinzheng.
48
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 48
This was followed by the Xindian town in the
southwest area, Guodian and Mengzhuang towns
in the north area. The structure was simple and
its index value was low in the Longhu town in the
north area, Xiedian in the central area, Xinzheng
city and Hezhuang town in the south area.
The obstacle degrees for the indexes measuring
the land ecological structure were calculated and
are shown in Table 1. The results showed that the
main structural indexes that impact the land eco-
logical condition in the city were the proportion of
urban green space, the proportion of urban land
used for the ecological infrastructure and propor-
tion of unpolluted water. Their obstacle degrees
were 13.66%, 11.58% and 9.98%, respectively.
4.1.3 Evaluation of soil pollution and degradation
Soil pollution and degradation were analyzed based
on soil pollution indexes, the polluted proportion
of the total area and degradation of waters. The
results are shown in Figure 3. On the whole, soil
pollution and degradation in the city of Xinzheng
was not serious. However, parts of the Longhu and
Mengzhuang town in the north area were seriously
polluted and degraded. The pollution was partially
due to coal mining and industrial development in
these areas. In scattered areas of the Xuedian town
in the central area, Xinzheng urban area, Hezhuang
town and Xincun village, there were small and scat-
tered areas of pollution. In the rest of the area,
soil pollution degradation was not significant. The
obstacle degrees for the indexes that determine the
Figure 3. Soil pollution and degradation in the city of
Xinzheng.
8/27/2014 5:56:55 PM
 pollution and degradation status in the city are of the development of unused land and improved
shown in Table 1. Among these indexes, soil pollu- area, with an obstacle degree of 2.87%. The obsta-
tion ranked first with an obstacle degree of 6.32%, cle degree of contribution of increased land use for
followed by the annual reduction rate of the waters, human and ecology was 0.95%; the obstacle degree
with an obstacle degree of 2.06%. of elasticity of increased land use for human and
ecology was 0.04%.
4.1.4 Combined evaluation of ecological
construction and protection
4.2 Analysis of comprehensive assessment
The combined index of ecological construction and
protection in a city reflects combined effects of the The land ecological conditions in the city of
ecological construction, protection and conserva- Xinzheng were assessed using the evaluation sys-
tion in the region, including population growth and tem and results are shown in Figure 5. Meanwhile,
ecological land elasticity coefficient. These indexes the proportions of the lands at each level over the
included the elasticity index of increased land for total land were calculated and the outcomes are
human and ecological use, contribution of increased shown in Figure 6.
land for human and ecological use, shelterbelt index
and annual increase rate of development of unused
land and improved acreage. As shown in Figure 4,
ecological construction and protection were bet-
ter in the east than in the west. The best areas
were the Longwang district, Hezhuang town and
Baqian town. These regions are flat with excellent
irrigation conditions and ecological environment.
These indexes were the lowest in the Guanyinsi,
Lihe, Chengguan towns and the city of Xinzheng
in the southern areas. These area had stone min-
ing activities, with high population density, human
activities, which might have impact on the ecology.
Calculation showed that forestation had the big-
gest impact for ecological construction and protec-
tion of land in the city (Table 1), with an obstacle
degree of 3.90%, followed by annual increase rate

Figure 5. Comprehensive assessment of and ecological

conditions in the city of Xinzheng.

Figure 4. Combined effect of ecological construction Figure 6. Composition of grades based on land eco-
and protection in the city of Xinzheng. logical status in the city of Xinzheng.

49

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 49 8/27/2014 5:56:58 PM

 Citywide, there were 79 administrative villages
in the regions with excellent ecological conditions,
accounting for 24.16% of the total area. They were
mainly located in the Xincun town in the west,
Mengzhuang and Guodian towns in the north,
Baqian town in the east and Hezhuang town in the
middle. These areas have mild and humid climates
with excellent hydrothermal conditions. Their ter-
rains are relatively flat and fertile with high vegeta-
tion coverage, and are mostly arable land.
The regions with good land ecological status were
the highest proportion of the five grades, which
covered 165 administrative villages, accounting for
50.46% of the total area, indicating the most of the
administrative villages in the city were good in land
ecology condition. These included the north part
of the Guadian town, west part of Xuedian town,
north and east parts of Hezhuang and Xindian
towns. Most of these areas are arable land with
fertile soil and good vegetation coverage.
57 administrative villages had moderate ecologi-
cal condition, accounting for 17.43% of the total
area. These areas were scattered over every town-
ship. The areas were located at low attitude with
slow slope. They had excellent vegetation cover-
age and abundant water supply with good soil and
water conservation ability. However, high popula-
tion density had resulted in slightly deteriorated
land ecological conditions.
5.5% of the land in the area had fair ecologi-
cal status, including 18 administrative villages,
mainly situated in the western and eastern parts
of the Longhu town, south of Guanyinsi and
Xindian towns and eastern part of Xindian town.
These areas were poor in natural and fundamental
index, and had some coal mining activities, which
had a negative impact on the local ecological
conditions.
The ecological status was poor mainly in the
urban areas of the Xinzheng city, northern Lon-
ghu town and parts of Guodian town. The areas
covered eight administrative villages, account-
ing for 2.45% of the total area. These areas were
mostly covered by buildings with severe land pol-
lution and degradation. Urbanization and indus-
trialization have resulted in change in land use
and affected the ecological environment in these
areas.
5 MEASURES FOR ECOLOGICAL
CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION
1. Promoting ecological construction for better
ecological environment
It is clear from the comprehensive evaluation
of the land ecology that ecological construction
can improve the ecological environment in the
50
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 50
city of Xinzheng. Therefore, we suggest that
more forest protection projects be implemented,
more land be restored to forest from cultivated
lands, more protective forests be made with
multiple trees and species. Rationale manage-
ment should be implemented to combine effort
through biological and engineering measures.
This would effectively prevent the land from
ecological deterioration. The main measures
include the protection of arable land, the trans-
formation of low-and middle-yielding farmland
to high-yielding land, avoidance of deterioration
of river ecological environments, reduction of
release of sewage and minimizing water pollu-
tion from agriculture. Site-specific construction
of green food bases will also improve the ration-
ale development of agricultural structure and
achieve a virtuous cycle of agro-ecosystems.
2. Strengthening intensive land use for better
efficiency
Economic development and acceleration of
urbanization have affected the land ecological
condition in the city. Furthermore, higher pro-
portion of land being allocated for development,
and scattered rural settlements have resulted in
inefficient use of large amount of land, lead-
ing to certain waste of land. Therefore, to solve
these problems, we should build eco-industrial
parks with minimal use of arable land for better
and scientific use of the land to achieve intensive
use of land. In urban construction, idle lands in
downtown area should be used first, and the size
and function of city should be planned reason-
able and rationally to avoid blind expansion of
the city. The settlements should be centralized
to avid land waste and to reduce use of arable
land for better land efficiency.
3. Optimizing the industrial structure to achieve a
win-win situation in ecology and economy
In the strategic planning of the citys economic
development, regional ecological security should
be taken into consideration seriously. The indus-
tries that impose security threats to ecological
security should be restricted, while those that
promote the security should be strengthened.
We should develop re-cycle systems to reduce
consumption of resources, energy, and to mini-
mize ecological destruction and environmental
pollution. Through the adjustment of industrial
structures, we will be able to relive the pressure
on ecology systems and environments from the
beginning. In the countryside, eco-agricultural
gardens should be constructed and way of
economy growth, industrial structure and spa-
tial layout should be reasonably adjusted. This
will enhance the supportive role of ecologi-
cal environment to sustainable development in
long-term.
8/27/2014 5:57:01 PM
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Cheng, J.N., Zhao, G.X. and Li, H., et al, 2008. Dynamic
changes and evaluation of land ecological environ-
ment status based on RS and GIS technique [J].
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Analysis on deformation development of open-pit slope under

the influence of underground mining

N. Wang & B.H. Wan

School of Mechanics and Civil Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, China

P. Zhang
School of Civil Engineering, Qingdao Technological University, Shandong, Qingdao, China

X.L. Du
College of Resources and Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: With continuous excavation, more and more open-pit mines are gradually transformed to
underground mining, and the northwest slope of the Antaibao open-pit mine in Shanxi province is under
the influence of underground mining now. Based on the slope engineering, the engineering background
and present deformation characteristics of the slope are introduced. The deformation response character-
istics of the steep slope under the influence of combined mining were researched by the numerical simula-
tion software FLAC3D, and it was demonstrated that the steep slope formed by open-pit mining had new
characteristics and tensile cracks occurred after underground mining of No. 4 coal and No. 9 coal seams.
The displacement vector clearly changed, with maximum ground subsidence about 3.12 m and maximum
displacement toward free face about 0.48 m. According to the deformation curves of monitoring points
located on the slope, the deformation had a periodic change with the seasons, and the rainy season was
the most intense period of deformation development, when the tensile cracks on the top of the slope
became a seepage channel of rainwater. By studying the deformation process of open-pit slope under the
influence of underground mining, the deformation development characteristics were got, and it could
provide guidance for the reinforcement measures of landslides and ground subsidence.

1 INTRODUCTION mining, the mining depth is increased and the eco-

Slope engineering is an open system of wide and
deep involving fields with several pairs of problems
needed to be researched, such as finite deforma-
tion and infinite deformation problems, immediate
deformation and long time deformation problems,
at the same time, following with many natural sci-
ence and social problems.
At present, the theories and methods of slope
stability assessment can be reduced to qualitative
engineering geology comprehensive analysis and
quantitative mathematical-mechanics theo-
retical calculation, each has its advantages and
limitations. The limit equilibrium method is most
conventional for its characteristic is convenient
and efficient, many engineers adopt this method
to calculate and design. Since then, finite element
method is used for assessing slope stability, beside
that, some other methods such as DEM, DDA,
NMM, ANN and FLAC are started to be used for
slope stability analysis and research.
There are a large number of large-scale open-pit
coal mines in China, and with continuous open-pit
nomic costs increase at the same time. Therefore,
more and more open-pit coal mines are gradually
transformed to underground mining. Because of
integrated effect of underground mining, engineer-
ing geological conditions, rock and soil properties,
weather conditions, vegetation integrity and rein-
forced measures, the deformation development
process of open-pit slope is extremely complex.
In this paper, taking the engineering practice of
steep slope in the northwest of Antaibao coal mine
as example, the deformation process of open-pit
slope under the influence of underground mining
and other influencing factors is studied.
2 ENGINEERING BACKGROUND
2.1 Deformation situation
Well East Coal Industry is located at the north-
west of Antaibao open-pit mine, and the slope
formed by open-pit mining is mainly covered by
quaternary system loess. The maximum height of
the slope from bottom to the top is about 258 m.

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 The pit includes several steps about per 30 m from
bottom to the top, with step width about 40 m.
The steep slope is located in mine area where the
annual rainfall is 345.3682.2 mm, mostly concen-
trated in July, August and September. These three
months accounted for 75% of annual rainfall, some-
times up to 90%, with maximum daily precipitation
87.0153 mm. The longest continuous precipitation
time is 13 days. Underground Mining hollowed
cause the overlying rock caving, squeezing, tensile
fracture, changing of the slope hydrogeological
environment, and the water permeability increases. Figure 2. Geology schematic map.
With the continuous expansion of the scale mining
projects, leading to the invading side slope deforma-
tion increases, and the slope surface tension cracks
will gradually expand. In the rainy season, a large
number of surface rain poured through surface
cracks into the slope, while the rainfall, gush water
of rock and construction water soak and erode rock
bottom of slope, all these will further exacerbate the
instability of slope. Groundwater circulation intensi-
fies and further soften the rock, so slump occurred.
At present, the slope of the two flat plate emerge
a lot of through cracks and potholes in upper two
plates, both bring condition for surface water infil-
tration, while only the lower part of the northwest
slope has been reinforced by shotcreting, and the
upper surface has not established drainage sys-
tem. With rainwater infiltration, cracks continue Figure 3. Cracks on the northwest pit.
develop and generate multiple wedge sliding body,
local slippery slope collapse may occur at any time.
As shown in Figure 1, northwest slope of produce Creep area is located in the southern of the west
large local cracks, slope slide has occurred, and a slope, on the surface emerges a large number tension
huge wedge sliding body with length over 100 m cracks. Under creep zone lies gob of No. 4 coal seam,
has been formed. Geology schematic map is shown and underground mining hollowed cause the overly-
in Figure 2, there are loess and other 14 rock layers, ing rock caving, squeezing, tensile fracture, changing
which are loess, weathered sandstone, sandstone, the slope of the hydrogeological environment. Creep
mudstone, aleuvite, sandstone, No. 4 coal, shale, zone upper steep rock slope, its surface weather-
aleuvite, shale, No. 9 coal, sandstone, No. 11 coal, ing is very serious, the local gravel soil slippage has
shale, aleuvite, from top to bottom respectively. occurred, coupled with the history of the creep area
36 displacement monitoring points are distrib- where several landslides have occurred, resulting that
uted on three platforms evenly, mainly on the north rock mass properties is poor. Through investigation,
pit and west pit, and Figure 3 shows a monitoring bedrock surface buried depth is deeper and the sur-
point on the top platform. face is covered with red clay in the area. Red clay
is highly plastic clay, with high porosity ratio, and
significant shrinkage, but the compression is low, it
can easily become a gathering place of water. The
top of the slope in the region has been sprayed and
protected, where the flat plate cracks have appeared
in varying degrees, and the landslide had occurred
before. Therefore, this region is very likely to form a
wedge sliding body, shown in Figure 4.

2.2 Mining condition

The coal mine includes three minable seams, and
they are all Taiyuan formation coal seams, and
Figure 1. Full view of the open-pit mine. now No. 9 and No. 11 coal seams are main minable

54

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 slope load, but also becoming the channel of sur-
face water infiltration because of the large gap fill-
ing characteristics, and rock blasting vibration will
cause damage and failure.

3 SIMULATION OF DEFORMATION
PROCESS UNDER THE INFLUENCE
OF COAL MINING

3.1 Generation of 3D calculation model

In this paper, software FLAC3D is adopted to ana-
lyze the deformation process, and the calculation
model of the steep slope is generated according to
Figure 4. Location of creep area. detective results, and then numerical simulation
of deformation process is carried out. Combining
field investigation and engineering geology con-
dition, 3D calculation model as illustrated in
Figure 6 is generated.
In the simulation model, the length from east
to west is 250 m along X axis, and the width from
south to north is 1735 m along Y axis, while the
height is 420 m along Z axis.
The model is divided into 183229 elements and
34453 panel points, with horizontal displacement
of lateral boundaries limited and bottom bound-
ary fixed. Coulomb-Mohr strength criterion is
adopted to describe the gradual deformation dam-
age of rock and layers. The model is composed of
Figure 5. Layout of the mining condition.
loess and 14 other rock layers, and the physical and
mechanical parameters of the 15 layers are deter-
mined by geological exploration.
The mining work-faces in No. 9 coal seam is
seams. The main aquifer of No. 4 coal seam is
much broader than gobs in No. 4 coal seam, but
K3 sandstone fissure aquifers, which is in the bot-
they are farther from the slope, mainly causing
tom of Shanxi formation, the direct aquifer of
ground subsidence. As is shown is Figure 6, there
No. 9 and No. 11 coal seam is Taiyuan formation
are five gobs in No. 4 coal seam. Only gob 1 and
sandstone of fissure aquifers.
gob 2 are linked together, causing obvious surface
Underground mining induces caving of overly-
ing rock, crush, tensile fracture, with slope rock
mass integrity destroyed and the original rock
strength decreases. After excavation, slope instabil-
ity failure is a gradual process, and slope deforma-
tion is affected by complex underground mining
and open-pit mining, and influence of the two
mining part of overlap, leading to the mining inter-
act effects, and it is a complex dynamic systems.
Layout of mining condition is shown in Figure 5.
Meanwhile, inside the body there are concealed
mining gobs, and it will also play a certain impact
in slope deformation development.
At this stage, in addition to underground min-
ing, the other factors of engineering activities are
mainly dump load, vibration, transportation load,
building load and slope reinforcement measures
taken also affect the development of slope defor-
mation. The upper part of the north slope has Figure 6. Layout of gobs in No. 4 coal seam and chosen
a large dump load, which not only increases the sections.

55

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 55 8/27/2014 5:57:05 PM

 subsidence, gob 4 and gob 5 are nearer to the 4 DISPLACEMENT MONITORING DATA
slope. AND DEFORMATION MODE

4.1 Displacement monitoring data

3.2 Deformation distribution
The displacement development curve of local
Figure 7 shows the horizontal displacement of
monitoring point JD-C1-22 with time is shown in
each profile monitoring points of with eleva-
Figure 9. As can be seen, after taking appropriate
tion changes, the two points at 170 m and 130
measures to reinforce, the displacement develop-
of section 1 produce a displacement deformation
ment of the slope is substantially stable, but in the
towards goaf side, while other points towards
rainy season, slope surface deformation increases
outside. Section 2 and section 3 also produce a
accordingly, and at the end of the rainy season dis-
horizontal displacement to the goaf side at the
placement value will fall.
two measuring points with elevation more than
JD-C1-22 monitoring point is located in the west
98 m, and other three monitoring points towards
pit. Although the slope is still in steady state, rain
outside, in particular, the amount of displacement
water does not lead to the occurrence of landslide,
carried steep slope mining sites are small, although
but as time going, under the combined effects of
the points near the top of the slope produce a large
various factors, the displacement of the slope will
retraction displacement to goaf side. However, this
gradually increase, Under the influence of continu-
deformation is beneficial for the overall stability of
ous rainfall and other factors, there is still a risk of
the slope, therefore, after extraction, the deforma-
landslides, therefore, we must closely monitor in the
tion of the overall slope is substantially stable.
region and take necessary reinforcement measures.
The displacement vector changed obviously,
JD-C1-01 monitoring point is located in the creep
with maximum ground subsidence about 3.12 m
area. Rainfall in the area is not large in the past years,
and maximum displacement toward free face
and the displacement data of JD-C1-01 monitoring
about 0.48 m.
point is shown in Figure 10. It can be seen that the
Figure 8 shows the plastic zones after under-
development of creep displacement and variation of
ground mining, resulting in subsidence on the
west slope of variation above the mouth of the coal
ground and widespread tensile zones on the top of
is similar, but the displacement response of creep
slope, on the edge of the influence zone of the main
area during the rainy season is not so dramatic as
influencing angle. At the same time, there are com-
the west slope, but the response lasts a longer time.
pression zones on the bottom of slope and the
ground far from the slope, leading to shear failure
zones of the slope and ground subsidence.

Figure 9. Displacement trend of JD-C1-22 monitoring

point.

Figure 7. Horizontal displacement of monitoring

points with elevation changes after underground mining.

Figure 10. Displacement trend of JD-C1-01 monitor-

Figure 8. Distribution of plastic zones. ing point.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 56 8/27/2014 5:57:08 PM


Figure 11. Schematic of deformation mode under com-
bined mining.
However, under conditions of prolonged rainfall,
creep deformation zone will be fully developed.
Creep deformation tends to occur series of
small local slip surfaces first, and then partial slip
surface gradually linked into a continuous slide
bed surface, resulting in a slow slide. Under certain
conditions, it may produce a sharp slide along the
slippery surface. Because of this creep deformation
characteristics, early detection and timely remedia-
tion becomes more important.
4.2 Deformation mode
The slope has a tendency of deformation towards
both outside and towards the gobs. On the top
of the slope, the deformation is mainly towards
underground mining gobs, while on the bottom the
deformation is mainly towards outside. As a result,
underground mining induces tensile fractures on
the top of the steep slope, with slope rock mass
integrity destroyed and the original rock strength
decreases. After excavation, slope deformation
is affected by complex underground mining and
former open-pit mining, and latter underground
mining will play a continuous impact in slope
deformation development.
According to the deformation curves of moni-
toring points located on the slope, the deformation
had a periodic change with the seasons, and the
rainy season was the most intense period of defor-
mation development, when the tensile cracks on the
top of the slope became seepage channel of rain-
water, and an abnormal amount of rainfall during
rainy season can be a great risk for slope stability.
5 CONCLUSION
1. The slope has a tendency of deformation
towards both outside and towards the gobs. On
the top of the slope, the deformation is mainly
towards underground mining gobs, while on the
57
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 57
bottom the deformation is mainly towards out-
side. As a result, underground mining induces
tensile fractures on the top of the steep slope,
with slope rock mass integrity destroyed and
the original rock strength decreases. After exca-
vation, slope deformation is affected by com-
plex underground mining and former open-pit
mining, and latter underground mining will
play a continuous impact in slope deformation
development.
2. According to the deformation curves of moni-
toring points located on the slope, the deforma-
tion had a periodic change with the seasons, and
the rainy season was the most intense period
of deformation development, when the tensile
cracks on the top of the slope became seepage
channel of rainwater, and an abnormal amount
of rainfall during rainy season can be a great
risk for slope stability.
3. Creep deformation tends to occur series of
small local slip surfaces first, and then partial
slip surface gradually linked into a continuous
slide bed surface, resulting in a slow slide. Under
certain conditions, it may produce a sharp slide
along the slippery surface. Because of this creep
deformation characteristics, early detection and
timely remediation becomes more important.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financially supported by National Key Technol-
ogy R&D Program in the 11th Five year Plan of
China (2009BAB48B02) and 973 Program under
Grant No. 2010CB226801. For constructive com-
ments and supports of the manuscript I would like
to thank Professor Jiang Yaodong and Professor
Wang Xuchun.
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analysis of Three Gorges ship lock high slope through
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engineering rock mass stability evaluation[M].
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Rural landscape assessment in the mining affected area:

A case study in Shandong Province, China

Y.H. Fu, W.Y. Li, J.Y. Zhang, S. Jiang, L. Ma & P. Zhang

Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration, China University of Mining and Technology
(Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Underground mining activities cause land subsidence and lead to severe problems.
Especially in the rural areas, landscapes were highly impacted by mining activities, and the lives of the
residents changed to large extent. Landscape planning is an essential way to relieve the mining impact;
therefore, as the basis of landscape planning, a precise assessment is of great importance. Taking a mine
site in Shandong Province, China as an example, this paper assessed the landscape in consideration of
the mining impact, including the assessment on the productive function, ecological function and aesthetic
function. The final assessment value of the research area after the mining effect is 56.94 with limited
landscape function. Specifically, the result of productive function is 46.34, ecological function 65.27 and
aesthetic function 70.36. The results indicate the landscape situation after mining activity, which could be
a reference for the land reclamation planning and design.

1 INTRODUCTION also become an obstacle of the sustainable devel-

According to the BP2013 (BP Statistical Review
of World Energy 2013), the coal production
reached 1825 million tonnes oil equivalent in
China in 2012, and increased 3.5% than 2011. It
is obvious that coal still plays a key role in China
and this situation will sustain for a long time as
China is a country which rich in coal, short of
oil and gas.
Since 92% of the coal production comes from
the underground mining activities, land subsidence
seems to be one of the most prominent problems
in China. It is estimated that 10 thousand tons
of coal extracted underground the subsidence
area is up to 0.533 hm2, and low to 0.033 hm2,
with an average 0.20.33 hm2. Subsidence land
is expected to increase 2 104 hm2 annually (Hu
1996). Land subsidence may cause the water log-
ging, farmland deterioration and building dam-
age and lead to the immigration of the residents
in certain areas. The building ruins left behind
occupy large areas, affect the ecological stability
and become the grey patches on the landscape.
Besides, it destroys the traditions and aesthetic
features in the rural areas.
Social issues may also be induced by the min-
ing subsidence. On one hand, the rural residents
dissatisfied of the mining company because of the
change of the environment and their way of life.
On the other hand, most of the benefit of mining
activities goes to the urban construction, hence,
enlarges the rural-urbandisparity. Finally, this will
opment of the mining industry.
Landscape planning is an essential way to
relieve the mining impact; therefore, as the basis
of landscape planning, a precise assessment is of
great important.
In recent years, a large number of researches
have been done concerning the rural landscape
assessment. The systematical evaluation on quality,
sensitivity, accessibility, compatibility and livabil-
ity of rural landscape has been discussed by Liu &
Wang (2002). Xie (2005) has set up an assessment
system including item, factor and index on the
basis of three functions of rural landscape includ-
ing social, ecological and aesthetic, thus established
a model of integrative evaluation. Chen proposed
the AVC assessment system, including attraction,
vitality and capacity, and established a four levels
index system (Chen 2007).
Besides, many researches have been done con-
cerning the mining impact on the landscape. Zheng
has studied on the mining subsidence impact on the
sustainable utilization of cultivated land, includ-
ing the pattern, quality, ecological and economic
benefit (Zheng 1998). Hu proposed the prediction
and classification method of the land subsidence
impact (Hu 2001). Zhao set up an impact assess-
ment system based on the analysis on the land
impact mechanism (Zhao 2009).
However, the existed researches on the mining
impact assessment and the rural landscape assess-
ment are separated, thus, the assessment system
which suitable to the situation in the mining impact

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 rural landscape is necessary. The main purpose of
this paper is trying to make a precise assessment
of the rural landscape in the mining impact area,
in order to provide a reference for the future land
reclamation planning and design.
2 BASIC INFORMATION IN THE STUDY
AREA AND REASERCH METHODS
2.1 Basic information in the study area
The study area is located in the western part of
Shandong Province in eastern China, covering
about 124.29 km2. It is a typical plain mining area
in eastern China, with subsidence flooded lands
and densely populated villages. Natural elevation
is +39 m above mean sea level on average. The
underground water table is about 2 m4 m below
the soil surface, and the ground is flat with slope
1/60001/7000. The climate is continental monsoon
climate, with the features of dry and cold winter,
and humid and hot summer. Most precipitation
falls between June and September. It is one of the
most important grain production areas in China,
and agriculture is of great important in the devel-
opment of this region. In recent years, the efficient
agriculture developed in a rapid pace, account for
about 75% of the total production. The study area
is a place with long history and titled Hometown
of Chinese Folk Culture.
As shown in Table 1, cultivated land repre-
sents the largest percentage 78.99%, and residen-
tial area constitutes the 14.87%, forest, water and
construction land account for 2.5%, 2.4% and 1%
respectively.
2.2.1 Mining impact assessment
As the study area has a high ground water level, the
main result caused by land subsidence is water log-
ging, choose it as the factor for the mining impact
assessment, and divided the area into 3 impact
levels (Fig. 1).
I: No water, slight deformation on the land sur-
face, without apparent impact on the vegeta-
tion. This area mainly located on the margin
of the subsidence basin with 10 mm to 1.5 m
subsidence. Except for cultivated land and for-
est, from 10 mm to the 0.5 m, the impact on
these areas is negligible; therefore define 0.5 m
to 1.5 m as level I for the land in this two land
use types.
II: Seasonal water flooded, severe deformation
on the land surface, with obvious impact on
the vegetation, and soil erosion. This area
mainly located in the area with 1.5 m to 2.5 m
subsidence.
III: Perennial water flooded, without vegeta-
tion, located in the area with above 2.5 m
subsidence.
62% of the land in the study area will submerge
into the water throughout the year after the mining
activity (Table 2).
2.2.2 Landscape classification
The landscape has been divided into 3 landscape
types based on the human disturbance: natural
landscape, semi-natural landscape and artificial

2.2 Research methods

Mining subsidence prediction and Geological
Information System (GIS) were used in this paper.
Mining Subsidence Prediction System (MSPS)
which is developed by China University of Mining
and Technology was chosen to analyze the mining
impact. ArcGIS, released by Environmental
Systems Research Institute (ESRI), was chosen for
overlay analysis.

Figure 1. Impact level classification map of landscape

in the study area.
Table 1. Present land use situation in the study area.

Land use type Areas (km2) Percentage (%) Table 2. Areas of landscape impact levels.
Residential area 5.66 14.87 Impact level Area (km2) Percentage (%)
Cultivated land 30.04 78.99
Forest 0.95 2.5 I 11.92 31
Water 0.91 2.4 II 2.52 7
Construction land 0.48 1 III 23.60 62
Total 38.04 100 Total 38.04 100

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 Table 3. Landscape types in the study area.

Types Subtypes Units Area (km2)

Natural River I 0.02
II 0.03
Semi- Cultivated Non impact 6.78
natural land
I 2.24
II 2.01
Forest Non impact 0.22
I 0.04
II 0.02
Water I 0.13
II 0.02
Figure 2. Landscape classification map in the research Artificial Residential I 2.14
area. area
II 0.41
Construction I 0.37
land
landscape. The division of subtypes and units II 0.07
are according to the mining impact and land Destoryed III (Cultivated 19.02
use types. Landscape classification map (Fig. 2) land before)
has been made based on the land use map and III (Forest before) 0.67
mining impact assessment map, and the statistics III (Residential 3.11
(Table 3) has been made by the application of area before)
ArcGIS. III (Construction 0.04
Specifically, because the land use types before land before)
the mining impact have different characteristics III (Water before) 0.75
and need different reclamation technology, it is Total 38.04
divided into different units in the destroyed land-
scape subtypes.
It could be conclude from Table 3 that landscape Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been
will change a lot with the mining impact, despite applied to determine the weight of each indicator
the I and II impacted land which will be reclaimed (Table 4). Firstly, set up the judgment matrix based
into the land use types before the mining impact, on the determination of the importance of the fac-
the destroyed landscape will achieve 23.60 km2, tors to the items by expert estimate. Then determine
especially, 19.02 km2 of the cultivated land will be the contribution of the lower layer to the upper by
destroyed after mining. 0.67 km2 of forest, 3.11 the eigenvector of the judgment matrix. The result
km2 of residential area and 0.04 km2 of construc- of the consistency check is CI < 0.1, CR < 0.1 with
tion land will also be destroyed. content consistency.
The matrix of factor on the indicator level is
2.2.3 Landscape assessment Rij, the weight of the indicator is aij (i = 1, 2, , n;
Data for the indicator value was collected from fol- j = 1, 2, , bn), thus assessment result of the first
lowing ways: Statistical Yearbook, Mining Plan, level Ri could be calculated as follows:
Environment Impact Assessment Report, Geolog-
ical Disaster Assessment Report, Soil and Water Ri Rij aij (1)
Conservation Report; land use map; landscape
index values are calculated by Fragstats 3.3; inves- Assessment result of the second level R:
tigation and expert estimation. R Ri Ai (2)
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been
applied to determine the weight of each indicator Assessment result of the third level :
(Table 4). Firstly, set up the judgment matrix based n
on the determination of the importance of the fac-
tors to the items by expert estimate. Then determine
= R Wi (3)
i=1
the contribution of the lower layer to the upper by
the eigenvector of the judgment matrix. The result where, Ai is the weight of the factors, Wi is the
of the consistency check is CI < 0.1, CR < 0.1 with weight of items, m is the amount of items.
content consistency. The assessment standard is shown in Table 5.

61

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 61 8/27/2014 5:57:13 PM

 Table 4. The assessment weights and indicator values.

Item Weight Factor Weight Indicator Weight Value

Productive 0.493 Economic vitality 0.54 Output value 0.45 2139.74
function per unit area
Per capita 0.55 4643.3
net income
Rationality of 0.46 Industry growth 0.44 22%
industrial structure Service sector 0.29 30%
growth
Commercial rate 0.27 80%
of agricultural
products
Ecological 0.310 Ecological potentiality 0.40 Soil fertility 0.45 1.5%
function Water quality 0.34 0.6
index
Air quality 0.21 2.7
index
Eco-stability 0.32 Frequency of 0.24 <7%
natural disaster
Proportion 0.44 15%
of natural
landscape
Forest-cover 0.32 20%
rate
Landscape 0.28 Landscape 0.33 2.38
heterogeneity diversity
index
Landscape 0.21 1.08
dominance
Landscape 0.20 0.69
evenness
Landscape 0.26 0.51
connectivity
index
Aesthetic 0.197 Landscape 0.25 Exotic degree 0.31 23
function characteristic of natural
landscape
Number of 0.33 15
historical
sites
Popularity of 0.36 12
historical sites
Cultural richness 0.33 Secondary school 0.42 97.62%
enrolment
Historical index 0.27 76
Richness of 0.31 79
traditions
Coordination of 0.42 Proportion 0.44 7.82%
artificial landscape of artificial
landscape
Proportion of 0.56 30.09%
cultivated

Table 5. Landscape assessment standard.

Assessment value >90 7590 6075 4560 <45

Level Excellent Good General Limited Extremely limited

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 62 8/27/2014 5:57:15 PM

 3 RESULTS
The final assessment value of the research area
after the mining impact is 56.94 with limited land-
scape function (Table 6).
3.1 Productive function
The assessment result of productive function is lim-
ited with the value 46.34. Before the mining activi-
ties, the specialized agriculture developed rapidly
and the economic crops are highly encouraged in
the study area, whereas after mining, 19.02 km2
of cultivated land will be submerged into water,
2.24 km2 and 2.01 km2 with impact level I and II,
which means the deterioration of the soil, and lead
to the decrease of the productive function. How-
ever, the mining profit could also motivate the eco-
nomic development of the area.
3.2 Ecological function
The assessment result of ecological function is gen-
eral with the value 65.27. The land subsidence con-
tributes to the decline of soil fertility, proportion
of natural landscape and forest-cover, also the land
surface deformation and soil erosion. Besides, large
areas are occupied by abandoned buildings which
severely destroyed the landscape and disturbed the
eco-stability and become an obstacle of the eco-
process. Moreover, the existed agriculture, indus-
try and eco-balance will be damaged. The number
of aerobic microorganism in the soil will decline
rapidly, after the cultivated land flooded. Further-
more, the green network and ecological corridor
will be cut off due to the ecological deterioration
and the broken of eco-stability. However, the coex-
isted terrestrialand aquatic ecosystem results in the
improvement of landscape heterogeneity and the
ecological environment. In conclusion, the poten-
tial and problem of the ecological function coex-
isted in this area.
3.3 Aesthetic function
The assessment result of aesthetic function is gen-
eral with the value 70.36. The study area is located
in the plain area, without exotic natural landscape
and famous historic reserves. However, the tradi-
tion and cultural activities are abundant there, and
Table 6. Landscape assessment results.
Item Value Factor Value
Landscape 56.94 Productive function 46.34
assessment
Ecological function 65.27
Aesthetic function 70.36
63
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 63
the water flooded result in the decrease of the arti-
ficial landscape and increase of water landscape
which may improve the aesthetic in some extent.
4 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Main achievements
This research take both the speciality of rural areas
and mining impact into consideration, set up an
assessment system, which could be a reference for
the reclamation planning and design. Besides, the
area has been divided into landscape unite based
on the mining impact level and land use which will
be a precise reference for the future land reclama-
tion design. Moreover, the values of the index are
derived in consideration of the mining impact, and
the overall assessment covers productive, ecologi-
cal and aesthetic, is the basis of future rural land-
scape planning in this area.
4.2 Limitations and uncertainty
The values of some index which should be used in
the assessment are difficult to derive, thus the index
selection should be further discussed in the future
research. Moreover, the local floraandfauna, and
their impact mechanisms have not been mentioned
in this article, however, they are of great important
to the ecological process.
REFERENCES
Chen, W. 2007. Theories and Methods of Rural Landscape
Planning. Beijing: China Electronic Power press. (in
Chinese).
Hu Z.Q. 1996. Subsidence land management and reclama-
tion in coal mining areas. Beijing: Coal Industry Press.
(in Chinese).
Hu, H.F. & He, W.L. 2001. Prediction of the scale and
degree of the subsidence impact land. Mine Surveying
9:2125. (in Chinese).
Liu, B.Y., Wang, Y.C. 2002. Theoretical base and evalu-
ating indicator system of rural landscape assessment
in China. Journal of Chinese Landscape Architecture
5:7679. (in Chinese).
Wang, L. 2008. The research of the harmonious-ecology
models of village migration and its key technology
(Doctoral Dissertation), China University of Mining
and Technology (Beijing). (in Chinese).
Xie, H.L. 2004. Preliminary researches on the functional
evaluation of rural landscape. Acta Ecologica Sinica
24(9):19881993. (in Chinese).
Zhao, Y.L. & Huang, Q.H. 2009. Study on the assessment
of land destory degree in mine land reclamation plan.
Metal Mine5:161163, 167. (in Chinese).
Zheng, N.S. & Hu, Z.Q. 1998. An analysis of subsid-
ence effects on farmland everlasting utilization due
to coal mining. Coal Mine Environmental Protection
12(1):1821. (in Chinese).
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Consistent handling approach on multi-temporal land use status data

with various differences

H.B. Zhang, Y.H. Wang & Z.Z. Guo

School of Surveying and Land Information Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, China

ABSTRACT: This study aimed to reduce and eliminate the differences among the multi-temporal land
use status data, to derive the multi-temporal land use status data series that can be mutually compatible
and coordinated, and to support and promote the comprehensive analysis and assessment based on the
multi-temporal land use status data. In this study, based on the analysis and investigation of the existing
real multi-temporal land use status data, we firstly more comprehensively summarized and described the
types of differences and the forms of expression among the multi-temporal land use status data sets, then
we proposed the uniformity treatment methods for the treatment of data differences based on Feature
Manipulate Engine (FME) software, elaborated the basic steps and the related principles of this method
and conducted preliminary experimental verification.

1 INTRODUCTION this study, we conduced survey and analyses on

Land is the material basis for the survival and
development of human beings. To conduct
dynamic survey and monitoring on the status of
the locations, areas, types, ownership/obligation,
and arrangement of land use in different periods
of time by using the topographical, remote sensing
and Geographic Information System (GIS) tech-
niques and to conduct comprehensive analyses on
these data are one of the core tasks for the land
administration departments of various countries in
the world. Since the implementation of reform and
open policy, our country (China) has conducted
one after another two national-wide Land Use
Change Survey and Data Update. However, due
to the differences in the background characteristic
of times, legal basis, classification systems, techni-
cal criteria, and operational specification between
two surveys (Zhang, Y.Q. and Yang, Z.S., 2013.),
there have been various differences existing in the
collected data sets for the multi-dynamic land use
status, which, in turn, limit the comprehensive
analysis, assessment, prediction and application of
these multi-temporal land use status data.
In order to reduce and eliminate the differences
existing in the multi-temporal land use status data
sets, to derive and formulate the mutually compati-
ble and coordinated multi-temporal land use status
data series and to support and promote the com-
prehensive analysis, assessment and prediction, in
This research is supported by the National Science & Tech-
nology Support program of China (2012BAJ23B04-2).
multi-temporal land use status data sets provided
by the Land Administration Departments of the
city Wuhan in Hubei Province, the city Qionghai in
Hainan Province, and the city Changsha in Hunan
Province. Based on these analyses, we formulated
the uniformity treatment methods for reduction
and elimination of the differences existing in these
data sets based on Feature Manipulate Engine
(FME) transformation and integration software.
We also described the basic steps and the related
principles of this method.
2 ANALYSES ON THE TYPES OF THE
DIFFERENCES IN MULTI-TEMPORAL
LAND USE DATA
The so-called differences refer to the structural,
temporal and spatial differences in various key ele-
ments, multiple layers and several functions within
the entire system (Wu, J., 1991.). As a specific sub-
ject of the geographic and spatial data, the differ-
ences among the multi-temporal land use status
data sets can be analyzed and described on the basis
of differential theory for geographically spatial data.
Currently, investigators have not yet formed the uni-
form understanding and recognition on the issues
of differences in geographical and spatial data sets
and different investigators proposed different clas-
sification systems with various details according to
different research problems and different research
angels (Cui, T.J. and Guo, L., 2007; Wang, Y.H.,
2011.). For the understanding convenience, in this
study, based on the investigation and analysis, the

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 differences among multi-temporal land use data sets
were summarized in four aspects as follows:
2.1 The data formatting differences
The Land Administration Departments in different
regions in our country (China) used different soft-
ware systems to manage and treat the land use sta-
tus data when they conducted surveys on land use
status and data update in different periods of time.
For example, the Land Administration Department
of the city Wuhan in Hubei Province used MapGIS,
ArcGIS and Cangqing systems while the Land
Administration Department of Qionghai City in
Hainan province used Mapinfo, SuperMap and
ArcGIS systems. These systems usually designed
their own spatial data storage formats according
to different geological and spatial data models and
data structures and based on the demands of their
own functional arithmetic and the need of business
benefits. For example, these formats included the
point format (*.wt), line format (*.wl) and regional
format (*.wp) with MapGIS and the Shape format,
Coverage format and Geodatabase format with
ArcGIS, the TAB, DAT, MAP formats with Map-
Info and SDB and SDD with Supermap etc. There
are large differences in the basic organization laws
existing in these data formats.
2.2 Differences in the coordinate axis systems
A coordinate axis system is a reference system used
to describe and define the location of the specific
subject. The spatial data are actually meaningful
only they rely on special coordinate axis system. In
the field of soil survey, our country (China) has
formulated one after another the use of two coor-
dinate axis systems: Beijing 54 and Xian 80. Beijing
54 and Xian 80 are the coordinate axis systems
established with different references of ellipsoid
and earth location/orientation parameters. These
two coordinate axis systems can be further divided
into three different forms of coordinate axis sys-
tems: (1) Land (Geographic) coordinate system
consisted of latitude (B), longitude (L) and land
high (H); (2) Spatial right angel coordinate axis
whose axis are consisted of X, Y and Z axis and (3)
Rectangular Plane Coordinate System whose axis
included X and Y axis. The different coordinate axis
systems with the reference of the same ellipsoid.
In general, they can be inter-transformed through
relatively accurate and precise mathematical mod-
els while the coordinate axis systems with the refer-
ence of ellipsoid can only be mutually transformed
through approximate simulation mathematical
models (Zhang, J.Q., et al, 2008; Lei, H.C., 2011.).
Currently, the land use status data existing in our
country (China) mainly utilized Beijing 54 Gauss
66
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 66
plane coordinate system and Xian 80 Gauss plane
coordinate system. The commonly used uniform-
ity treatment system for the treatment of the differ-
ences among these coordinate axis systems is the
affine transformation system.
2.3 The differences in model configuration
Model configuration is the generalized description
for the basic types and characteristics of the data,
which reflects the structures, attributes, relevance
and restraints of various data sets. If data format
is said to be a language with strict grammar defini-
tion and restraint demand, then model configura-
tion is the consequences of the use of this language
by designers to describe the real world. Because of
the differences in specification requirement and
understanding/recognition, even the same data for-
mats are used, multi-temporal land use status data
usually utilize different model configurations to
describe the same types of land use status data. The
differences in model configuration can be further
divided into several types of differences as follows:
1. Descriptive differences
Descriptive differences refer to the use of different
numbers or meanings of attribute field to describe
and portray different characteristics of the same
phenomenon in different periods of time.
2. Nomenclature differences
Nomenclature differences refer to the situations
that different names/brands are given for the
synonym attributes or the same names/brands
are given for the homonymy attribute in the
same land use status data in different periods of
time, i.e. the same last names but different first
names versus the same first name but differ-
ent last names.
3. Derivative differences
Derivative differences refer to the situation that
certain attribute field in the land use status data
collected in certain periods did not have the
same directly corresponding attribute field but
hide an indirectly corresponding attribute field
derived from other attribute fields.
4. Constraint differences
Constraint differences refer to the constraint lim-
itations given in the aspects of data types, value
ranges, data length and decimal digits of the
synonym attributes of the same land use status
data sets collected in different periods of times.
Constraint differences can further result in the
example differences at the attribute value levels.
2.4 Differences in real data examples
Data format is the characterization of the data in
the term of form while real data examples are
8/27/2014 5:57:16 PM
 the description in the term of value. Only after
the data model has been designed and defined, the
corresponding data examples for the actual phe-
nomenon can be collected, input, and described
according to this model. Due to the differences in
the technical standardization, the ways of opera-
tion, classification criteria and the time of data
collection, there are differences existing in the syn-
onym data examples of the elements in the same
location in the land use status data collected in dif-
ferent periods of time. These differences are mainly
displayed in the several aspects as follows:
1. Differences in accuracy of the geometric
drawing.
Due to the influences and restraint by such fac-
tors as the deformation of the original draw-
ing, the ways of data collection, the instrument
accuracy, and treatment errors, differences in
the accuracy of the geographic drawings exist
in the same land elements of the land use sta-
tus data collected in different periods of times.
They are visually displayed as usual existence of
distance and gaps in their mutual locations and
shape and they hardly and completely coincide.
If they are within the restraint range, this type
of errors can be retained.
2. Differences in data sheet line system.
Due to the influences of data sheet line system
of the original drawing data, and the ways of
collection and treatment of image factoriza-
tion, the land use status data collected in the
earlier time usually expressed the an land cat-
egory entity as multiple metafile records. With
the maturity and popularization of the digital
non-gap spatial dataset and the demand for the
profound level of statistical analyses, the cur-
rent collection of land use status data used the
object-oriented thought and expressed a land
category entity as a single metafile record and
thus, lead to the example differences in corre-
sponding different metafiles of the same land
category entity in the land use status data sets
collected in different periods of time.
3. The differences in the land category codes and
names.
During the surveys and investigations on land use
status in our country (China), several different
coding schemes for land classification were for-
mulated and promulgated early or later. Among
them, three coding schemes that have been most
popularly applied (Chen, B.M., and Zhou, X.P.,
2007; Qu, X.G., et al, 2008.) included: (1) the
classification schemes formulated in Techni-
cal Rules of Inventory Survey on Land Use
promulgated in 1984; (2) National Land Classi-
fication (suitable for the transition period) and
the coding schemes promulgated in 2002 and
67
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 67
(3) National Standard Scheme for Land Use
Inventory Classification promulgated in 2007.
There have been relatively large differences at
the classification levels, the numbers of land
categories, names of land categories and the
coding compositions existing among the coding
schemes of three classification systems.
4. The differences in the expression of cultivated
land slope.
In the first inventory survey on land use status,
the information about the cultivated land slope
was calculated and recorded in the form of the
slope angel () or the slope value (i) (i = tan). In
the second inventory survey on land use status,
the information about land slope of the culti-
vated land was expressed as the slope angel or
the grade value classified on the basis of slope
angle range.
5. The differences in temporal changes of the
data.
Due to the influences by the natural and man-
made factors such as climate, disasters, eco-
nomic contraction and social development, the
changes in multiple forms such as new addition,
disappearance, expansion, and shrinkage in
the land use frequently occur in the real world.
As the real description and objective reflection
of these changes, there are differences in such
aspects as location, shape, area, land categories
and ownership/obligation existing in the same
land use entity in different periods of time. In
contrast to the differences mentioned above, this
type of differences should be preserved for trac-
ing analysis on the changes in land use status.
3 UNIFORMITY TREATMENT
METHODS FOR LAND USE DATA
BASED ON FEATURE MANIPULATE
ENGINE (FME)
In term of the differences described above, cur-
rently, the commonly used method is to conduct
the uniformity treatment according to the trans-
formation of data formats (or input and output
of the data) in the traditional GIS software, trans-
formation of the coordinate axis, model recon-
struction and adjustment, and data editing and
modification. However, the shortcomings of this
method, including the fewer support models for
data transformation, un-clearness of processing
flow chart, hard sharing of the professional knowl-
edge and experiences, frequent humancomputer
Interaction, low effectiveness, and easily-making
errors, generally occur. In order to overcome these
shortcomings of the traditional GIS software in
uniformity treatment, in this study, we designed
and formulated the uniformity treatment method
8/27/2014 5:57:16 PM
 for multi-temporal land use status data based on
FME.
FME is a set of spatial data transformation
treatment system developed by the company Safe
Software in Canada. This system has a complete
spatial data Extraction-Transformation-Load-
ing solution scheme. This system was established
based on the conception of semantic translation
to carry out the spatial data reading and writ-
ing the format and semantic translation. To date,
FME system has designed and provided a total of
250 types of model readers and 400 transformers,
providing a highly effective and reliable mean for
the applications of rapid data transformation with
high quality and multiple demands (Yang, F. and
Po, C., 2012.). Based on the actual and practical
demands, the users can nimbly choose the corre-
sponding transformers to carry out the individual
custommaking and installation for achieving the
data transformation without damage. However,
currently, FME software itself is still unable to
support the main stream of GIS software data for-
mat in China. Thus, using the plug-in library tech-
nique, a few researchers in China have developed
the expansion modules to support the domestic
Figure 1. The basic flow chat for uniformity treatment based on FME.
68
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 68
FME. In this study, we selected the freely avail-
able expansion modules MyFME that can effec-
tively support the domestically-made MapGIS and
Supermap to conduct analyses.
For the understanding convenience, in this study,
we took the facet figure spot data of the land use
status data sets collected in Hannan district of
Wuhan city as an example, referred the uniform-
ity treatment flow scheme and introduced the basic
steps and the related principles of application of
FME and its expended modules MyFME to con-
duct uniformity treatment.
1. FME Workbench modules was initiated and a
pretermitted uniformity treatment subject was
newly established.
2. The Add Reader command was clicked. The
reader with the corresponding format based on
the specific storage format was selected for the
land use status data. The land use status data
were added. FME automatically displayed the
information about the attribute field of the
added data, as shown in step (1) of Figure 1.
3. The Add Writer command was clicked. The
target data set with corresponding format
8/27/2014 5:57:16 PM
 according to the demand were selected. The
corresponding model structure were designed,
established and used to store and manage the
treated results. In order to increase the sharabil-
ity and the normalization degree of the treated
results, we selected the Shape document format
that is the open source and can be read by many
GIS software platforms as the storage format for
the treated results and designed the correspond-
ing model structure according to the Standard
Format of Land Use Database promulgated
by Ministry of Land and Resources of the
Peoples Republic of China in 2007 (Ministry of
Land and Resources of the Peoples Republic of
China, 2007.). Considering that the constraint
that Shape format can only use the maximal
10 English letters and 5 Chinese Han letters to
nomenclature the attribute field, we used the
code field stipulated in the standards as the
attribute field. The detailed format was shown
in step 2 of Figure 1.
4. Affiner was added (as shown in step 3 of Fig. 1):
Through clicking and dragging, the cascade
relationships initiated in this Affiner with facet
data of the picture spots were established. The
known values of more than three pairs of the
coordinated axis at the same locations but differ-
ent coordinate axis, six transformation param-
eters of the Affiner were calculated according to
principle of least squares and input into Affiner.
Affiner was used to transform the facet data of
the picture spots referred to Beijing 54 Gauss
plane coordinate system into Xian 80 Gauss
plane coordinate system.
5. Dissolver was added (as shown in step 4 of
Fig. 1): Through clicking and dragging, the
cascade relationships between this dissolver
and Affiner were established. The Group
by parameters of this dissolver were set as
the Land category codes and the affiliated
department field; the parameters for Attribute
to sum were set as the fields such as gross
area, linear-object area, fragmentary sur-
face area and net area, gathered the input
data into the land categories and combined
them with same adjacent picture spots of the
affiliated department into one picture spot
and recalculated the relevant attribute of the
new picture spot to eliminate the differences of
data sheet line system.
6. Attribute Value Mapper was added (as shown
in step 5 in Fig. 1): Through clicking and drag-
ging, the cascade relationships were established
between this Attribute Value Mapper and Aff-
iner. The parameters of Source Attribute
of this Attribute Value Mapper were set as
the Land Category Codes. The parameters
of New Attribute Name were set as 07
69
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 69
International Codes for Land Categories and
the original data set were input into the Value
Mapping table using the Land Category
Codes of 2002 and the corresponding 2007
International Codes. 2007 International
Codes was used as the uniformity standards
to eliminate the differences in Land Category
Codes. For the differences in Land Category
Codes, they can also be treated and eliminated
through similar setting with this Attribute Value
Mapper.
7. Attribute Range Mapper was added (as shown
in step 6 of Fig. 1): Through clicking and drag-
ging, the cascade relationships were established
between this Attribute Range Mapper and Aff-
iner. The parameters for Input Attribute of
this Attribute Range Mapper were set as the
Slope attribute and the parameters for Out-
put Attribute were set as the slope grades.
The slope range and the corresponding slope
grades were input into Range Lookup Tabel.
The slope information recorded in the slope
angle of the original data set was transformed
into the slope grade information to eliminate the
expression differences in the slope information.
8. For the differences derived from deducting
the area of land categories and the differences
of modifying the temporal data, they can be
treated by uniformity treatment by adding the
transformers such as Expression Evaluator,
Date Formatter and etc. The processes of set-
ting the parameters for these transformers were
similar to those described above and were not
described here.
9. In term of various differences, after the needed
transformers were added and the related param-
eters were correctly set, the corresponding rela-
tionships between the attribute field of the last
transformer and the attribute field of the tar-
geted data set were established through clicking
and dragging according to the principle. The
set parameters for various transformers were
further checked and verified. After ensuring no
existence of errors, the Run or Resume Trans-
lation command was clicked to initiate the exe-
cution of uniformity transformation treatment
for generating the targeted data set suitable for
the structure of the new model and the expres-
sion demands.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The land use is complex and diverse. Peoples under-
standing and recognition in land use are harmoni-
ous but different or are different in the same analysis
of synonym. Thus, the description and reflection of
the multi-temporal land use status data of different
8/27/2014 5:57:20 PM
 periods of time should be diverse and different.
During the modern time with the rapid develop-
ment of sciences and technologies and avocation
of individual characteristics, standardization and
specification can only ensure the relative uniformity
of the data in certain regions, certain applications
and certain periods. In the long run, differences will
be the long-term and enduring problem that we
will face during the acquirement, management and
application of the land use status data.
Due to the limited use of the real examples and
the experimental analysis of the sample data, while
the difference types and the corresponding strate-
gies of uniformity treatment for these differences
were formulated in this study, there may be omis-
sions. In term of this situation, more perfect clas-
sification systems for the differences in land use
status data should be established by further collec-
tion and analyses of the multi-temporal land use
status data in different regions, more superior and
perfect and practical treatment strategies should
be screened and formulated from the FME trans-
formers through experimental verification.
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8/27/2014 5:57:21 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Comments on land consolidation research priorities and perspective

Y. Yu
Research Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration, China University of Mining
and Technology, Beijing, China

S.S. Ye
Management School, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, China

W. Xiao, Y.H. Fu, J.H. Long & J.T. Liu

Research Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration, China University of Mining
and Technology, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Land is one kind of indispensable natural resources on which human depends for survival
and development. However, with the rapid development of economy and society in China, the inefficient,
extensive and other irrational ways of land use have triggered regional ecological unbalance which laid
some negative effects on the sustainable development of China. Based on the innovative concept of eco-
logical civilization and combined with the urbanization and new rural construction, land consolidation
has made substantial contributions to the configuration of urban and rural land and the development of
urbanization in China. In this paper, it analyzed the coordinated relationship between land consolidation
and ecological environment and expounded the current status of domestic researches of land consolida-
tion. Additionally, it studied the existing problems and put forward some suggestions and countermeas-
ures for the field of land consolidation.

Keywords: land consolidation; ecological environment; research progress; research perspective

1 INTRODUCTION Assuming that people insist on the ecological

As we all know, land is an irreplaceable substance
which serves as a strategic reserve and plays a vital
role in maintaining ecological balance and support-
ing economic growth. With the rapid development
of Chinese society, there appeared an increasingly
demand for land resources, which aggravated the
contradiction between land supply and demand.
Meanwhile, owing to the prevalence of irrational
land use and land destruction, the environmental
degradation and ecological unbalance have fre-
quently occurred, which seriously hampered the
sustainable and healthy development of the local
society and economy.
Land consolidation, as an important means to
improve the land quality and increase the quanti-
ties of arable land, can not only help vitalize the
land stock but also strengthen the intensive use of
land. Additionally, it helps enrich the diversity of
species and keep the balance of material and ener-
getic flows. Besides, it plays an important role in
enhancing the stability of landscape pattern and
improving the living quality of the local residents.
civilization concept, scientific development view,
and the combination of urbanization and rural
construction, land consolidation would definitely
become an important strategic approach for impel-
ling the further development of urbanization and
land allocation in China. Generally speaking, pay-
ing timely attention to the current research status
and actively participating in the land consolida-
tion can not only enrich the theoretical contents,
but also provide more inspirations for a further
advancement in this field.
2 RESEARCH STATUS OF LAND
CONSOLIDATION IN CHINA
Nowadays, studying on the coordinated relation-
ships between land consolidation and ecologi-
cal environment has become a multi-dimensional
practice, for which it not only discuss the coupling
relationships among land consolidation, nature,
economy, society and ecology at the macro level
and but also evaluate the direct economic benefits,

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 71 8/27/2014 5:57:21 PM

 social benefits and ecological benefits caused by
land consolidation in the micro aspect. On one
hand, it assesses the specific performance of a
project accomplished in land consolidation and
provides a scientific reference for macro decision-
making and regional land consolidation planning.
On the other hand, it guarantees the rationality
of the process of land planning, designing and
accomplishment.

2.1 Research scales

Due to the peculiarity of planning subjects, design-
ing features and statistic data, land consolidation
has become a multi-objectives, multi-levels and
cross-domain engineering. Based on the differ-
ent scales of land consolidation functions, some
domestic papers explored the specific steps of land
consolidation programs taken in tri-level areas:
province-city-county and clarified the extending
course of land management, namely from macro-
policy making to concrete practice, which con-
tributes to build up a superior land configuration
mode with the concerns of multi-objects and dif-
ferent spatial scales in land consolidation. Moreo-
ver, in the field of land consolidation, it follows
a pattern that the government sets the goals and Figure 1. Research system of comments on land con-
standards, the enterprises and professional institu- solidation research priorities and perspective.
tions set up the restriction indicators. In this case,
the index system should be clear and spatially well-
ordered (Fig. 1).
Among them, the restriction indicators
designed in large-scale, mid-scale and small-scale
of land consolidation should relatively reflects
the needs of strategic arrangement and political
guidance, the functional and directional differ-
ences in regional land remediation, the require-
ment of spatial implementation and space
reconstruction.

2.2 Land use types

At present, researches on the coordinated relation-
ship of land consolidation and environment have
been widely launched in which the land use types
of farmland, construction land and unused land
have been closely paid attention to. As to the agri-
cultural land, changes of rural landscape patterns
and ecological effects caused by land consolidation
in arable land and rural residential areas have been
discussed (Fig. 2).
As to construction land, the impacts of the rapid
development of urbanization on the regional eco-
logical systems have been discussed. In this case, it
took some mining cities for example and explored
the ecological effects caused in the course of land
consolidation in industrial and mining wastelands
and coal gangue dumps (Fig. 3).
Figure 2. Key regional distributions of agricultural land
consolidation from National Land consolidation planning
(20112015).
In the case of raw land, it analyzed the changes
of ecological effect and landscape pattern triggered
by the alteration of water areas and land use types,
and it also evaluated the ecological risks and envi-
ronmental qualities in the water source areas of
South-to-North Water Diversion Project and sea
beach regions. At the same time, the states of secure
utilization of water resources and risk zoning in
flood plain have been expounded as well (Fig. 4).

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Figure 3. Key regional distributions of land reclama-
tion in damaged areas caused by production and con-
struction activities from National Land consolidation
planning (20112015).
Figure 4. Key regional distributions of land develop-
ment for cultivation in raw land from National Land con-
solidation planning (20112015).
2.3 Regional division
Due to the diversity of geographical shapes and
climatic conditions, there shows a lot of regional
characteristics. In the eastern plain of China, it
focuses on the agricultural land consolidation. And
the Land-Use and Land-Cover Change (LUCC) in
land consolidation have brought about many obvi-
ous changes in ecological efficiency (Fig. 5).
In Central Loess Plateau, the works are com-
posed of soil-water conservation in hilly and gully
areas and land reclamation and ecological resto-
ration in open-cast coal mines. Likewise, the envi-
ronmental benefits gained in land consolidation in
soil erosion areas have been explored. Then, in the
northwest arid areas, works are given priority to
land desertification control and sustainable utiliza-
tion of the oases .It proves that oasis, which works
73
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 73
Figure 5. Land consolidation achievements exhibition
in the eastern plain of China.
Figure 6. Land consolidation achievements exhibition
in Central Loess Plateau of China.
as a healthy ecosystem in the desert, has played an
important role in maintaining ecological balance
within the arid and semiarid region (Fig. 6).
In southwest mountainous area, works are
concentrated on karst rocky desertification and
ecological restoration on damaged areas after a
disaster. Some studies analyzed both the effects on
the biological communities and the changes of the
overall land efficiency which together are caused
by mining and post-disaster reconstructions. As a
result, all these studies have laid a solid theoretical
foundation for the higher level of regional practice
of land consolidation (Fig. 7).
2.4 Research directions
Land consolidation is a complicated ecological
rehabilitation engineering that consists of reor-
ganization of land use types and secondary devel-
opment of land resources. In the aspect of land
consolidation, it has been discussed how changes
taken place in landscape pattern and ecological
8/27/2014 5:57:23 PM

Figure 7. Land reclamation achievements exhibition in
southwest mountainous area of China.
Figure 8. Land reclamation achievements exhibition in
Fushun city, China (before).
efficiency according to the variation of surface
configuration. From the perspective of engineering,
the main tasks of land consolidation are to adjust
the land shape and land scale and re-lay drainages,
irrigation ditches and roads, etc. In other words, it
transforms the features and spatial distribution of
such landscape elements as patches, corridors and
so on so as to change the landscape structures and
functions. From the point of ecology, the process
of land consolidation is called ecological rehabilita-
tion (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9), which breaks the original
state of land resources within certain regions in the
course of land leveling projects, hydraulic engineer-
ing, roads engineering, shelter forest conservation
and so forth. Besides, it brings about beneficial or
harmful effects to soil, vegetations and other crea-
tures in a short period. For this reason, research on
the coordinated relationships between land consoli-
dation and ecological environment is an evaluation
engineering combined with practical technologies
and political guidance, which generates a lot of eco-
nomic, social and ecological benefits.
To sum up, land consolidation has experienced an
evolutionary period of preliminary to superiority,
74
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 74
Figure 9. Land reclamation achievements exhibition in
Fushun city, China (now).
simplicity to complexity during these years. But
there are few studies paying attention to the coor-
dinated relationships between land consolidation
and ecological environment, instead, more are on
the evaluations of typical projects, which leads to
lacks of analyses and summaries with respect to
the impacts of land consolidation to the landscape
pattern and ecological efficiency. Thus, the issues
of how to research on the coordinated relation-
ships between land consolidation and ecological
environment in a reasonable way and improve the
practical applicability are worth considering. Thus,
the issues of how to research on the coordinated
relationships between land consolidation and
ecological environment in a reasonable way and
improve the practical applicability of experiment
results are worth considering.
3 PROBLEMS
3.1 Weakness in ecological landscape research
and a lack of related efficiency analysis
With the deepening of researches, the practice
of land management has changed from prima-
rily focusing on the increase of cultivated areas
to emphasizing both the quality of farmland and
the sustainable development of human beings and
nature. But, owing to lacks of ecological concept
and flora and fauna conservation awareness, there
are few researches focused on the changes of land-
scape pattern and ecological effects, which affects
the sustainable development of ecology.
3.2 Quantitative standards having not yet been set
up and influencing the results of post-project
evaluation in land consolidation
Nowadays, on account of the diversity of land use
types, it is impossible to examine various ecologi-
cal effects by sole evaluation criteria. Furthermore,
8/27/2014 5:57:27 PM
 a shortage of valid data about ecological environ-
ment and a lack of quantitative evaluation mecha-
nism added to the difficulties of evaluating the
coordinated relationships between land consolida-
tion and ecological efficiency, which affected the
efficiency of post-project monitoring and reviews.
3.3 Low public participation causing negative
effects on the results of land consolidation
Public participation is very essential. It has many
advantages, such as supervising the executive
departments, protecting the public rights and
interests in land use, which contributes to rational
and just decision-makings in the process of project
implementation and highlights the concept of
limited government power and effective public
supervision.
However, since people have limited rights and
enthusiasm in public participation that they failed
to exercise their powers to supervise all the specific
steps of land consolidation. As a result, it dam-
aged some land users legitimate rights and inter-
ests and hampered the further development of
public participation.
4 POLICIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Strengthening the studies of ecological
landscape and making analysis
on the comprehensive benefits
It is advisable to set up a cohesive mechanism
that links the pre-evaluation of the ecological
environment conditions and post-evaluation of
the eco-efficiency. Considering that most of the
ecological benefits caused by land consolidation
are evaluated by qualitative methods, it is better
to take the method of quantitative evaluation as
a long-term functional approach throughout the
whole evaluation process so as to enhance the reli-
ability and comparability of the assessment results.
At the same time, we should constantly explore
more effective and scientific methods to further
improve the rationality and accuracy of researches
on the coordinated relationship of land consolida-
tion and ecological environment.
4.2 Building up quantitative evaluation standards
and conducting the post-project inspection
On the basis of quantitative evaluation standards,
studies on the ecological efficiency in land consoli-
dation would be a tendency in the near future in
China, for which can not only improve the efficiency
of performance evaluation, but also provide an
essential supplement for post-project monitoring.
Besides, land consolidation can change the regional
75
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 75
landscape pattern, which is the most significant
impact on ecological system when implementing a
project. Hence, with the landscape ecology theory
concerned, the variations of landscape pattern and
land structure should be analyzed. Additionally, with
the reference to the existing, mature environmental
assessment systems, an effective quantitative evalua-
tion mode should be established so as to accomplish
the quantitative evaluation of the co-relations of
land consolidation and ecological environment.
4.3 Increasing the public participation
and promoting the implementation
of projects with efforts
To increase the public participation, it is recom-
mendable to make more propaganda for the mean-
ing of land consolidation planning and designing
to improve the public attention and recognition.
For another, it is necessary to set up an effective
mechanism to encourage more people to take part
in the whole process of evaluation and supervision
on each step of land consolidation projects. Only
in these ways a smooth implementation of projects
can be guaranteed.
Overall, in past few years, scholars have been
reinforcing the researches of land consolidation to
satisfy the practical needs of economic and social
development in China. But, it has become more
difficult to conduct land management along with
the various types of land use and the increasingly
serious land contamination. Therefore, to push
forward the scientific development of urbanization
and ecological civilization, we should gradually
strengthen the researches on the coordinative rela-
tionship between land remediation and ecological
environment, focusing on the changes of ecological
landscape pattern, establishing reasonable quanti-
tative evaluation systems, constantly improving the
public participation in land reclamation projects so
as to build up a beautiful, healthy and harmonious
country in China.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research project was founded by Special Fund
for scientific Research in the Public Interest of
Ministry of land and resources (201411006-05).
REFERENCES
Chen B.M., Gu X.K., Zhang Z.F., et a1. 2011. Land
ecological consolidation and landscape design China
Land Science 25(6): 1014.
Chen Y. 2004. Conservation of prime farmland and
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 Hu Z.Q., Zhao Y.L. 2014. Extension of goal and mean-
ing of land reclamation in China. China Land Science
18(3): 48.
Hu Z.Q., Wei Z.Q., Qin P. 2005. Concept of and meth-
ods for soil reconstruction in mined land reclamation.
Soils 37(1): 812.
Hu Z.Q., Xiao W., Wang P.J., et al. 2013. Concurrent
mining and reclamation for underground coal mining.
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Hu Z.Q., Yu Y., Long J.H. 2014. Comments on Land
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Hu Z.Q., Xiao W. 2013. Optimization of concurrent
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case study in northern Anhui, China. Environmental
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Hu Z.Q, Zhao Y.L., Zhao S., et al. 2004. Analysis of
reclamation feasibility in land reclamation planning
Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural
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Liu Y.S. 2011. Scientifically promoting the strategy of
reclamation and readjustment of rural land in China.
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Xiao W., Hu Z.Q., Y., Chugh Y.P., et al. 2013. Dynamic
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in High-Groundwater Table and Underground Coal
Mining AreaA Case Study in Shandong Province.
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Yun W.J., Yu Z.R. 2011. Ecological landscaping strategy of
rural land consolidation in China. Transactions of the
Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering 27(4): 16.
Yan J.M., Xia F.Z., Li Q. 2012. Top strategy design of
comprehensive land consolidation in China. Transac-
tions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineer-
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Zhang Z.F., Zhao W. 2011. Evaluation methodology for
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Zhang Z.F. 2012. Criteria and assessment for sustainabil-
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8/27/2014 5:57:31 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

GIS-based evaluation and analysis of land ecological quality

and limiting factors: A case study of the city of Sanmenxia

N.L. Chen, X.C. Wang, J.F. Sun & W.X. Qin

School of Surveying and Landing Information Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, Henan, China

ABSTRACT: Ecological quality assessment is a scientific basis for land sustainability and rational plan-
ning of regional land. In this paper, we developed indexing systems to assess land ecological quality from
four aspects using administrative village as assessing unit in the city of Sanmenxia. The four aspects
were fundamental ecological condition, structural conditions, pollution, destruction and degradation,
and ecological protection effect. The ecological quality was evaluated based on GIS technology and the
weight sum model. The factors limiting the ecological quality were identified based on index deviation
and obstacle degree. The results show that the land quality of the city was distinctly varied, with excellent
quality in the Shan county. Followed by Mianchi county, and Lushi county and Yima city. The quality in
the Lake District was at the middle level, most areas of Lingbao city were fair, and was poor in the town
of Chuankou of Lingbao. The reasons were caused by land ecological natural fundamental and ecologi-
cal protection. Our study further shows that the major limiting factors are the effective thickness of soil,
acreage of forest and plantation, acreage of high quality and non-polluted arable land, average annual
precipitation and regional environmental quality.

1 INTRODUCTION is a part of land ecological security. Evaluation of

ecological quality is practically important. In this
Land is fundamental to human survival and paper, we developed an evaluation system based
development. In recent years, urbanization and on GIS technology and regional characteristics.
industrialization have imposed tremendous impact Comprehensive index method was used to evaluate
on the land in China. Modern agriculture has the land ecological quality and to analyze the fac-
changed the traditional mode of agricultural pro- tors that limit the local land ecological quality.
duction and management, leading to the changes
of soil nutrients and soil ecological quality. The
over-exploitation of land has resulted in more and 2 STUDY AREA AND DATA SOURCE
more land security issues related to the natural
environments of land, such as desertification, sali- 2.1 Study area
nization, soil erosion and degradation of grassland
The city of Sanmenxia is situated in the western
(Zuo, et al, 2010; L, et al, 2011; Liu, et al, 2007).
boundary area of Henan Province, at the junction
Ecological security evaluation helps to under-
of Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan provinces, between
stand the health status of land, and to plan land
latitude of N33 3124 and 35 548, and longi-
use and management, and provide an early ecolog-
tude of E110 2142 and 112 124. The major
ical security warning. Currently, land ecology has
landscapes of the inner continental city are moun-
been intensively studied from various aspects, such
tains (54.8%), hills (36%) and loess plateau (9.2%)
as, ecological suitability (Du, et al, 2012; Yu, et al,
(Qin, et al, 2007). Most of the areas are at an eleva-
2008), sensitivity (Wang, et al, 2008), ecological
tion of 500 to 1200 m under temperate continental
environment (Cheng, et al, 2008), ecological qual-
monsoon climate. The spring and fall are short,
ity (Xu, et al, 2013), ecological risk (Chang, et al,
and winter and summer are long, with four distinct
2013; Ye, et al, 2013), consolidation ecology (Wang,
seasons. The annual temperature is 13.8 C, with a
et al, 2006; Yang, et al, 2012), and ecological secu-
frost-free period 184 to 218 days (Qin, et al, 2007)
rity evaluation (Sun, et al, 2012; Du, et al, 2009; Yu,
and an annual precipitation of 640 to 850 mm. The
et al, 2012; Huang, et al, 2010). Ecological quality
average effective thickness of soil is 91 cm. The city
has a high biodiversity with vegetation coverage of
This research is supported by Special Fund for land in the up to 0.7. The citys geographic, and land use/veg-
Public Interest (201411022-2). etation coverage are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

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Figure 1. Geographic map of Sanmenxia.
Figure 2. Land use and vegetation coverage map of
Sanmenxia.
2.2 Data source and processing
Remote sensing data, soil pollution survey data,
and basic geographic data were obtained from
ARCGIS software analysis, remote sensing images,
as well as ground surveys. Landscape indexes were
obtained with landscape index analysis software
Fragstas3.3. Information about soil factors were
from the land surveys conducted by agricultural
departments and from the soil maps. Data about
78
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 78
slope, altitude, annual precipitation and growing
season precipitation were extracted from the topo-
graphic maps using ARCGIS software, DEM data
and official meteorological data. Demographic data
were from the 2012 Henan Statistical Yearbook.
3 METHODS
3.1 Evaluation system
Evaluation system is the basis for evaluation of the
ecological quality of the land. In this study, an evalu-
ation system consisting of four rule layers, 12 index
layers and 30 elements was used (Table 1). The sys-
tem was chosen based on regional characteristics, sci-
entific rationale, data accessibility and operability.
3.2 Data standardization
The data were nondimensionalized for com-
parisons between different units or magnitude
metrics. The data were processed using the maxi-
mum difference dormalization method: Given
there are n evaluation elements, and m evalua-
tion indexes.
1. For positive maximum difference dormalization:
xij min( x j )
yij = (i , 2, n; j 1 2 m)
max( x j ) min( x j )
(1)
2. For negative for positive maximum difference
dormalization:
max( x j ) xij
yij = (i , 2, nn;; j 1 2 m)
max( x j ) min( x j )
(2)
where yij is the standardized value, yij [0,1]; xij is
the actual value; max (xj) is the maximum value of
the jth evaluation index; min (xj) is the minimum
value of the jth evaluation index.
3.3 Weight determination
Weight reflects the degree of impact on issues
investigated. Several methods are available to
determine the weight, such as the Delphi method,
principal component analysis, analytic hierar-
chy process (APH), paired comparison method,
entropy method, and coefficient of variation
method. Among them, the Delphi method, AHP,
and paired comparison method are subjective
weighting methods, where the weight is determined
subjectively. Therefore, the objective weighting
8/27/2014 5:57:31 PM
 Table 1. The evaluation index of quality of land ecology.

Target layer Criterion layer (weight) Index layer (weight) Element index layer (weight) Trend

Comprehensive Land ecological Climate conditions Annual precipitation (0.664) +

index layer natural foundation index (0.126) Growth precipitation (0.336) +
index layer (0.4367) Soil conditions Organic matter content (0.0986) +
index (0.6271) Soil body thickness (0.8288) +
Soil carbon storage (0.0726) +
Site conditions Slope (0.5772)
index (0.117) Elevation (0.4228)
Vegetation status Vegetation coverage (0.3766) +
index (0.1299) Biomass (0.6234) +
Land ecological Landscape diversity Land use types diversity index (0.6433)
structure index index (0.5989) Land use pattern diversity index (0.3394)
layer (0.1291) Plaque diversity index (0.0173)
Land use and No-pollution high grade farmland +
coverage index proportion (0.2401)
(0.4011) Forest land proportion (0.448) +
No-pollution water proportion (0.0466) +
Ecological infrastructure land +
proportion (0.1753)
Urban land proportion (0.0534)
Non-permeability surface
proportion (0.0366)
Land pollution, Soil pollution Soil comprehensive pollution
damage and index (0.9325) index (1.0000)
degradation index Land damage Excavating land proportion (0.2947)
layer (0.1351) index (0.0322) Subsided land proportion (0.7053)
Land degradation Farmland annual average
index (0.0353) degradation rate (0.5958)
Forest land annual average
degradation rate (0.1168)
Wetland annual average decrement (0.161)
Water annual average decrement (0.1264)
Ecological protection Ecologic benefit Regional environment quality +
index layer (0.2991) index (0.82170) index (0.7333)
Per capital forest volume (0.2667) +
Ecological tension Population density (1.0000)
index (0.1598)
Ecological People and ecological land growth
construction and elastic coefficient (0.2276)
protection growth People and ecological land growth
harmony index contribution degree (0.7724)
(0.0185)

*Note: The + is positive index; the is negative index.

method entropy method was used in the study to 2. To calculate the entropy value ej:
determine the weight of index.
n
1. The weight of the ith element in the jth evalua-
ej k pij ln pij ( j 1 2 m) (4)
tion index:
i =1

rij
pij = (3) where, k > 0, k = 1/ln n, ln is the natural loga-
i =1rij
n
rithm, pij is the weight of the ith element in the
jth evaluation index, ej is the entropy value of the
where, rij = yij+1, yij is the standardized value. jth index.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 79 8/27/2014 5:57:36 PM

 3. To calculate the weight:
m
wj (w j ) w j ( j = 1, 2, m )
j =1
where, w, = 1 ej, and is the derivation of the index.
3.4 Comprehensive evaluation method
Currently, the comprehensive evaluation methods
for land ecological security are mainly the com-
prehensive index evaluation method, the principal
component analysis (Sun, et al, 2012; Du, et al,
2009), matter-element analysis method (Yu, et al,
2012; Huang, et al, 2010). In some cases, the nor-
mal cloud model (Zhang, et al, 2013), gray inci-
dence model (Wu, et al, 2014) and the ecological
footprint method (Huang, et al, 2013) are used. In
this study, comprehensive index method was used
to evaluate the ecological quality of the land:
4 n m
H wi wk (w j y j )
i =1 k =1 j =1
where H is the comprehensive index value, wj is the
element weight, yj a standardized element value, m
is the number of element index, wk is the weight of
the index layer, n is the number of index layers, wi
is the weight of the rule layer.
3.5 Diagnosis of limiting factor
villages as the smallest evaluation unit. The villages
were artificially classified as excellent and good
with a score of more than 0.5, or medium, fair and
(5) poor with a score of equal to or less than 0.5.
4.1 Evaluation on rule layer
4.1.1 Land ecological status and natural
fundamental condition
As shown in Figure 3, the land and natural fun-
damental ecological conditions was good in the
eastern part of the city, but poor in the middle and
southern parts. Among them, the Shan county, the
city of Yima, the Lake District, and the Mianchi
County were slightly better, while the Lingbao
County and most areas of the Lushi County were
fair. The southern part of the Yuling town, the city
of Lingbao, was poor. In the natural fundamental
condition indexes, soil condition had high weight.
The soil condition index is the sum of soil organic
matter content, effective soil depth and soil carbon
storage. In this region, soil organic matter content
was distributed evenly while the soil carbon storage
(6)
showed area variation. However, since the weight
of this index was small, soil condition was mainly
dependent on highly weighted index of effective
thickness of soil. As a result, the effective thick-
ness of soil is the key variable contributing to the
regional variation of land ecological and natural
fundamental conditions.
4.1.2 Land ecological structural index
As shown in Figure 4, the land ecological structure
was good in the southern part of Sanmenxia city

The obstacle degree of elements that have impacts

on comprehensive assessment was analyzed to find
the factors that limit the ecological quality of the
land for better land use planning and policy adjust-
ments. Index deviation (Pj) and obstacle degree
(Aj) (Zhou, et al, 2011) were used and they were
calculated as follows:

Pj 1 yj (7)
Pj W j
Aj = 100% (8)
j =1(Pj )
m
Wj

where Pj is the index deviation i, Aj is the obstacle

degree, yj is the standardized value, wj is the weight
of the jth index.

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The data were vectorized and adjusted using Figure 3. Evaluation map of natural fundamental
ARCGIS to draw thematic maps for administrative conditions.

80

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 80 8/27/2014 5:57:37 PM


Figure 4. Evaluation map of structural indexes.
and poor in the middle and eastern areas. Among
them, the poorest are Huixing town in the Lake
District, Yadi and Jiaokou towns. The indexes
were fair in the Mianch county, Shan county,
Yima city and most part of the Lingbao city. The
structure was good in the Lushi County, except for
the southern part of Shahe County, northern part
of Hengjian town, Chengguan town, southern
part of Dongming town, and middle and western
parts of Fanli town. The structure index is equally
composed of landscape diversity index and land
use/vegetation coverage index, therefore, the dif-
ference in structural index is determined by the
landscape diversity and land/coverage. Landscape
diversity is related to the diversity of land use,
land use pattern and patch pattern. In this area,
the patch diversity was evenly distributed without
obvious variation; land use was generally uniform
across the region; and the type of land use var-
ied considerably and had higher weight. In used
and covered lands, forest and protective forest
had higher weights and varied considerable over
the regions. Other indexes were uniform without
remarkable difference. Therefore, the structural
difference was mainly resulted from the land use
type and the distribution of forests and protective
forests.
4.1.3 Land contamination, damage
and degenerative conditions
As shown in Figure 5, the Lake District had
serious land contamination, damage and degen-
eration, where the Jiaokou town has the worst
pollution, destruction and degradation. In the
81
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 81
Figure 5. Evaluation map of land degradation due to
pollution.
rest area, land contamination, damage and degra-
dation were less. In the index layer, soil pollution
index had higher weight, which is also related to
soil comprehensive pollution index. Therefore, the
extent of soil contamination mainly determines
the level of land pollution, destruction and deg-
radation. The heavily polluted areas were located
in the urban areas, indicating that the pollution
was from the human and industrial activities in
the region.
4.1.4 Ecological protective effect
As indicated in Figure 6, the ecological protective
effect was good in the southern and middle-east
parts of the city of Sanmenxia, followed by the east.
Among them, the effect was good in the Lushi and
Shan counties. For example, the Mogoukou Town
of Lushi County, Daying town of Shan county
and northern part of Potou town of the Mianchi
county, northern and eastern part of the Rencun
town, eastern part of the Nancun town had good
ecological protective effect. The Lake District and
the city of Lingbao were at middle level, while the
worst was the city of Yima. The overall distribu-
tion of ecological benefits, which is part of index
of ecological protective effect, was consistent with
that of ecological protective effect. This is due to
the weight of ecological benefits. The difference in
ecological benefits is related to regional environ-
mental quality and per capita forest volume, where
the regional environmental quality had a higher
weight. Therefore, the major cause of the differ-
ence in ecological benefits is regional environmen-
tal quality.
8/27/2014 5:57:41 PM
 4.2 Headings comprehensive evaluation
A comprehensive land and ecological index map of
the city of Sanmenxia (Fig. 7) was constructed by
adding up data from all rule layers using weighted
sum model (equation 6). As shown, the central area
had better comprehensive index, followed by the
southern and eastern areas. Among them, the city
of Lingbao had the worst index; the Lake District
was slightly better than that of the city of Ling-
bao; the Shan county had the best comprehensive
index, followed by the Mianchi and Lushi counties
and Yima city. Based on the weights (Table 1), the
natural fundamental condition index and ecologi-
cal protective effect had higher weights, thus hav-
ing greater impact on comprehensive assessment
of the ecological quality.
In areas with favorable comprehensive assess-
ment of land ecological quality, regional envi-
ronment quality was always good, with excellent
ecological benefits, site conditions in some areas,
and better weather conditions. Therefore, a region
with better quality of regional land ecological con-
dition is often associated with excellent regional
Figure 6. Evaluation map of ecological protective effect.
Table 2. Ranking of factors that limit the land ecological quality.
Rank 1 2
Frequency of obstacle 56.36 38.74
degree (%)
Limiting Effective soil Proportion of
factor depth forest land
82
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 82
natural fundamental conditions and ecological
situation; on the other hand, in regions with poor
land ecological conditions, their natural funda-
mental condition, use structure and ecological
conditions are poor.
4.3 Analysis of limiting factors
To identify the factors that limit the ecological
quality of land, the obstacle degree in each admin-
istrative village was calculated using the formula
(7) and (8), and the frequency of the jth index at
the maximum was considered as its impact to the
ecological quality. The ranking of the factors is
shown in Table 2.
As shown in Table 2, there were five major fac-
tors that affect the land ecological quality of the
city, namely, effective soil depth, the proportion
of woodland, the proportion of high-grade and
unpolluted farmland, the average annual precipi-
tation and regional environmental quality index.
Among them, the effective soil thickness, which is
determined naturally, was the number one limiting
factor for the land ecological quality in the region.
Figure 7. Comprehensive assessment map.
3 4 5
3.83 0.87 0.20
Proportion of Annual Regional
unpolluted high rainfall environment
quality land quality
8/27/2014 5:57:44 PM
 As mentioned above, the city areas are mostly
mountainous, and therefore the forest has become
an important factor determining the ecological
quality.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
We assessed the land ecological quality of the city
of Sanmenxia using ARCGIS software and ana-
lyzed the limiting factors. The main findings are:
1. In the east parts of the city, such as the Shan
and Mianchi counties, the Lake district and city
of Yima, there are good land ecological condi-
tion, while in the south and middle parts such as
the Lushi County and city of Lingbao, the con-
ditions are the worst. The effective thickness of
soil is found to be the major factor determining
the natural fundamental condition. In the areas
with excellent natural fundamental condition,
the land is mostly used as arable land. There-
fore, the government should actively promote
eco-environmental protection to enhance peo-
ples consciousness of environment protection,
and to avoid the destruction of the land and
ecological systems.
2. The Lushi County has good land ecological
structure, while the other areas are poor. Factors
that impact structural differences include the
land use types and the distribution of forest and
protective forests. In the areas with poor struc-
ture, the types of land use are diverse and are
affected by human; on the other hand, areas
with good structure are mainly woodland and
arable land, with higher proportion of wood-
land. Therefore, in the poorly structured areas,
several measures should be taken to improve the
ecological structure, such as protection of natu-
ral forest, conversion of arable land to wood-
land and extensive planting of protective forests
with multi-species.
3. In the Jiaokou town of the Lake District, the
land pollution, damage and degradation are the
most serious. This may be due to its high popula-
tion density and soil contamination by industry.
In the polluted areas, government should take
effort to control pollution to improve land eco-
logical environment.
4. The distribution of ecological protection effect
is obviously regional, with the city of Yima
being the worst, the city of Lingbao and the
Lake District being moderate. The Shan and
Xia counties have an overall better ecological
protection, while most of the Mianchi County
are moderate. The areas with poor regional
environment are coal mining area. Coal mining
has led to the destruction of land resources and
83
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 83
environmental pollution, and damaged the envi-
ronment. Therefore, more investment is needed
for environmental protection and new foresta-
tion technology should be applied to plant pro-
tective forests for mining areas, and gangue hill,
and to restore vegetation, to improve regional
environmental quality.
5. The Shan county has good score in compressive
assessment, and it has excellent land ecologi-
cal quality, followed by Mianchi, Lushi County
and Yima City, which have a score of good.
The Lake District is at middle level, while the
city of Lingbao is poor. Based on limiting fac-
tor analysis, the effective thickness of soil is the
most important determinant of land ecologi-
cal quality, followed by woodland distribution,
proportion of pollution-free high-grade arable
land, an average annual rainfall and regional
environmental quality. Based on impact and
limiting factors identified from the compres-
sive evaluation, we suggest taking measures to
improve the land use structure and land eco-
logical environment, improve land production
potential and land ecological quality in the city
of Sanmenxia.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

RS-based land use change and driving forces in a mining city

Y. Xu, J.J. Zhang & Y.Y. Shi

China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: In the research of Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC), one of the main focuses is to study
LUCC and driving forces for mining cities. This article uses Wuan as an example by applying remote
sensing technology to perform dynamic monitoring on the land use from 2001 to 2010. Quantitative anal-
ysis is also applied to find out the dynamic impact on land use. The result shows a continuous decrease of
cropland and water body, while continuous increase happens for built-up land, industrial and mining land
and woodland. This article chooses 14 motivate indicators, which are related to LUCC of mining city, to
set up a model which reveals the impact of population and economy, industrial structure and transporta-
tion. The target for this research is to provide useful information for those related departments, improve
monitoring effect for mining cities, and to be used as a reference for proper land use planning.

1 INTRODUCTION and major component analysis, the facts that

Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) is a joint core
project initiated by the International Geosphere-
Biosphere Program (IGBP) and the Human Dimen-
sions of Global Environmental Change Program
(IHDP) in 1995 (Turner et al. 1995). Since when,
the motivation research on LUCC has always been
a concerned topic global wide. However, due to
different regional characteristics for different cit-
ies, the motivation of LUCC is also diversified in
different regions. Currently, the LUCC motivation
researches are generally based on regional case
study in the world. They are normally governed in
the following three types: civilization & industri-
alization governed (Wu Lian-xi 2011), economic &
population governed (Xing & Ming-hao 2007), and
policy governed (Canjuan Gong & Zijun Li 2013).
In general, the motivation system for LUCC could
be divided into following two categories: natural
driven, and social driven. Under natural driven,
climate, soil, and water body are considered as
major types. While for social driven part, change of
population, distribution of wealth, improvement of
technology, increment of economic, construction
of politics, and outlook of value are the most com-
mon types (Stern et al. 1992; Turner et al. 1994).
Wuan city is taken as an example in our study,
and ENVI is used to explain the remote sensing
graphs, from which can obtain the land use remote
sensing data for Wuan in year 2001, 2004, and
2010, respectively. By applying software of SPSS
Foundation item: Beijing Higher Education Young Elite
Teacher Project (No. YETP0639).
affected LUCC motivation during 2001 to 2010
could be identified, which shows the relationship
between land use and socio-economic factors, such
as population, economic, and transport. The pur-
pose of this research is to provide scientific sugges-
tion for the sustainable economic development and
land use in Wuan.
2 MATERIAL AND METHOD
2.1 Background
Wuan city is in the south part of Hebei province,
and it is the only country level city within Handan
City. Wuan lies between longitude 11345
1142230E and latitude 36283701N, with a
surface area of 1881 km. Wuan is rich in natural
resources, especially for coal and iron mines. These
natural resources have been playing a great role
in Wuans economical development. However,
a lot of wasted rocks and residues are generated
and abandoned during the mining process, which
destroys the geomorphologic landscape together
with forest and land. Some part has even been
collapsed, which results in severe environmental
problems.
2.2 Method
2.2.1 Data description
Wuan city is located at the junction of the two
RS images which path/row numbers are 124/34 &
124/35. Therefore, select 6 Landsat TM-5 remote
sensing images of 22 August 2001 and 30 August
2004 and 15 August 2010. And also includes

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 administrative boundaries Vector of Wuan and Table 1. Land use/cover change dynamic degree in
Economic Statistical Yearbook. Wuan.
During photographing the remote sensing data,
Topography, atmosphere, satellite attitude and 20012004 20042010
other factors will affect the picture. So we have Area Yearly rate Area Yearly rate
to execute remote sensing image preprocessing. change changes % change changes %
Including FLAASH Atmospheric Correction,
geometric correction based on quadratic poly- A1 87.03 7.65 251.55 11.06
nomial model, image mosaicking and so on. At A2 2014.65 3.44 3460.32 2.96
the end, do the principle component analysis for A3 149.22 3.87 309.69 4.02
these 3 images to remove redundant information A4 10911.4 5.11 5160.96 1.21
between bands and partially shaded surface noise. A5 5215.68 3.20 5022.18 1.54
Land cover information extraction. A6 3587.94 4.39 3198.87 1.96
After principal component analysis of the
images, surface features become clearer. Wood-
land, grassland, cropland etc. can have a rough 3.2 Dynamic analysis of the LUCC rate change
visual interpretation from the image. Pure pixel in
According to Table 1, the main land use types
the images were selected as the ROI for supervised
in Wuan are woodland and cropland, followed
classification. After continuous adjustment, the
by grassland and built-up land. Water body and
minimum ROI separation is 1.82 which is greater
Industrial and mining land area is relatively small.
than the minimum separation standard 1.8. After
Watching from land use change, the largest pro-
completion of the classification we use confusion
portion of the change is water body. Especially
matrix to test the classification accuracy of the
from 2004 to 2010, the average annual rate of
results. 3-year overall classification accuracy of
change reaches 11.06%. However the cropland
the sample were 93.6404%, 93.0439%, 89.8118%,
have the biggest area change. The annual average
and the kappa coefficients were 0.9184, 0.9130 and
changed rate achieve 5.11% from 2001 to 2004 only
0.8939 respectively. Results are very satisfactory.
after the water body. Simultaneously the area of
built-up land has been in a state of steady growth
2.2.2 Classification results which maintained the rate of change around 3%.
According to the research needs in this article and The growth trend of industrial and mining land
refer to land use classification (GB/T21010- is slightly higher than built-up land, at an annual
2007). The study area is divided into water body growth rate of about 4%. Woodland is also in a
(A1), build-up land (A2), industrial and mining growth state. Annual growth decreased from
land (A3), Cropland (A4), woodland (A5) and 3.2% to 1.54%. Grassland remained essentially
grassland (A6) six categories. unchanged in 10 years. The area ratio is main-
tained at between 15%18%.
3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4 ANALYSIS OF THE DRIVING
3.1 Dynamic degree of LUCC MECHANISM OF LUCC
The changes in the number of land resources could
be replaced by dynamic of single land use types. 4.1 Construction of the LUCC driving index
Dynamic of single land use types express the system
quantity within a certain time frame of the study Functions and types of mining cities are rather
area for some types of changes in land use. Its special. It is based on aggregation of mineral
expression is as follows: resources, and then develop and grow. Compared
with the general city, mining city has different nat-
(U a U b ) 1 ural and socio-economic conditions, and the spe-
K= 100% (1)
Ua T cial characteristics of land use change and driving
mechanism (Kang-kang et al. 2007; Xingxiu 2002).
In the expression K = dynamic degree of land When choosing a driving force influencing factors,
use types in the study period; Ua = a certain kind of we should follow a systematic, regional and opera-
land use types in the beginning, Ub = a certain kind tional principles (Na & Jing-feng 2007). Land use
of land use types at the end; and T = the time span change driving force system can be divided into
of the study. When the time span of the study is set two components, natural driving force and the
on year, the value of K is the yearly rate changes of socio-economic driving force. In a relatively short
the certain types of land use in the study area. time, the natural driving force is more stable, while

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 the socio-economic driving force is relatively active. Table 3. Result of principal component analysis for
Thus the analysis of socio-economic factors gener- driving force factors.
ally occupy a more important position (Jian et al.
2011). In this paper after considering the socio- Initial eigenvalues
economic factors comprehensively which affecting Component Total Variance % Cumulative %
mining cities, we select the population, economic
development, industrial structure, transportation 1 9.638 68.846 68.846
and mining production and other factors, a total 2 2.525 18.033 86.879
of 14 indicators. Establish indicators system of 3 0.740 5.283 92.162
socio-economic drivers, and then construct the 4 0.567 4.048 96.211
principal component analysis model. 5 0.426 3.042 99.253
6 0.063 0.451 99.704
7 0.030 0.212 99.917
4.2 Principal component analysis
8 0.010 0.070 99.987
Principal component analysis is a mathematical 9 0.002 0.013 100.000
method of dimensionality reduction, which reas- 10 2.818E-016 2.013E-015 100.000
sembled the original variables into a consolidated 11 1.136E-016 8.113E-016 100.000
group of several mutually independent new vari- 12 5.859E-017 4.185E-016 100.000
ables. So that we can use fewer comprehensive var- 13 1.493E-016 1.066E-015 100.000
iables to reflect the original variable information 14 3.146E-016 2.247E-015 100.000
as much as possible (Wei 2002). In this paper we
make principal component to analysis the driving
force with the help of SPSS 20.0 software. First, Table 4. Component matrix of force
we make the selected 14 factors standardized, and factors.
then extract the main component of driven factors
in standardized data. In order to reveal the differ- 1st component 2nd component
ent land use change in the dominant driving force,
we choose the principal component that its cumu- X4 0.995 0.013
lative variance contribution rate is larger than X5 0.992 0.043
X2 0.992 0.069
85%; the results are shown in Table 3. It found that
the eigenvalue of the first principal component is X7 0.987 0.11
9.638, the variance contribution rate is 68.8 per- X6 0.962 0.136
cent, and the eigenvalue of the second principal X1 0.87 0.348
component is 2.525, the variance contribution rate X8 0.837 0.126
is 18.03%. The cumulative contribution rate of the X10 0.753 0.315
first principal component and the second principal X3 0.705 0.392
component was 86.85%. It can nearly replace the X11 0.7 0.315
change of original index; it means driving factors X9 0.669 0.663
X13 0.142 0.978
X14 0.627 0.754
Table 2. Driving index system of LUCC.

Driving index of land use change in Wuan can be replaced by

these two main components. Thus we can draw the
X1 Total population loading matrix of these two main components fac-
X2 Urban population tor, as shown in Table 3.
X3 Rural labor Factor loading is the correlation coefficient of
X4 Gross domestic product the driving factor with the common factor. For
X5 Gross industry product individual drivers, the larger absolute loading value
X6 Investment in permanent assets
has a closer relationship with it, which is more rep-
X7 Disposable income per capita
resentative of the driving factors. As can be seen
X8 Total investment in highway construction
from Table 4, the first main component is more
X9 Length of highways
representative in X4 (GDP), X5 (gross industrial
X10 Raw coal production
production), X2 (urban population), X7 (dispos-
X11 Iron ore production
X12 Proportion of GDP of the 1st industry
able personal income), X6 (fixed asset investment)
X13 Proportion of GDP of the 2nd industry
and X1 (total population). The higher load factors
X14 Proportion of GDP of the 3rd industry in second main ingredient including X13 (the share
of the second industry in GDP), X14 (the share

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 of the third industry in GDP) and X9 (highway
mileage), it can be interpreted as the adjustment of
industrial structure and traffic drivers.
5 ANALYSIS OF THE DRIVING FORCES
IN LAND USE CHANGE
5.1 Demographic and economic factors
From 2001 to 2010, the number of the total popu-
lation and the urban population in Wuan showed
a steady upward trend. It can sum up into two rea-
sons: first, the improving medical standards and
living conditions makes life extended and mor-
tality declined. Second, economic development
increased employment opportunities, attracting a
large number of inflows of population (Dingxuan
2013). The increasing of population, particularly
the urban population, promoted the urbanization
process, but also improved the demand for hous-
ing, public facilities and other types of construc-
tion land which cause the increase in urban and
rural construction land from 19,505.4 ha in 2001
to 24,980.4 ha in 2010. Also industrial and min-
ing land from 1285.38 ha to 1744.29 ha within this
period. Both two accumulated gains were more
than 30%. This shows a close positive correlation
between population growth and increased con-
struction land.
Economic development determines the level of
urbanization, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a
composite indicator that reflects the level of eco-
nomic development of a region. It can be found the
GDP topped with a load of 0.995 in the first prin-
cipal component. At constant prices, GDP grew by
6.1 times from 2001 to 2010 in Wuan. Economic
development was promoted by the exploitation of
mineral resources in Wuan; the economic develop-
ment drove the exploitation of mineral resources in
turn. At the same time, it led to the development of
steel, coal, coking and other related industries. And
the final results is that a large scale of cropland and
unused land in the suburbs were occupied, which
made dramatic changes in the structure of land
use.
5.2 Industrial structure and transportation factors
Since 2001, the state begin to rectify mining pro-
duction industry, the mineral resources are also
depleting in Wuan. It was forced Wuan to imple-
ment industrial restructuring for its life-cycle of
mining city, which need to be transformed from
the underground extractive industries to on
the ground diversified industrial. Metallurgy
and building materials industry are main indus-
tries which developed rapidly. It makes the pillar
88
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 88
industry of Wuan changed from mining to man-
ufacturing. In traditional mining industries, coal
production was dropped from 880,000 tons in
2001 to 680,000 tons in 2010; iron ore produc-
tion has been maintained at 500 million tons for
decade. However, steel production in the manu-
facturing sector roused to 14.38 million tons from
an initial 25,700 tons. Washery coal production
went up from 40.5 million tons to 225.6 million
tons. With the proportion of three industries, the
primary industry changed obviously, the share of
GDP fell from 6.5% in 2001 to 2.9% in 2010, a
decrease of 3.6%. The area of cropland decreased
by 22.6% in land use changes from 2001 to 2010,
which closely related to the industry restructure.
Flourishing emerging manufacturing led to the
rapid development of the economy Wuan. But
at the same time the development have brought
ecological a quite large burden. How to protect
the ecological while developing the economy, to
make both economic and ecological develop sus-
tainable, is a major problem facing the mining
city.
Transportation factor is an important guiding
force for land use change in mining cities (Fengyun
2007). Urban construction land is usually expand-
ing along transport routes. In the Wuan city Jihou,
Hanci and Dawu railway line provide a good guar-
antee for the mining transportation. For highways,
the total length increased from 960 km in 2001 to
1,321.1 km in 2010. The total investment of high-
way construction also increased from the initial
83.3 million yuan per year to 860 million yuan per
year. At present, the two most important highways
are east-west State Road 309 and north-south
Xingdu Road. The main impact on urban land use
is that the urban construction land expand along
the two main roads like a cross-shaped.
5.3 Policy factors
Due to the special feature of policy factors which
are difficult to quantify, we cant analyze them with
the other drivers in the principal component analy-
sis model. But policy factors play a decisive role
in our social and economic development and guide
the development of the social economy. Urban
and rural planning, land use planning, mineral
resources planning and other planning are all sig-
nificant external forces in land use change. Since
2001, to meet with the requirements of higher lev-
els of government, the Grain for Green Project
lead to a large area of cropland reduction. Affores-
tation by aerial seeding also accelerated the growth
of woodland area. Woodland area has grown
10,242 ha in the last decade, the ratio of increase
reached 18.9% which greatly improved the ecologi-
cal environment in Wuan.
8/27/2014 5:57:49 PM
 6 CONCLUSIONS
For the past decade, land use pattern in Wuan
undergone a significant change.
After monitoring land use change and analyz-
ing driving force in Wuan, we draw the following
conclusions based on the analysis of monitoring
and driving forces in land use change:
1. Remote sensing technology provides advanced
techniques for monitoring regional LUCC.
However, remote sensing images with problems
of same object with different spectrum, same
spectrum with different object, and mixed pixel
in a low-resolution image lead to errors in the
supervised classification. The principal compo-
nent analysis of the image will make the feature
type clearer, and can effectively reduce the clas-
sification error.
2. With principal component analysis of driving
forces in land use change, they can summa-
rized as demographic factors, economic factors,
industry structure factors and traffic factors.
Demographic and economic factors are the
main factors leading to the increase of urban
and rural construction land, and policy factors
are closely related with the increase in cropland
and the decrease in woodland. Meanwhile,
due to the unique characteristics of Chinas
economic development, policy factors are also
considered to be the decisive factor in guiding
economic development and land use pattern
changes.
REFERENCES
Canjuan Gong & Zijun Li 2013. Analysis on Land Use
Change and Driving Factors in Key Regions of Eco-
logical Construction-A Case Study of Chaohe River
Basin. Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 20(5):
278283.
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Dingxuan Zhang 2013. Land Use Spatial-temporal
Change and Simulation in Mining City. China: China
University of Geosciences (Beijing).
Fengyun Mu 2007. Urban Evolution Characteristic Anal-
ysis in China. Beijing: University of Chinese Academy
of Sciences.
Jian Wang et al. 2011. Driving Forces Analysis of Land
Use Change Based on Principle Component Analysis.
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Kang-kang Gu et al. 2007. The Research about Eco-
logical Carrying Capacity of Mining Cities in Central
Liaoning. Journal of natural resources, 23(1): 8794.
Lian-xi Wu 2011. Study of LUCC and Its Driving Forces
in Chaohu Lake Basin during the Past 30 Years. Chinese
Journal of Soil Science 2011042(6): 12931298.
Na Cao & Jing-feng Ge 2007. The Driving Mechanism
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Stern P. et al. 1992. Global Environmental Change: Under-
standing the Human Dimension. Washington D.C.:
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Turner II et al. 1994. Global Land-use/Land-cover
Change: Towards an Integrated Program of Study.
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Turner II et al. 1995. Land-use and land cover change.
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Stockholm and Geneva.
Wei Xue 2002. Statistical Analysis and SPSS for Win-
dows. Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 2002:
258266.
Xing Niu & Ming-hao Ou 2007. A Study on Driving-
force System of Regional Land-use Change: Taking
Yangzhou City as an Example. China Population,
Resource and Environment 17(1): 102108.
Xingxiu Yu 2002. Land Use/Cover Change of a Mid-
dle Size Catchment and Its Impact on Water Envi-
ronment-A Case of Xitiaoxi Catchment in the Upper
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Academy of Sciences.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

The impact of land use change on ecological carbon sequestration

of mining city

H. Hui, J.J. Zhang, Q. Xu & G.F. Luo

China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The ecological environment in a mining city is fragile; land use changes caused by mining
are obvious and result in serious ecological problems, thus the study of ecological carbon sequestration in a
mining city is of great significance. Based on three years of present land use maps, extracting land transfer
matrix by ARCGIS, comparatively analyzing land use changes caused by mining in Wuan City; analyzing
its capacity of carbon sequestration by combining carbon sequestration rates and proportion of different
land types; studying the effects of land use changes on carbon sequestration. Results show that: land use
changes of the research area are complex and carbon sequestration capacity is declining as a whole. Finally,
making carbon offset recommendations to keep carbon storage stable or even developing to carbon sink;
promoting optimal land use allocation; proposing appropriate ecological restoration measures; and improv-
ing its ecological environment and promoting the coordinated development of economy and ecology.

1 INTRODUCTION centrated on the impact of LUCC on terrestrial

The global climate is deteriorating since the Indus-
trial Revolution in 18th century. The overuse of
fossil fuel and human appropriate land use (eg.
deforestation, overgrazing and etc.) make the green-
house gas in the atmosphere increase violently. The
impact of human activities on terrestrial ecosystem
carbon storage far exceeds the natural ecosystem
carbon sequestration rate and extent. Human eco-
nomic activities influence land use pattern changes,
and the land use have significant impacts on global
carbon cycle and climate changes through LUCC[1].
The impact of LUCC on ecological carbon seques-
tration reflects human activities influence on it.
Mining is the pillar industry in mining city, and
land use changes caused by mining activities are
obvious. As for its fragile ecological environment,
studying the impact of LUCC on ecological carbon
sequestration is of great significance.
Human activities drive global carbon cycle
change, and the global carbon cycle inevita-
bly influences the global climate change[2], and
then influence human production and life. Since
the concept of LUCC was first put forward by
IGBP (International GeosphereBiosphere
Programme) and IHDP (International Human
Dimensions Programme on Global Environ-
mental Change) in 1992, Many foreign scholars
have analyzed its impact on carbon emissions
and carbon sequestration for land use change in
different countries. Our research are more con-
carbon cycle, dynamic changes of carbon seques-
tration in vegetation and soil while regional study
of LUCC and carbon sequestration is relatively
small. Quantitatively analyzing the impact of
LUCC on ecological carbon sequestration in min-
ing city through the Invest Model, this paper aims
at promoting the optimal allocation of land use,
improving the ecological environment of mining
city and promoting its coordinated development
of economy and ecology.
2 THE GENERAL SITUATION
OF THE STUDY AREA
Wuan City located in the border of Shanxi,
Hebei, Shandong and Henan province with the
total area of 1819 km2, and its geographic loca-
tion is in longitude 113 45 114 22, latitude
36 28 37 01. Wuan City located in the south
of HeBei province, belonging to the Handan City,
HeBei province with 22 townships and 502 admin-
istrative villages. It is mountainous counties which
can be divided into three types: the mountains
(29.7% of the total area), hilly areas (45%) and
basins (25.3%). With west high & east low terrain,
its land types are rich and varied. With rich min-
eral resources, Wuan City is an important energy
base in north China, and its 58 national key coal-
producing counties (cities) and one of the four rich
iron ore base throughout the country.

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 3 DATA SOURCES AND RESEARCH Table 1. Carbon density of different LUCC in China
METHODS (kg/m2).

3.1 Data sources Abovground Beloground

biomass biomass Soil
Land use data in this paper derived from the Land
and Resources Bureau of Wuan City, including Garden & forestry 4.24 11.59 23.69
present land use maps of 1996, 2005 and 2009. Cultivated land 0.57 8.07 10.84
Other data are obtained through literature and Water 0 0 0
reports, including the carbon density in three car- Grassland 3.53 8.65 9.99
bon pools: aboveground biomass, belowground Construction land 0.21 4.51 7.8
biomass and soil, and temperature, precipitation Bare land 0 0 0
and other information of Wuan City.

3.2 Research methods Table 2. Carbon density of different LUCC in Wuan

City (kg/m2).
3.2.1 Land use change analysis
Land use data in this paper derived from the Land Abovground Beloground
and Resources Bureau of Wuan City. Taking biomass biomass Soil
into account the research needs and model opera-
Garden & forestry 1.70 4.65 9.51
tion requirements, land use types are merged into
Cultivated land 0.23 3.24 4.35
six kinds: garden & forest land, cultivated land,
Water 0 0 0
grassland, construction land, bare landand water.
Grassland 1.42 3.47 4.01
Extracting the transfer matrix of land use from
Construction land 0 1.81 3.13
1996 to 2009 by ARCGIS, this part analyzes differ- Bare land 0 0 0
ent land use type variations with time.

3.2.2 Invest Model overview and related

parameters calculation
Based on GIS application platform, Invest Mode
is an ecosystem services assessment mode jointly
developed by Stanford University, the World Wild-
life Fund (WWF) and The Nature Conservancy
(TNC) (www.naturalcapitalproject.org).
This paper used the version of Invest 2.5.6,
choosing the carbon module to analyze the carbon
storage and carbon sequestration of Wuan City.
This module calculates carbon storage accord-
ing to the land use maps and corresponding car-
bon density. Land use maps are processed with
the methods previously described; 4 carbon pools
includes aboveground biomass, belowground bio-
mass, soil and dead organic matter. As the carbon
density of dead organic matter cannot be obtained
through the literature, this paper uses only the car-
bon density in other three types of carbon pools.
By looking at Kerang Li [4], XianLi Xie[5] and oth-
ers documents to obtain the carbon density value
of national scale as shown in Table 1.
The carbon density of land use types in Wuan
City is modified by the biomass of the whole
country and Wuan City. The biomass data is
calculated according to the formula in Primary
productivity of the biosphere translated by Yequ
Wang.
3000
y1 = (1)
1 + e1.319 0.119t
y2 3000(1 e 0 000664 p )
Y1 = biomass (annual average temperature (g/m2*a))
Y2 = biomass (annual average precipitation (g/m2*a))
T = annual averagetemperature (C)
p = annual averageprecipitation (mm)
e = Napierianbase
After calculating, the biomass of the whole
country and Wuan City is 1101.8 and 2745.6. The
modified carbon density of different land use types
in Wuan City is shown in Table 2. It should be
noted that, as the carbon density of water and bare
lands is very small and the data is difficult to get,
the value is 0. The carbon density in aboveground
biomass of construction land is nearly 0, its negli-
gible; carbon density in belowground biomass and
soil is not easy to measure and not very different
in different regions, so we adopt the density value
from the literature.
4 RESEARCH RESULTS
4.1 Land use change pattern analysis
in Wuan City
This paper extracting the transfer matrix of land
use from 1996 to 2009 by the Tabulate Area in
Zonal module of ARCGIS, the results are shown
in Table 3.

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 Table 3. Land transfer matrix of 19962009 (km2).

2009

1996 A4 A2 A6 A1 A5 A3 All

A1 12 47 5 223 90 86 462
A2 103 477 27 29 26 73 736
A3 5 21 3 50 42 47 168
A4 79 22 2 3 5 6 117
A5 13 40 2 81 66 44 246
A6 13 21 34 2 2 4 75
All 225 628 73 387 232 260 1804

Foot notes: A1-bare land; A2-cultivated land; A3-garden &

forestry; A4-construction land; A5-grassland; A6-water. Figure 1. Carbon storage of Wuan from 1996 to
2009 (105t).

Table 3 shows that land use types of Wuan

City changing significantly from 1996 to 2009.
Cultivated land presents a decreasing trend,
mainly into the garden and construction uses. The
proportion of arable land to construction land is
the largest, mainly due to the increase of land for
mining and industry and the need of economic
development; second largest is farmland to for-
estry, mainly influence by the policy of returning
farmland to forest and grassland. Garden and
forestry land shows increasing trend: the garden
land increased modestly while forestry increased
violently impacted by the policy of returning
farmland to forest and grassland and aerial seed-
ing in large areas of unused land, mainly coming
from bare land and arable land. Construction land
increases significantly, mainly from arable land
and grassland, showing the serious phenomenon
of occupying cropland and grassland for construc-
tion land from 1996 to 2009.
4.2 The analysis of carbon sequestration
capacity of Wuan City
4.2.1 Calculation of total carbon
sequestration in Wuan City
Based on three present land use maps and car-
bon pool table, calculated by Invest Model, the
carbon storage of Wuan City from 1996 to 2009
is 113.26 105t, 124.48 105t, 123.40 105t. As
shown by Figure 1, the carbon storage from 1996
to 2005 increases significantly; and it shows a slight
decrease from 2005 to 2009, however, in compari-
son with 1996, its still increasing.
As shown by Figure 2, the cumulative carbon
sequestration of Wuan City is 112.78 104t from
1996 to 2009, indicating it as a carbon sink area in
10 years; the cumulative carbon sequestration from
2005 to 2009 is 10.80 104t, showing it as a car-
bon source area. Overall, from 1996 to 2009, the
cumulative carbon sequestration of Wuan City is
Figure 2. Carbon sequestration of Wuan (1996 to
2009) (105t).
101.38 104t, carbon stock as carbon sink area
remains, but the carbon sequestration capacity
declines.
4.2.2 Different land use types sequestration
comparison
According to research needs, this paper divided
land use types into garden & forest land, cultivated
land, grassland, construction land, bare land and
water. In consideration of the differences of car-
bon sequestration capacity of various land use
types and impacts of various land use changes
on overall carbon sequestration are obvious, this
paper only analyzes the carbon sequestration of
garden & forest land, cultivated land, grassland
and construction land.
Figure 3 shows that the carbon sequestration of
garden & forest land, cultivated land, grassland and
construction land in Wuan City presents a descend-
ing trend from 1996 to 2009. In 1996, the carbon
storage of cultivated land is the highest, which is
about more than twice as much as the carbon stor-
age of garden & forest land. Its mainly because of
the large area of arable land which is four times
than garden & forest land. Carbon storage of the

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Figure 3. Carbon storage of different LUCC in Wuan
from 1996 to 2009 (105t).
two land types in 2005 and 2009 is almost the same,
mainly because the increase of garden & forest land
and the little decrease of arable land. From 1996
to 2009, the carbon storage of construction land
shows a slight upward trend; grassland decreases
a little in its stable carbon stock; the overall trend
of cultivated land carbon storage is reducing; while
carbon storage of garden & forest land increases
by years and tends to be stable which is the main
contributor of carbon sink.
4.3 Analysis of the impact of land use
change on carbon sequestration
The total carbon sequestration of Wuan City
presents a decreasing trend after the first increase
(Fig. 2). The carbon sequestration increased
101.38 104t, and the increase rate is 9%, indicat-
ing that the carbon sequestration capacity of the
study area has been improved to some extent. The
increase rate of garden & forest land area reaches
55%, and the substantial increase of garden &
forest land area is the reason of carbon seques-
tration increase. The carbon sequestration rate
of forestry land is far more than other land use
types, and the conversion from bare land and ara-
ble land to garden & forest land will increase the
total carbon sequestration of the study area. The
conversion of cultivated land to forestry land will
increase its carbon sequestration capacity, while
the occupation of arable land for construction
land will increase carbon emissions and reduce the
total ecosystem carbon sequestration. Although
the carbon sequestration rate of garden & forest
land is higher than cultivated land, the total car-
bon sequestration is less, because cultivated land
area is far higher than that of woodland in the
time period of the study area. Notwithstanding
the substantial increase of construction land, its
growth is lower than the increase rate of garden
and decrease of cultivated land and bare land, so
the amount of carbon sequestration present the
increasing trend.
94
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 94
The conversion from garden & forest land,
grassland, arable land and other farming land to
construction land will increase the greenhouse gas
emissions and decrease ecosystem carbon storage.
Cultivated land, bare land to forestry will increase
the organic carbon reserve in soil and vegetation,
and then increasing the whole carbon sequestra-
tion capacity. Forestry to arable land will lead to
the loss of soil carbon reserve and decrease car-
bon sequestration rate; in most cases woodland
to grassland will cause carbon emission, however,
there are other studies, its inconclusive.
4.4 Research conclusion and prospects
1. With the increasing of population, exploitation
of mining industry, development of economy
and influence of national policy, land use types
of Wuan City have obvious changes from 1996
to 2009. The overall trend shows the increase
of garden & forest land, construction land
and the decrease of cultivated land, grassland,
water and bare land. Influenced by the policy
of returning farmland to forest and grassland
and aerial seeding in large areas of unused land,
large areas of arable and bare land change to
garden & forest land. With the increase of land
for mining and industry and the needs of eco-
nomical development, large area of bare land
change into construction land, however, the
phenomenon of occupation of farmland and
grassland for construction land is serious. This
paper calculates carbon storage of Wuan City
from 1996 to 2009 by Invest Model. Overall the
carbon storage presents increasing trend, and
the carbon sequestration capacity of Wuan
City has a certain degree of promotion. As the
main contributor of carbon sink, the expansion
of garden & forest land makes great contribu-
tions to the increase of carbon storage in Wuan
City. The carbon sequestration capacity of con-
struction land is weak, and the conversion from
other land types to construction land increases
carbon emissions on one hand, reduces the
whole sequestration rate on the other hand.
2. Aiming at the impacts of LUCC on carbon
sequestration of Wuan City, the future devel-
opment proposals of the study area are as
follows: maintaining garden & forest land
area steady and even increase; optimizing the
industrial structure; controlling the increase of
construction land dominated by land for min-
ing and industry; reducing the phenomenon
of occupation of arable land for construction
land, adjusting and improving land use struc-
ture. This paper provides references for Wuan
City to make reasonable land use planning
8/27/2014 5:57:51 PM
 programme and improve the ecosystem service
function; and provide the basis for the develop-
ment of mining cities in China, promoting the
sustainable development of ecology and econ-
omy in mining city.
3. At present the research of ecosystem carbon
sequestration most focuses on the sole terres-
trial ecosystem carbon storage in China. This
paper comprehensively estimates terrestrial eco-
system carbon storage in Wuan City by Invest
Model, and quantizes the influence of LUCC
on ecosystem carbon storage. The carbon den-
sity value in this paper all come from the previ-
ous document literature which affects the final
carbon reserve estimation accuracy and in the
later study, results uncertainty can be reduced
by the validation of measured data. The Invest
Model is designed for American ecosystem, and
we can increase the research accuracy through
amendments on the part of the model to bet-
ter apply to the evaluation of ecosystem services
and its value in our country.
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BoTao. 2001. Research progress of terrestrial ecosystem
carbon cycle. Beijing: Geographical Research.
Han Jinrong. 2013. The impact of urban expansion on
carbon reservation based on the INVEST model.
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Carbon storage of vegetation and soil in China.
Beijing: Science China Press.
Li Yifeng, Luo Yuechu. 2013. The impact of LUCC on
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Ma Qinxian, Chen Xialin, Wang Juan. The measurement
of carbon content of the main forest types in north
China. Beijing: Journal of Beijing Forestry University.
Ostwalda Madelene, Hendersa Sabine. 2014. Making two
parallel land-use sector debates meet: Carbon leakage
and indirect land-use change. Land Use Policy.
Padilla, Francisco M., Vidal Beatriz, Snchez Joaqun,
Pugnaire, Francisco I. 2010. Land-use changes and
carbon sequestration through the twentieth centuryin
a Mediterranean mountain ecosystem: Implications
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Management.
Qu Futian, Lu Na. 2011. The impact of LUCC on car-
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Wan Hui, Shen Lei. 2005. The influence actor and
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Wang Shaoqiang, Zhou Chenghu, Li Kerang. 2000.
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and its application. Beijing: Chinese Journal of
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Xie Xianli, Sun Bo, Zhou Huizhen. 2004. Chinas soil
organic carbon density and reserves estimation and
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Zhang Dingxuan. 2013. Land use change scenario simu-
lation of mining city based on the CLUE-S model.
Beijing: Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agri-
cultural Engineering.
Zhang Xingxiu. 2002. Current situation and problems
of LUCC research in China. Beijing: Progress in
Geography.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Mining-induced land use cover and change in mining cities

Q. Xu, J.J. Zhang & H. Hui

School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Mine mining changes original land cover and produces the piles of waste that are piled up
and stored on ecological land, meanwhile occupying and destroying ecological land. The harm of mine
mining threatens the ecological environment. This paper computes the land use conversion matrix by the
interpretation of remote sensing data. Based on the land use conversion matrix, methods for land-use net
change, swap change and annual change rate are constructed. This process can help analyze the change
of land use structure deeply. According to research routines, the land use cover change in mining cities
can be clarified synthetically. It is beneficial to reasonably allocate land use in ore districts and protect the
environment.

1 INTRODUCTION Nevertheless, researches for mining cities, where

The land use conversion matrix can not only
embody the change of land cover spatial pattern,
but also reproduce dynamic change processes of
space-time. Therefore, the land use conversion
matrix is a significant application in the study of
Land Use/Land Cover Change (LUCC). It has
been widely used at different scales (Liu Rui &
Zhu Daolin 2010). For instance, land use dynamic
change can be analyzed by land use conversion
matrix in large area study (Liu Yansui et al. 2005a,b,
Zou Yarong et al. 2003); Part of scholars explore
the mechanism of watershed land use change
with the aid of land use conversion matrix (Chen
Guojian et al. 2009, Shao Jingan et al. 2013); the
land use conversion matrix is also applied to rea-
sonable use and protection of wetland resources
(Wang Shugong et al. 2007). However, with more
and more studies, scholars have discovered that
the land use conversion matrix cant explain
land use change totally. In order to achieve sys-
temic land use change information, investigators
form land-use net change, dynamic degree, swap
change and other parameter model. These param-
eter can improve and perfect integrity of land use
information, then the land use change situation
can be analyzed totally (Liu Yansui et al. 2005b,
Chen Guojian et al. 2009, Shao Jingan et al. 2013,
Robert G. et al. 2004).
Foundation item: National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China (Grant No: 41101531), Doctoral Fund of
Ministry of Education of China (New Teacher Fund)
(Grant No: 20110022120010).
mining activities is the main way to change land
cover, are rarely. Mine mining changes original land
cover and produces piles of waste that are piled up
and stored on ecological land, meanwhile occupy-
ing and destroying ecological land. The harm of
mine mining threatens ecological environment.
This leads mining cities to face many problems,
including resources decay, structural imbalance,
destruction of the environment, after mining cit-
ies have supported national economic develop-
ment and adapted the need of policy. Therefore,
based on the interpretation of remote sensing data,
the land use conversion matrix can be calculated.
According to this, the paper constructs parameters
model for analyzing mining cities LUCC.
2 RESEARCH AREA
This paper takes the mining city of Wuan as an
example to study specifically. Wuan is a boom-
ing city that is industrial-based and comprehen-
sive development of various sectors. It locates at
the border of Shanxi, Hebei and Henan provinces,
owns jurisdiction of the 22 townships and 502
administrative villages, with area of 1821 square
kilometers and total population of 700,000.
It is also known as the Pearl of the Taihang
Mountain. Wuan city is situated in the south of
Hebei province and the east foot of the Taihang
Mountain. It lies between 11345 to 11422 E
and 3628 to 3701 N with the city area of 16.5
square kilometers. Wuan is located in the Haihe
River Basin and has five major categories and
23 minerals which have been proved. During the

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 process of mineral resources development, due
to mining activities, the serious damage to the
ecological environment has been caused. By the
end of the year 2004, land area of destruction
reached 26.7 square kilometers which contain
13.4 square kilometers of cultivated land, and
they are mainly distributed in the concessions of
iron ore and coal (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Location sketch map of Wuan city.
Table 1. Detail information of original data.
Data
Image data in 1987
Image data in 2001
Image data in 2010
DEM
Figure 2. Land use classification results.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 98
3 DATA SOURCES AND PROCESSING
3.1 Data sources
The original image data is collected from Geospatial
Data Cloud (http://www.gscloud.cn/), where three
different less cloudiness image data of study area in
1987, 2001, 2010 and DEM data are downloaded
respectively (Table 1). In addition, the research col-
lects maps and documents for environmental gov-
ernance policies, social economic statistics and land
use status in Wuan City, both of which provide
sufficient basis for land use change analysis.
3.2 Data processing
Via Envi 5.0 software, the first step is radiometric
calibration, atmospheric correction, mosaic and clip-
ping for the original remote sensing images. Then,
classify them by improved classification method,
trying to improve the accuracy of classification
(Guan Yuanxiu et al. 2001). To be precise, eliminate
unnecessary band information via main component
analysis. Meanwhile, the DEM and the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) auxiliary fea-
tures are taken into account, combined with the
result of main component analysis. Thus band
combination helps get supervised classification base
map. The last step is using supervised classification
Content Format Resolution
Spatial allocation Grid 30
Spatial allocation Grid 30
Spatial allocation Grid 30
Elevation data Grid 30
98
8/27/2014 5:57:52 PM
 to obtain the land use classification map. In the
supervised classification process, by calculating ROI
separability to verify sample qualified and judge the
accuracy of the classification result by classification
accuracy and Kappa coefficient. The results are that
ROI separability parameter (Jeffries-Matusita dis-
tance and Transformed Divergence) are both higher
than 1.8, classification accuracy is greater than 85%
and Kappa parameter is higher than 0.8. The clas-
sification results meet the requirements.
Combined with the actual land use type of
the study area and considering main types and
demands of the research, the paper divides Wuan
into six type of land use area: forest, arable land,
grass, water, industrial and mining area and non-
industrial built-up area. Figure 2 shows three
periods of land use classification results.
4 LAND USE CHANGE ANALYSIS
4.1 Method of research
4.1.1 Land use conversion matrix
Land use conversion matrix always expresses by
two-dimensional table. From the table beholder
can quickly get the specific circumstances of land
use types conversion. The table shows the conver-
sion relationship between various land use types of
different times in the same area directly and clearly.
In land use conversion matrix shown as Table 2.
T1 refers to the beginning, T2 means the end time,
Pij represents i types of land use type convert in
the j land use types. Pi+ means in the beginning the
total land use type in i type. Pj+ means in the end
the total land use type in j type.
4.1.2 Net changes and swap changes
Compared with statistical data for each land use
period, Net changes get the absolute amount of
change in every land use types. Net changes always
used for extracting land use change information,
the definition of Formula (1) is as follows:
Netchange = |P+j Pi+|
However, land use change appears of both time
and space, the net changes only reflect changes in
Table 2. A sample of land use conversion matrix.
T2
Pij A1 A2 An
T1 A1 P11 P12 P1n
A2 P21 P22 P24
An Pn1 Pn2 Pnn
total P+1 P+2 P+n
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 99
time. That is to say, if a land use class convert into
another class in one place, meanwhile in any other
place there may be some other classes converting
into this land use class. The offsetting results is
the net changes. So only using the net changes can
not completely reflect the regular rules of land use
change. In order to reflecting the rules of land use
spatial change characteristics, fully extracting the
land use change information, the paper constructs
swap changes, both of the two factors composite
the total amount of land use change. Using those
factors to define the exchange formula (2):
Si = (Pi+ Pii) + (P+i Pii) Netchange (2)
where Si represents i type of land use of exchange
capacity.
4.1.3 The annual change rate and transition
probabilities
In the land use conversion matrix, maybe i type
of land use which has larger base area also have
higher amount of conversion. This result cant
prove the land use types described above having
a higher conversion advantage. Comparing with
the same land use types transition probabilities,
the conversion tend to be more obvious because of
large area. The phenomenon proves that the pre-
dominance of quantity cant be seen as a sufficient
condition for the rule of land use system, the infor-
mation about converting land types should also be
taken into consideration. So the research tries to
use annual change rate and transition probabilities
to analyze the conversion between land use classes,
shown in Formula (3), Formula (4).
P+ j Pi + 1
rate = 100% (3)
Pi + n
Pijj
f ij = 100% (4)
Pi +
In those two formulas, n represents the length of
(1)
the study period, the unit is year.
4.2 Conversion analysis between categories
4.2.1 Land use conversion matrix
Referring to research methods, land use conversion
matrixes constructed in this article are as follows.
From 1987 to 2001, the area of grass converted
to forest mostly, followed by farmland, and less con-
Total
verted to other land categories. The non-industrial
P1+ built-up area converted into arable land mostly and
P2+ none into forest, almost no conversion between it
and forest. The main conversion of arable land was
Pn+ to grassland and non-industrial built-up area, and
1 conversion to grassland area was 2 times to conver-
sion non-industrial built-up area, although relatively
99
8/27/2014 5:57:55 PM
 there was a small part of farmland converted to
industrial and mining area, but it was the major
source this area. In the roll-out of industrial and
mining area, which turned out to class in descend-
ing order was non-industrial built-up area, grass and
arable land. Almost no industrial and mining area
converted to forest land and water, and no exchange
between it and forest. Woodland changes turned
out to grass basically, a few converted to other land
use types. A mass of water converted to arable land,
followed by non-industrial built-up area, and few to
other land types, and it could be seen that almost no
conversion between the water and forest.
In 2001 to 2010, there were few differences in
conversion of each type of land use trends between
it in 1987 to 2001 while they were basically the
same. The biggest difference is, in this period, grass
land conversed to arable land mostly, followed by
forest. The main conversion of arable land was still
to grass and non-industrial built-up area, in the
same time the latter comes more and more impor-
tantly. And in this period, less forest converted to
grass, and almost no conversion.
Based on the above analysis, it can be seen that,
in the whole study period, the exchange among
grass, farmland and forest is relatively more than
other types, all contributes a large area to each
other, but almost no conversion in forest in 2001
to 2010. The main source of the increase in non-
industrial built-up area and industrial and mining
area comes from cultivated land. The conversion
trend of waters is basically stable but the area of
roll-out is always more than that of roll-in.
4.2.2 Land use change information excavation
Its obvious that the variation of land use change
and transformation (Tables 3 and 4), and the
land use all have increasing trend, except grass
land. The most is non-industrial built-up area,
increasing about 5% of the whole area, indus-
trial and mining area and forest land are less. The
change of forest land is more apparent in first
stage than later. Cultivated land and water are in
decreasing, especially cultivated land. The grass
land has a special trend, increasing in 1987 to
2001, but deceasing to the level of 1987 in 2001 to
2010, there is little variation in number but some
change in process.
Although the absolute change of cultivated land
area is the most, but rate of annual change is small
which indicates that the absolute change advan-
tage doesnt represent the superiority transforma-
tion (Table 5). The transformation probability of
cultivated and grass land is small which shows
that these two land use types is stable and change
little. Forest and water respectively increase and
decrease with a small rate during 1987 to 2001,
and variation is more from 2001 to 2010. Both for-
est and water have a bigger transformation chance
but forest never transforms to others. Industrial
and mining area and non-industrial built-up area
are in rapid growth, especially mining area whose
change rate in later stage is triple than in before.
The difference of these two type is large, and the
transformation chance of non-industrial built-up
area is obviously smaller than industrial and min-
ing area.

Table 3. The land use conversion matrix in 19872001 unit: %.

2001

Non-industrial Arable Industrial and Swap

Pij Grass built-up land mining area Forest Water Total change

1987 Grass B 19.62 0.85 3.59 0.19 5.48 0.24 29.97 20.69
C 65.48 2.85 11.97 0.63 18.27 0.80 100
Non-industrial B 0.26 3.51 1.05 0.29 0.00 0.12 5.21 3.41
built-up C 4.93 67.27 20.04 5.50 0.00 2.27 100
Arable land B 6.53 3.20 40.36 0.54 0.11 0.35 51.10 10.72
C 12.79 6.27 78.97 1.06 0.22 0.69 100
Industrial and B 0.22 0.41 0.15 0.41 0.00 0.02 1.20 1.58
mining area C 18.33 33.85 12.19 34.04 0.27 1.31 100
Forest B 4.27 0.01 0.07 0.00 5.37 0.02 9.73 8.73
C 43.92 0.09 0.70 0.00 55.13 0.16 100
Water B 0.14 0.32 0.51 0.12 0.01 1.69 2.78 1.49
C 4.95 11.35 18.39 4.32 0.34 60.65 100
Total 31.05 8.30 45.72 1.54 10.97 2.43 100.00 0

*B line represents the rate of the quantity that transforms from category i to j in the total area of research area, C line
represents the rate of the quantity that transforms from category i to j in the total area of the prime category i.

100

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 100 8/27/2014 5:57:56 PM

 Table 4. The land use conversion matrix in 20012010 unit: %.

2010

Non-industrial Arable Industrial and Swap

Pij Grass built-up land mining area Forest Water Total change

2001 Grass B 23.28 0.48 5.05 0.54 1.56 0.14 31.05 11.44
C 75.00 1.53 16.25 1.74 5.02 0.46 100
Non-industrial B 0.73 6.06 0.89 0.46 0.01 0.14 8.30 4.47
built-up C 8.86 73.05 10.71 5.53 0.17 1.68 100
Arable land B 4.41 3.24 36.37 1.08 0.27 0.35 45.72 13.63
C 9.65 7.08 79.56 2.37 0.58 0.76 100
Industrial and B 0.24 0.57 0.14 0.56 0.00 0.04 1.54 1.97
mining area C 15.33 36.62 9.12 36.12 0.07 2.74 100
Forest B 0.10 0.01 0.09 0.00 10.75 0.01 10.97 0.43
C 0.93 0.08 0.85 0.00 98.03 0.11 100
Water B 0.24 0.42 0.65 0.17 0.04 0.92 2.43 1.36
C 9.82 17.14 26.62 6.95 1.59 37.89 100
Total 29.00 10.76 43.19 2.81 12.63 1.60 100.00 100.00

Table 5. Annual change rate unit: %. 3. During the research period, the total area of for-
est increases and the rate of increase becomes
Land use type 19872001 20012010 larger gradually. In addition, forest roll out
nothing nearly in later period. This reflects that
Grass 0.26 0.73
measures about the construction of green eco-
Non-industrial built-up 4.22 3.31
logical barrier, which is made during 20012010
Arable land 0.75 0.61
in Wuan, help protect ecological environment
Industrial and mining area 2.04 9.13
effectively. It benefits to reduce the loss of for-
Forest 0.9 1.69
est, which is based on keeping the original shape,
Water 0.9 3.79
but also increasing. The increasing forest keeps
Wuan cities green space security.
4. As the important ecological category, water area
5 DISCUSSION has been reducing during the study period and
sharply decline from 2001 to 2010. The obvi-
The paper is based on the land use conversion ously decline can be seen from land use classi-
matrix. What is more, by computing and analyzing fication map. For example the area of 3 major
the net change, swap change, rate of annual change rivers, South Ming River, North Ming River
and transition probability, information of land use and Maxiang River, is reduction.
change is extracted. Taking the social economy and
The mining industry and urbanization of
some policies, which are related to changing and
Wuan is in the development, but the expansion of
protecting land use/land cover in Wuan City, into
built-up land occupies cultivated land. Based on
account, this paper summarizes the total situation
the basic state policy of protecting cultivated land,
as follows:
this phenomenon needs to improve in order to
1. The variation trend of grass and arable land is maintain the sustainable development of the city.
reduction. Although their change quantities are At the same time, Wuan is the important ecologi-
large, the rate of annual change and transition cal domain function area, sensitive water resource
probability are small. It implies that grass and stress areas and sensitivity biodiversity conserva-
cultivated land tend to be stable. tion area of Handan City. Due to mining activi-
2. All the built-up land increases slightly in ties damage the ecological environment, the city
number, but its relative change rate is high. It takes protective measures in order to protect the
indicates that there is a significant expansion in green environment, which not only maintain the
Wuan city and the mining industry accelerates original forest green space, but also make the forest
its development during the study period. Mean- area increased. However, the water area reduces.
while, the expansion of urban land and indus- It reflects the lack of protection to a certain
trial and mining area occupies arable land. extent. Through analyses of mining cities LUCC,

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 101 8/27/2014 5:57:57 PM

 The paper provides the basis for the reasonable
allocation of land use in mining area and guidable
advice on environmental protection.
REFERENCES
Guojian Chen et al. 2009. Dynamic Changes of Land
Use in Liudaogou Watershed Based on RS and
GIS. Research of Soil and Water Conservation 16(2):
95100. (In Chinese).
Jingan Shao et al. 2013. Remote sensing analysis of
land use change in the Three Gorges Reservoir area,
based on the construction phase of large-scale water
conservancy project. Geographical Research 32(12):
21892203. (In Chinese).
Pontius, Robert G. Jr. et al. 2004. Detecting impor-
tant categorical land changes while accounting for
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Rui Liu & Daolin Zhu 2010. Methods for Detecting
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Matrix. Resources Science 32(8): 15441550. (In
Chinese).
Shugong Wang et al. 2007. Dynamic Analysis of the wet-
land resource changes in the estuary of the Pearl River
Delta using remote sensing (19882004). Acta Scien-
tiarum Naturalium Universitatis Sunyatseni 46(2):
105109. (In Chinese).
Yansui Liu et al. 2005a. Conversion of land use types and
ecological effect in Northeast China. Transactions of
the CSAE 21(10): 175178. (In Chinese).
Yansui Liu et al. 2005b. Analysis of the situation and
mechanism of land use conversion in the southeast
coastal area. Journal of Natural Resources 20(3):
333339. (In Chinese).
Yarong Zou et al. 2003. An analysis on Land Use dynam-
ics in Huabei region during recent ten years. Progress
in Geography 22(2): 158163. (In Chinese).
Yuanxiu Guan et al. 2001. The study of salt-affected soils
in the Yellow River Delta based on remote sensing.
Journal of Remote Sensing 5(1):4652. (In Chinese).
8/27/2014 5:57:57 PM
 Part 2: Subsidence land reclamation
and ecological restoration

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Effects of mining subsidence on niche suitability of cultivated land

Q.J. Chen & Q. Hao

College of Geomatics, Xian University of Science and Technology, Xian, Shanxi, China

ABSTRACT: Surface subsidence caused by coal mining had an influence on the normal production of
cultivated land. The theory of niche was used in this study to construct the niche suitability evaluation
model of farmland in mining subsidence, and it can quantitatively evaluate the decline in the quality of
cultivated land. Reasons for farmland damages were discussed from the ecological point of view. Through
the actual cases, the effect and spatial distribution of cultivated land niche suitability were analyzed in a
mining subsidence area. The method provided an effective tool for land reclamation and ecological recon-
struction in the mining area.

1 INTRODUCTION Niu, Zhao, Zhang & Li 2009). In the field of land

When the Underground coal was mined, the sur-
face subsidence would appear. This may result in
loss of soil nutrient and soil degradation, which
would take an adverse effect on the sustainable
utilization of cultivated land. At present stage, the
output of coal in China was more than 3 billion
tons. Because the area for coal mine was almost
overlap with the place for grain production, the
activity of coal mining inevitably damaged the cul-
tivated land, which would have the influence on the
national food security (Bian, 2004). How to evalu-
ate the effect on arable land due to surface subsid-
ence caused by coal production had an important
significance for guiding the mining land reclama-
tion and ecological reconstruction.
2 OVERVIEW OF THE THEORY OF NICHE
The concept of niche was proposed by Grinell in
year 1917, it meant the habitat units occupied for
biology living. Hutchinson extended its connota-
tion to include both the niche space of biology and
its function in the community, in addition, it also
included the position of environmental space, so it
can been described as hyper volume niche (Meng,
Zheng, Zhao & Deng 2011).
In recent years, with the deepening of study, the
object of ecological niche theory research has been
extended from the original biological community,
ecological population to the industrial structure,
farming system, cropping pattern, then extended
to the fields such as the city environment, regional
resources, and so on, these fields have functions
of the material transformation, energy conver-
sion, information processing (Hu & Xiao 2004;
resource, there were also several research results.
The niche theory was introduced in the evaluation
of land suitability according to the matching rela-
tionship between real niche and demand niche by
Wang Xiaoming to define plots of returning farm-
land to forest (Wang 2007).
The ecological niche of cellular automata model
was put forward by Liu Xiaoping and Wang
Hanhua in year 2007. The ecological niche suit-
ability model was given by Lina Meng according
to the land use niche concept. Then the factor sys-
tem of land use niche fitness evaluation was estab-
lished to divide the land use function with the help
of GIS technology (Meng, Zheng, Zhao and Deng
2011). The cultivated land eco-unit and cultivated
land niche concept was provided by Niu Haipeng
based on niche theories from the view point of
whole area of cultivated land ecological system,
then on this basis, cultivated land ecological suit-
ability evaluation model was set up for the sus-
tainable utilization (Hu & Xiao 2004, Niu, Zhao,
Zhang & Li 2009).
According to the research results, there was no
general land use ecological niche model at present.
This study would be taken based on the need of
cultivated land quality evaluation in subsidence
area to research the application of niche theory in
land reclamation of mining area.
3 NICHE SUITABILITY MODEL FOR
CULTIVATED LAND IN SUBSIDENCE
AREA
1. Niche model for the cultivated land
Niche was the quantitative description of the
ecological characteristics of the species, and its

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 connotation included demands on the environ- According to the relationship between the qual-
ment and the relationship between species and ity of land and resource conditions, elements were
their biological communities. divided into the following three types respectively
Supposing that there were n kinds of resource measure:
elements that influenced the cultivated land
1. The greater the value, the higher the niche
quality, these resource elements can be viewed
suitability
as an n-dimensional vector space. If these ele-
Supposing that the range set for this element was
ments were seen as x1, x2, ..., xi, ..., xn, then the
[a,b], for a certain value x, the membership func-
niche space of farmland can be written as:
tion of its relative to the optimal resource niche
can be determined by the followed formula:
U = U1 U 2
UUi Un (1)
x a
Ui = [ai, bi] Fi ( x ) = (6)
b a
x i U i (i , 2, , n)
2. The smaller the value, the higher the niche
Ui was the value range of element xi suitability
In a particular condition, the niche of cul- Supposing that the range set for this element was
tivated land quality can be explained with a [a,b], for a certain value x, the membership func-
non-negative function: tion of its relative to the optimal resource niche
can be determined by the followed formula:
F {X | f X ) > 0, X ( x1,x
x 2 , ... x n )} (2)
b x
Fi ( x ) = (7)
f X ) = f x1, x 2 , ..., xn ) (3) b a

Among which: X = (x1, x2, xn), 3. When the value in an interval, the niche suitabil-
ity was higher; when it offset the interval, the
i U i (i , 2, , n) niche suitability declined.
Supposing that the range set for this element
2. Niche suitability model for the cultivated land was [a,b], the interval for the optimal resource
The niche suitability model can be used to meas- niche was [c,d], and for a certain value x, the
ure the suitability of biology for its environment. membership function of its relative to the opti-
The niche suitability for cultivated land can be mal resource niche can be determined by the fol-
defined as the similarity of the real niche to its lowed formula:
most suitable niche. Supposing that there were
some resource conditions in the n-dimensional 1
space, the value of niche was max, and then x d (c x d)
1
the niche suitability for cultivated land can be b d (d x b)
described as: F i (x ) = (8)
1 c x (a x c)
f 0 M { f (X )}
Max (4) c a (x b o
or x < a)
0

Among which: X0 was the max niche of cul-
tivated land. 4. The formula of niche suitability for the culti-
Niche suitability model for the cultivated vated land
land can be expressed as: According to niche suitability of each element,
the formula of niche suitability for the culti-
F=( i , X 0 ),
) X i U i , X 0 U i (5) vated land can be expressed as:

Among which: n

F was the Niche suitability; Xi was the actual F Fi (x ) (9)

i =1
resource conditions;
X0 was best resource conditions.
In order to meet actual condition, this 4 APPLICATION ANALYSES
study adopted the fuzzy mathematics method
to measure the niche suitability of cultivated In this study, taking Shandong mining area as
land. example, using niche suitability as a guide, the

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 influence of coal mining on cultivated land qual-
ity were analyzed. The landform in the study
area was plain; this place also was an important
grain production base. The exploitation of coal
resources had led to the decrease of cultivated land
resources. In order to understand the effect, a sub-
sidence basin was selected as the research object,
taking the surrounding unaffected farmland as the
reference object, sampling the soil according to dif-
ferent sinking depths respectively. Then analyze the
soil physical and chemical properties (data from
Reference: Chen 2003), according to the model,
the niche suitability for the cultivated land of dif-
ferent sinking depths were calculated.
1. Resource conditions
Due to the subsidence range was limited; the
main resource conditions that affected the qual-
ity of cultivated land were the content of organic
matter, total nitrogen, valid-P, valid-K and PH.
2. Value range of resource conditions
The value range of resource conditions were
determined based on the actual situation and
classification standard of the second national
soil survey (Table 2).
3. Calculation results
Niche suitability for the cultivated land were
calculated based on the measured data, the
detailed please see Table 3.
4. Result analysis
Compared with the niche suitability of refer-
ence plot, the niche suitability of subsidence
land in various parts were lower. With the
increase of the sinking depth, the niche suit-
ability decreased gradually, and then began
to pick up. Compared with the sink loca-
tion, subsidence of the downhill sections, soil
nutrient loss was larger, the niche suitability
was lower, on the basin and edge of subsid-
ence land, soil loss was relatively small, niche
suitability degree was higher. From the view
of niche suitability of resource conditions, the
change value for niche suitability of PH and
total nitrogen were larges, changes of organic
matter and available potassium was relatively
small.

Table 1. The value space of resources.

Resource conditions Organic matter (%) Total nitrogen (g/kg) Valid-P (mg/kg) Valid-K (mg/kg) PH

Minimum 0.6 0.5 3 50 6

Maximum 4 2 40 300 8

Table 2. Results of reference plot niche suitability.

Reference plot

Factor niche suitability

Niche suitability for
Organic matter Total nitrogen Valid-P Valid-K PH the cultivated land

0.5235 0.4333 0.2254 0.3052 0.8200 0.4182

Table 3. Results of mining subsidence on cultivated land niche suitability.

Factor niche suitability

Sinking Niche suitability for
depth/m Organic matter Total nitrogen Valid-P Valid-K PH the cultivated land

0.5 0.4323 0.2467 0.2022 0.2723 0.8602 0.3473

1.0 0.3618 0.2000 0.1892 0.2194 0.8703 0.3044
1.5 0.3177 0.1600 0.1757 0.1957 0.8803 0.2738
2.0 0.3324 0.1800 0.1808 0.2078 0.8301 0.2846
2.5 0.3588 0.2133 0.1843 0.2239 0.7403 0.2977
3.0 0.4000 0.2533 0.1986 0.2365 0.6240 0.3123
3.5 0.4559 0.3467 0.2113 0.2625 0.3799 0.3195
4.0 0.5626 0.4467 0.2541 0.3086 0.1602 0.3161

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 5 CONCLUSIONS
In China, the cultivated land resources were very
tense. However, more than 95 percent of coal
recourses were exploited through mine, the mining
area mostly located in the plain area of fertile soil;
those places also were important grain production
base in china. Underground mining lead to surface
subsidence, affected the normal use of arable land
productivity (Gu & Hu 1998, Li, Lu & Gao 2007).
In this study, using the niche theory, the effects of
mining on cultivated land quality were analyzed to
discover the reason that damaged the cultivated
land from the view of ecology. The data of this
evaluation in method were easy to be obtained.
Because that understands for land resources in
subsidence area were limited, the further research
should be conducted in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by the Project
Sponsored by the Scientific Research Founda-
tion of Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Resources
and Environmental Information Engineering
(China University of Mining and Technology)
(No. JS201113), Scientific Research Program
Funded by Shaanxi Provincial Education Depart-
ment (No. 11JK0771), The Special Project of
Public Research of the Ministry of Land and
Resources (No. 201111016-4), Science and Tech-
nology Research Plan of China Coal Industry
108
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb Sec1:108
Association (No. MTKJ2010-400) and The Scien-
tific Research Project of Xian University of Sci-
ence and Technology (No. 2008QDJ021).
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8/27/2014 5:58:03 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Suitability assessment on land reclamation of subsided land by coal

mining in plain area with high groundwater level

J. Li, X.X. Zhao, W.Y. Li, J.T. Liu, G.B. Jing & Z.S. Liu
China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Assessment of land reclamation suitability is necessary in post-mining land use plan-
ning and decision making. Taking subsided area of NO1 mining section and east-1 mining section in
Pengzhuang coal mine as a study area, this paper constructed the index system of land reclamation suit-
ability evaluation for the hidden area in the high groundwater level coal mining subsidence area, put
forward boundary calculation method of subsidence water area and index model of reclamation suit-
ability evaluation, and by means of ArcGIS spatial analysis function to carry out the reclamation suit-
ability evaluation of every evaluation unit. The results show that: forecast to 2025, among the cumulative
subsidence land, the subsidence area that is suitable for the reclamation of arable land is approximately
694.4 hectares, relatively suitable for the reclamation of construction land and the retaining water area is
respectively 203.2 hectares and 122.7 hectares.

1 INTRODUCTION of the need reclamation district, according to the

China is a big country, which consumes large
amount of coal every year and whose development
strongly depends on coal. In the energy structure,
coal is in a dominated position and takes up more
than 70%, and about 95% of it belongs to under-
ground mining (Li 1998). However, the exploita-
tion of coal resources has also led to a large number
of mining subsidence area arise. According to the
surveying of China National Coal Association,
by 2010, there was more than 800,000 hectares
of China land damaged by mining subsidence,
which caused the nature environment of mine
serious damaged (Pu 2012). On the other hand,
along with the advance of Chinas industrializa-
tion and urbanization, we need more and more
construction land, which bring giant pressures on
farmland protection. Moreover, with the develop-
ment of economy and the improvement of people
living standards, we need more and more ecologi-
cal and recreational land. So, its necessary for us
to execute land reclamation in mining subsidence
area, which can help us do well in coordinating the
relationship between economic construction and
social sustainable development (Wei 2012).
In order to avoid the blindness of land recla-
mation, and promote the sustainable use of land
resources, its necessary for us to do suitability
evaluation before land reclamation and its an
important part of land reclamation. Mining sub-
sidence land reclamation suitability evaluation
based on the fully grasp the natural properties
actual land use situation, we chose the appropriate
direction for land reclamation; and according to
different soil qualities, some land for forests, some
for farm, some for building and others for fishing,
we selected suitable evaluation indexes, then we do
the suitability analysis (Song 2012). At present,
he methods apply to land reclamation suitability
evaluation mainly contain AHP, Limiting Condi-
tions Act, Comprehensive Index and Fuzzy pat-
tern recognition method. etc. For example, Liu
Wenkai (2006) based on Extension Model for suit-
ability evaluation of mine reclamation land shows
that this method can overcome the human factor
influence in the evaluation process and improve the
accuracy of the evaluation (Liu 2006); Zhang Qiul-
ing (2009) adopt AHP to make suitability evalua-
tion of land resources under reclamation of New
River Mine in Jiaozuo City (Zhang 2009); Wang
Shidong (2012) proposed a new limit comprehen-
sive law and applied it into the eighth mine land
reclamation suitability evaluation in Hebi city
(Wang 2012). Taking NO1 mining section and
east-1 mining section in Pengzhuang coal mine
as the study area, this paper used the method of
limited condition method, comprehensive index
method and comparative analysis method, con-
sidered the general land use planning, tourism
and other special planning, combined with trans-
portation and other location factors to do mining
subsidence land reclamation suitability evaluation,
and at the same time used spatial analysis of GIS
to assist the evaluation. Through all the efforts, we

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 hope to provide recommendations for land recla-
mation and achieve the rational use aim of mining
subsidence land.
2 STUDY AREA
Juyecoal mine area is located in the southwest
of Shandong province, where is belong to Yel-
low River alluvial plain. The land is flat and the
terrain is slightly west to east. The area belonged
to the temperate humid monsoon maritime
continental climate, and the history average rain-
fall is 694.7 mm, and the rainfall concentrated in
July and August. Juye coal mine area consists of
seven pairs of mine, six pairs of which located in
Heze territory, the location as shown in Figure 1.
The mine area has ascertained the coal deposit
that is about 5 billion tons, with a total square
about 729 km2. Coal-bearing strata belong to
Taiyuan and Shanxi formation. The total thickness
of coal is 237 m, containing 26 layers, 68 layers of
which can totally or partially mining. At present,
the main coal seams in mine area are of the third
layer. Only the six pairs of mine in Heze territory,
which designed production capacity is more than
16 million tons. In addition to Wanfu coal, the
other coals are all put into production. Among
Figure 1. Juye mine distribution diagram.
110
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 110
them, the area of Pengzhuang coal mine is 67 km2,
the coal deposit is 132 million tons, the recover-
able reserve is 46.16 million tons, and the design
production capacity is 0.6 million tons per year.
Pengzhuang coal mine was put into production in
2007, and its design service life is 52 years. This
paper carried out reclamation suitability evalua-
tion by taking subsided area of NO1 mining sec-
tion and east-1 mining section in Pengzhuang coal
mine as a study area.
3 RESEARCH METHOD AND
PARAMETER SELECTION
3.1 Subsidence prediction
There are lots of mining subsidence prediction
methods at present, such as empirical method,
probability integral method, influence function
method, continuum mechanics method, numerical
calculation method, similar materials simulation
method, etc (Li 2011). The probability integral
method is one of the mature relatively and the
most widely used prediction methods in China. In
the probability integration method, the affected
rock above coal mining face is regarded as granular
medium of the random medium. It completely lost
contact between particles, so that they could prac-
tice relative motion. Due to the gravity, if a particle
was removed, the position of the removed parti-
cles, which the particle of the adjacent particles
from the particles on the upper layer rolled into,
was completely random and had the same prob-
ability (Esaki 2002).
During using the software MSPS developed by
Chen Kan from China University of Mining and
Technology to do subsidence prediction, and with
a detailed analysis of its mining data, we divided
calculation blocks using the mining work faces as
the basic units which consisted of the same coal
seams and the same coal mining methods. Accord-
ing to the relevant regulations and the observation
data of local surface subsidence observation sta-
tion, and combining local exploitation experience
for many years, we confirmed the mining technical
parameters of each computing block, as shown in
Table 1.
3.2 Process and method of evaluation on land
reclamation suitability
3.2.1 Evaluation on the selection of reclamation
direction
The work of evaluation on land reclamation suit-
ability was targeted at specific land reclamation
and utilization direction, and made the evalu-
ation according to the specific direction of the
8/27/2014 5:58:04 PM
 Table 1. Parameters for probability integral prediction of subsidence.
Subsidence Tangent of major
Mine name coefficient (q) influence angle (tan)
Pengzhuang coal mine 0.95 1.6
Noting: in the formula = 90 k , k is mining influence propagation coefficient, is the dip angle of coal seam.
reclamation suitability. The reclamation land is
generally used into farmland, woodland, grassland,
construction land, water area, etc. Among these
kinds, the woodland and grassland have relatively
low demand for land natural conditions, while the
cultivated land and construction land require a
higher demand for land natural conditions (Zhang
2007). Based on the situation of more people and
less cultivated land, and strict cultivated land
protection system, land reclamation should fol-
low the principle that suits the measures to local
conditions. The reclaimed land should be used
preferentially for agriculture. The suitability evalu-
ation in this paper concentrates on the suitability
evaluation on reclamation direction of cultivated
land, grassland, forest land, reserved water, etc.
3.2.2 The division of evaluation unit
There are lots of types of land evaluation unit divi-
sion, such as soil type unit, land resource type unit,
current land use map polygon unit, administrative
unit, grid unit, and multi factor overlay homoge-
neous cell formation unit. Coal mining subsidence
area is different from that in general. Its environ-
ment is complex and affected by dynamic and
long-term sustained damage coming from min-
ing activities. The land status in mining changes
greatly and fast, and the situation of change is dif-
ferent in different plots (Zheng 2005). Except land
use status, reclamation of coal mining subsidence
also needs to consider the factors of land damage
types, reclamation restrict requirements, planning
constraint factors, local demand, artificial reme-
diation measures, etc. Using the superposition
method, we superimpose the current land map
and damage degree map subsidence prediction to
divide evaluation units.
3.2.3 Suitability evaluation of land reclamation
index
The essence of land suitability evaluation is the
process of evaluation on land natural attribute,
social attribute, economic attribute that aims at
land use suitability process and suitability of spe-
cific types (Ni 1999). Therefore, the selected evalu-
ation index should better response the evaluation
area and the different characteristics of different
utilization direction, otherwise it will have an effect
on the accuracy of evaluation results. In this study,
111
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 111
Horizontal movement Mining propagation
coefficient (b) angle ()
0.25 82.2
according to the basic principles such as leading
index of comprehensive, difference and suited the
measures to local conditions, cultivated land and
forestland select the depth of groundwater and
water status, soil type, plus slope, original land type
as their evaluation index; construction land deter-
mines damage degree according to the tilt, curva-
ture and horizontal deformation, and on this basis,
combines with the land use types, location and local
factors to determine the direction for planning.
3.2.4 The division of evaluation grade
According to the technical specification for design
of land reclamation (TD/T 1031.1-2011), we adopt
the two stage evaluation system, divide the reclama-
tion direction into suitable and appropriate grade,
devide suitable types into suitable and not suitable
grade (N), and continue to devide appropriately
into first grade land (S1), second grade land (S2)
and third grade land (S3). Among them, first grade
land meets the requirement that for damaged land
taking general reclamation method and technology
can achieve reclamation direction requirements;
second grade land meets the requirement that
for damaged land only taking more complicated
modern reclamation method and technology can
achieve reclamation direction requirements; for
modern science and poor technology and economic
feasibility and technological feasibility, third grade
land and not suitable class are not suitable for the
reclamation direction (Dou 2005).
3.2.5 Evaluation method
3.2.5.1 Measuring method of subsidence
seeper area boundary
Perennial seeper area boundary H1 = MaxWit. In
the formula, H1 is the sinking value of perennial
seeper area boundary, i is the hydrological observa-
tion point of Pengzhuang coal mine, i [1, n], n is
the amount of the observation point, t is the obser-
vation data of time tWit is the groundwater depth
data of point i of time t, MaxWit is the maximum
groundwater depth data value of the observa-
tion points at the year of i, namely, dry season-
groundwater level. Seasonal water area boundary
H2 = MinWit + a. In the formula, H2 is the surface
subsidence value of seasonal water area boundary,
MinWit is the minimum groundwater depth data
value of the observation points at the year of i,
8/27/2014 5:58:05 PM
 namely, wet seasongroundwater level, a is experi- control and easy to implement; but when the domi-
ence adjustment coefficient. nant damage factor difference is small, the differ-
ence of the appropriate level is difficultly reflected.
3.2.5.2 Reclamation suitability index Weighted composite index method can make up for
Coal mining subsidence land applicability and its the defects. This research will evaluate it by com-
level is influenced by the dominant factor which bining the limit condition method and the compre-
have changed biggest before and after the subsid- hensive index method, as shown in formula (1).
ence to a large extent, especially by the factors
such as water condition and additional gradient n
etc. Therefore, the ultimate condition method can I im Wim MinII im > 30
Qm = i =1 (1)
be used to make the appropriate level evaluation, 0
such method has the advantages of user-friendly MinII im 30

Table 2. Cultivated land and forest land classification standard.

Evaluation factor

Ground- Effective
Class Collapse water Terrain Original soil layer Organic
and depth depth slope Soil types land use thickness matter
Type weight (m) (m) (mm/m) (reference) type (cm) (%) Soil pH
Cultivated Weight 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.04 0.15 0.05 0.04 0.05
land S1 <1 >1 <6 loam Cultivated >100 >4.0% 6.07.9
land
S2 13 0.51 69 Clay, sandy Garden land, 50100 4.0% 5.06.0
loam forest land, 3.0% or
grass land 7.99.0
S3 >3 0.20.5 912 Heavy clay, Forest land, <50 1.0% 4.55.0
sandy soil grass land 3.0%
N <0 >12 Sandy soil, Construction <4.5 or
gravel soil land, waters >9.0
and stone and other
Forest Weight 0.15 0.5 0.15 0.04 0.15 0.04 0.03 0.05
land S1 <1 >1 <20 Loam, clay, Cultivated land, >80 >3.0% 5.58.5
sandy garden land,
loam forest land
S2 15 0.51 2035 Heavy clay Grassland 6080 2.0% 5.05.5
and sandy 3.0% or
soil 8.59.0
S3 57 0.20.5 3550 Sandy soil, Others 4060 1.0% 4.55.0
gravel soil 2.0%
N >7 <0.2 >50 Stone Water, <40 <1.0% <4.5 or
construction >9.0
land

Table 3. The classification standard of construction land.

Tilting deformation Curvature deformation Horizontal deformation Original land

Class and weight i (mm/m) k (*103/m) (mm/m) use type

Weight 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

S1 <3 <0.2 <2 Construction land
S2 36 0.20.4 24 Cultivated land,
garden land,
forestland,
grassland
S3 610 0.40.6 46 Others
N >10 >0.6 >6 Water area

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 112 8/27/2014 5:58:05 PM

 In the formula: Qm is the value of evaluation unit
m; i is evaluation index; n is the amount of evalu-
ation index; wi is the weight of index i. Iim is the
value of index i when evaluation unit is m, when
evaluation unit m contains index i satisfy the con-
straint of min Iim 30, evaluating by limit condition
method, the comprehensive score Qm of evalua-
tion unit m is 0; when min Iim > 30, calculating the
weighted score of the evaluation unit. Reclamation
suitability index is suitable for use especially in the
damaged land reclamation suitability evaluation.
In the potential damaged land reclamation suita-
bility evaluation, the soil characteristics index need
to be analyzed with the reference of soil change
monitoring data in the similar regional.

3.2.6 Classification and weight

of evaluation index
Mark the evaluation index by the method of rela-
tive value units. Use 0100 close interval system,
the relative score values of the evaluation index
merits are calculated on a scale of 0100, set score
section of class S1, class S2, class S3, class N is, in Figure 2. Collapse depth map (whether we make alter-
order, 80100, 6080, 3060, 030. Specific clas- native choice of superposition evaluation units and any
sification is on the basis of land reclamation qual- more than 5?).
ity control standards (TD/T 1036-2013) and land
reclamation plan establishment procedures (TD/T
1031.3 2011), etc. Cultivated land and forest land
classification standard are shown in Table 2,
the classification standard of construction land
are shown in Table 3, retain water classification
standard are shown in Table 4. Evaluation index
weight distributions obtained by Analytic Hierar-
chy Process.

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The subsidence depth, the original land use types,

the seeper degree and the Inclining of the study
area are respectively shown in Figures 25, the
reclamation suitability evaluation unit devision is
shown in Figure 6.
Soil organic matter and soil pH value are studied
according to the results of similar area, the con-
tent of soil organic matter uphill is about 2.63%
and below the content of the not collapse area; the
content of downhill area is about 2.98% and higher
than in the not collapse area; pH value of uphill
area is about 7.93, that of downhill area is about Figure 3. The original land utilization situation of
7.89; effective thickness of soil layer is about 80 cm. subsidence area.
Applying reclamation suitability index into eval-
uation and giving consideration to the land prior-
ity principle, the evaluation results show that: The unit 1, 5, 6, 16, 17, and the area is about 597.3 hec-
evaluation unit 1, 5, 6, 16, 17 and 8, 10, 20, 21 are tares; second grade land units suitable for arable
suitable for the reclamation of arable land, and the land are unit 8, 10, 20, 21, and the area is about
reclamation area is 694.4 hectares. Among them, 97.1 hectares; and the others are not suitable for
first grade land units suitable for arable land are the reclamation of arable land.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 113 8/27/2014 5:58:06 PM

 Figure 4. Water degree distribution in subsidence area.
Figure 5. Additional inclined distribution in subsidence
area.
The evaluation unit 4, 7, 14, 15, 22 and 3, 12,
18 are suitable for the reclamation of construction
land, and the area is 203.2 hectares. Among them,
first grade land units suitable for construction
land are unit 4, 7, 14, 15, 22, and the area is about
114
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 114
Figure 6. Evaluation unit division of reclamation suit-
ability evaluation.
175.7 hectares; second grade land units suitable for
construction land are unit 3, 12, 18, and the area is
about 27.5 hectares.
The evaluation unit 9, 19 and 11, 13 are suitable
for reclamation of retaining water area, and the
area is about 122.7 hectares.
5 CONCLUSION
1. Due to the flexible application and considering
both the various quantitative and qualitative
factors of the superposition method, it is appli-
cable to divide the land suitability evaluation
unit and reclamation unit.
2. When predict the boundary of the perennial
water area and seasonal water area, the mining
area water level observation data should be sta-
tistical analyzed, and establish its relationship
with the subsidence isoline, eventually getting
more scientific expected results.
3. Using the limit condition method and com-
prehensive index method, this paper puts for-
ward the model of the reclamation suitability
index. Based on Chinas national conditions,
applying the method intoNO1 mining sec-
tion and east-1 mining section in Pengzhuang
coal mine subsidence area, and according to
the land use situation before subsidence and
subsidence characteristics, we come to the
8/27/2014 5:58:09 PM
 conclusion: In 1020.3 hectares of coal mining
subsidence land, suitable for tillage area is 870.1
hectares, suitable for forest area is 27.5 hectares,
retain water area is 122.7 hectares.
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Dou Feifei, Li Ping, Zhu Jiawei. Research on Suitabil-
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Esaki T., Djamaluddin I., Mitani Y. Synthesis subsidence
prediction method due to underground mining inte-
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Li Jinzhu, 1998. The technology of development
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industry[M]. Beijing: China Coal Industry Publishing
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Liu Wenkai, Chen Qiuji, Liu Changhua, etc, 2006,
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Li Jing, 2011. The evolution and regulation of city coal-
grain complex land system[M]. Beijing: China Geo-
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Ni Shaoxiang, 1999: 210211. An Introduction to land
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Suitability evaluation of abandoned mine lands supported by GIS:

A case study of Yangzhuang mining area in Huaibei

J. Chang & Y. Yang

Architecture and Urban Planning Institute, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China

ABSTRACT: Suitability evaluation of abandoned mine lands is important for scientific land reclama-
tion and ecological restoration. In this paper, a suitability evaluation model of abandoned mine lands is
set up, which targets include agriculture and forestry land, farming land, industrial land, residential land
and commercial land. The basic index and restricted index, as well as the driver index are used in this
evaluation model. Evaluation of every target is put forward separately by a multi-factor comprehensive
evaluation method with basic and restricted index, and the multi suitability of abandoned mine lands
are presented. But it is possible that there are the same suitability for two different land use types, so the
author introduces the driver index, including human environment, employment, agriculture protection
and commercial service. By ranking the significance of these four elements, the most suitable land use type
is determined. Based on the spatial database of abandoned mine land, the suitability evaluation is applied
in Yangzhang mining area in Huaibei.

1 INTRODUCTION tion of the urban land of mine (Haiyin W. et al.

The abandoned mine lands is located in town-
ship and the surrounding rural areas, the land of
unused or inefficient utilization which formed by
mining. It not only includes the discarded land
for public facilities of industry, storage, transpor-
tation and municipal administration after mine
closure, but also includes the sunk land of min-
ing damage, abandoned open quarries, the tie-up
waste dump for a long time and gangue dump
and other waste stock dumps and so on (Jiang C.
et al. 2008).
In the critical period of development and
transformation for mine, the abandoned mine
lands has shown the dual characteristics. On one
hand, too much environmental problems caused
by abandoned lands, it leads to the mining area
environment deterioration, quality reduction of
the living environment, ecological degradation and
regional image gray.
On the other hand, due to the scarcity of land
resources, its benefit to ease the plight of scanty
mine land resources for the redevelopment and
reusing of abandoned lands, the abandoned lands
can become a new resource of the Renaissance in
the mining area.
The suitability evaluation for the planning and
reusing of the abandoned mine land is one of the
necessary tasks in the earlier stage of the urban
comprehensive planning, and it has important
guiding function for the choice and distribu-
2009).
With the rapid development technology
of Geographic Information System (GIS), it
has provided scientific and effective research
means for the suitability evaluation of the reus-
ing of the abandoned mine lands. It can finish
the vexed questions for manual operation by
applying spatial analysis functions of GIS and
its computation function. The development of
GIS technology has provided effective technol-
ogy platform for researching on the suitability
evaluation of the reusing of the abandoned mine
lands which has complex systems (Dabing Y.
et al. 2011).
2 SITUATION OF YANGZHUANG MINE
IN HUAIBEI
Yangzhuang Mine is located at the place where
about 5.0 km south to the center of Huaibei city,
and it belongs to Lie Mountain district of Huaibei
city. The main trunk traffic road of each provinces
and cities are crisscross with easy transportation.
The Mine is 20.7 km north to Lian-Huo highway
and 4.0 km east to Beijing-Fuzhou highway (Hefei
to Xuzhou), and it connects with Huai-Su highway
(Huaibei to Suzhou).
The area is about 32.25 km2. And with rap-
idly development of the urbanization process in
Huaibei city, its main urban area expands to the

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 south, and Yangzhuang Mine has belonged to the
extended strand of urban development, and has
become the city-mining area. The north parts of
Yangzhuang Mine are soil type coal mine (discon-
tinued), Zhu-zhuang coal mine, Xiangcheng coal
mine (closed down) and Lilou coal mine (suspend
the project) in the order. The land-use types of the
current condition in the mining area mainly are
arid land, water level of pond and urban residen-
tial. As Figure 1.
Figure 1. Classification and distribution of abandoned
lands of Yangzhuang Mine.
Figure 2. The database foundation process of suitability evaluation of abandoned mine lands.
118
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 118
3 GIS SPATIAL DATABASE FOR
ABANDONED MINE LANDS
Processing the obtained basic data with GIS and
spatial analysis method; setting up the spatial data-
base of the abandoned mine lands which bases
on land-use planning system; and realizing the
real time monitoring and renewal for the dynamic
development and spatial evolution of the aban-
doned mine lands. The database construction
process is shown by the Figure 2.
The realization of database establishment: To
diversify the collection means of the relevant data
of the abandoned mine land of mining area and
enrich the quality and forms of receiving original
data are different; to standardize and digitalize the
diagrams and images; to extract, merge and dis-
pose the data of all kinds of tables. ArcCatalog can
load the data and raster images of CAD, Table,
Shapefile and Coverage to the database, most of
the received data are CAD data, raster images and
Excel sheets. Tools of ArcToolbox can be used to
make a data format conversion and then to load it
into the database (Xiuwei S. 2013).
8/27/2014 5:58:14 PM
 4 SUITABILITY EVALUATION
OF ABANDONED MINE LANDS
IN YANGZHUANG MINE
4.1 Basic requirements for suitability evaluation
The status and condition of abandoned mine land
in mining and the reusing benefit of wasteland
and many other aspects are involved in the reusing
suitability evaluation of abandoned mine lands, we
should fully consider the reusing benefit of aban-
doned mine lands based on the basic condition
suitability evaluation of abandoned mine lands, so
the construction of evaluation index system should
follow the principles as follows: systematic;
quantitative and qualitative combination; adjust
measures to local conditions; maneuverability;
applicability.
4.2 Range and target of suitability evaluation
Due to the spatial and temporal distribution and
complex patterns, the type and size is different, and
the suitability evaluation is unfavorable for evalua-
tion object to be targeted at sporadic distribution
of abandoned mine lands respectively. So the entire
range mining of abandoned mine lands should be
studied and delimited as evaluation scope, thus, the
suitability evaluation of land can be done based
on nature, society, and economic situation, then
extract suitability level results of abandoned mine
lands among them.
According to the analysis and investigation
on the collected data and related planning stand-
ards, we choose three main building land types of
residential land, business and service facility land,
manufacture land as the evaluation goals; moreo-
ver, we provide to add agricultural and forestry
land and breeding land as the evaluation goals
with analysis and investigation on the successful
cases of the reusing of part abandoned lands in
Yangzhuang mine locally.
Aiming at five types of reusing, we list them in
order of descending suitability with Arabic numer-
als, which reflect the suitability degree of some reus-
ing ways to abandoned mine land, they are: highly
suitable (S1), generally suitable (S2), critically suita-
ble (S3), not suitable (S4), and determine the related
evaluation goals with different reusing types.
4.3 The selection of suitability evaluation index
The suitability evaluation factors of the reusing of
abandoned mine lands can be divided into subjec-
tive and objective. The objective factors include the
natural environmental condition that can quantify
and socio-economic status. Subjective element is
express in a certain way through field investigation
119
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 119
and subjective evaluation, reflecting the actual situ-
ation of the evaluation factors (Qingqing D. 2008).
Due to the special nature of abandoned mine
lands, there are serious factors limiting land-
building activities. Therefore, in order to avoid this
error, the evaluation index is divided into basic
index and restrictive specific index with the impact
importance degree of suitability on the reusing of
abandoned mine lands.
Basic index is the basic condition and general
existed common factor in aspect of natural envi-
ronmental condition and man-made factors affect-
ing in suitability evaluation on the reusing of on
the reusing of abandoned mine lands, which is the
basic condition and common factor in landform,
water and soil environment, social economy and
other many aspects. Basic factor index can meas-
ure the suitability impact degree of various basic
factors to the reusing abandoned mine lands.
Restrictive specific index is the leading factor
that influences the reusing of industrial wasteland
in mining eminently, and it exists in two aspects
of natural environmental condition and man-made
factors affecting individually, especially the limit-
ing condition and specific factor with a global sig-
nificant influence on the safety of abandoned mine
lands. In restrictive specific indexes, for example,
the limiting condition and specific factor that
exists individually due to geological environment
impact of mining activity.
Beside the above-mentioned quantifiable objec-
tive index supported by data, the author also pro-
vides driving specific index, this index measures the
subjective evaluation of planner on the serious degree
of problems that constrains regional development
in mining, based on the objective evaluation results
of single reusing type, the evaluation function is for
a further transverse evaluation, which aims at the
practical problems in mining, and get the optimum
reusing direction when multi-reusing directions are
the same on suitability degree. The real question to
be considered in planning decisions problems in the
form of evaluation factors to be added to the evalu-
ation so that the evaluation results more instructive,
such as mining people living and employment envi-
ronment, regional business service conditions, the
degree of damage to agricultural land and so on.
Table 1 reflects basic index and the construction of
specific index of different reusing types.
4.4 Weight of suitability evaluation index
Various evaluation factors have different influ-
ence degrees on suitability evaluation of different
using directions for the reusing of abandoned mine
lands, and this paper grades the evaluated factors
of various using directions with AHP, it then con-
8/27/2014 5:58:16 PM
 Table 1. Construction of basic indexes and specific indexes of different land use types.

Reusing land Restrictive special Driven special

types Basic indexes index index

Residential land Slope, slope aspect, soil environment Mining-collapse Human settlement
influence, water environment influence, prediction situation
current situation of mining-collapse,
public service facilities conditions,
influence degree of central city, road
accessibility, population density
Commercial Slope, slope aspect, soil environment Mining-collapse The degree of
service land influence, water environment influence, prediction business and
current situation of mining-collapse, service
public service facilities conditions,
influence degree of central city, road
accessibility, population density
Industrial land Slope, slope aspect, soil environment Mining-collapse Employment
influence, water environment influence, prediction situation
current situation of mining-collapse,
road accessibility, influence degree of
industrial agglomeration
Agricultural and Slope, slope aspect, soil environment Mining-collapse Farmland
forestry land influence, water environment influence, prediction and water protection
current situation of mining-collapse, source guarantee rate situation
road accessibility
Fish breeding land Slope, slope aspect, soil environment
influence, water environment influence,
current situation of mining-collapse,
road accessibility

Table 2. Index weights of residential suitability evaluation system.

Destination Index
layer Criterion layer Criteria weight Index layer weight

Suitability evaluation Nature environment 0.6588 Slope 0.0218

on residential use Slope aspect 0.0436
Current situation of 0.1327
geological disaster
Current situation of soil 0.0365
environment
Current situation of water 0.0530
environment
Geological disaster prediction 0.3712
Social economy 0.3412 Influence degree of central city 0.0550
Road accessibility 0.0958
Urban population density 0.1631
Public service facilities conditions 0.0273

structs judgment matrix, and finally determine the
weight of index with level rank order method and
constantly adjusting test. Take residential reusing
type as an example, its assignments of various
indexed weights are shown in Table 2.
4.5 Model of suitability evaluation
There are two goals for the suitability evaluation
of the reusing of abandoned mine lands in this
paper: firstly, it is an objective evaluation on the
suitability degree of various using direction based
on the current condition of abandoned mine
lands; secondly, it is an overall consideration on
the development condition of mining, and a fur-
ther evaluation and measurement on the suitability
degree of some using directions. Based on multi-
factors evaluation model, it introduces restrictive
specific factor influence coefficient, calculate the
restrictive specific index comprehensive influence

120

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 120 8/27/2014 5:58:16 PM

 coefficient K. The computational formula of
objective evaluation is as follows:
K i =1 w i X i
m
P (1)
where P = Comprehensive evaluation score of eval-
uation unit; K = Restrictive specific index com-
prehensive influence coefficient; M = the amount
of basic indexes; Wi = weight of basic index;
Xi = Assignment of grading scores of basic index.
The computational formula of restrictive spe-
cific index comprehensive influence coefficient K
is as follows:
1 evaluation process of the reusing of abandoned
K= (2)
j=1 Yj
n mine lands includes four processes of single-factor
Zj
where N = the amount of restrictive specific
indexes; Zj = the weight of the jth specific index;
Yj = Assignment of grading scores of the jth spe-
cific index.
During the subjective evaluation process, we
only sort the serious degree of the emerging prob-
lems in the development of abandoned mine lands,
and we dont build evaluation models. We will
divide the suitability level of various using direc-
tions with the comprehensive score in objective
evaluation process.
4.6 Process and result of evaluation
4.6.1 Evaluation steps
According to different functions about the suit-
ability evaluation of the reusing abandoned mine
lands, we divide evaluation analysis into two steps:
with an evaluation on objective influence fac-
tors, we obtain the suitability level of the reusing
of abandoned lands in different mining on single
Figure 3. Evaluation procedure.
121
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 121
reusing direction, especially the restrictive specific
factors will obviously eliminate some using direc-
tions in this step of evaluation; Secondly, aiming
at the industrial wasteland of mining in the same
place with same suitability level on different using
directions, we compare the suitability level on dif-
ferent reusing directions by the transverse com-
parison on different reusing directions with the
evaluation of driving specific factor (Fig. 3).
4.6.2 Application of GIS spatial analysis
in evaluation
GIS spatial analysis tool is mainly applied in the
evaluation stage of suitability evaluation of the
reusing of abandoned mine lands. The suitability
evaluation, comprehensive evaluation, multi-
suitability evaluation and comparative evaluation,
among them the spatial analysis methods needed
include vector data buffer analysis, vector data
overlay analysis, raster data interpolation analysis,
DEM terrain analysis, raster data reclassification
and raster calculating, thus to complete calcula-
tions with the functions of different data: Firstly,
analytic calculation based on spatial graphical
data; Secondly, calculation based on non-spatial
attribute data; Thirdly, combined calculation based
on spatial and non-spatial data.
4.6.3 Single-factor evaluation
Taking suitability valuation of residential reus-
ing direction of evaluation of abandoned land
in Yangzhuang Mine, the basic influence indexes
include slope, slope aspect, soil environment influ-
ence, water environmental influence, degree, road
accessibility and urban population density; the
restrictive specific index is geographical disaster
forecast; and the driven specific index is hous-
ing conditions. According to the requirements of
8/27/2014 5:58:16 PM
 the suitability of the reusing of the abandoned
mine land that classified into four different levels,
we give different scores to each evaluation fac-
tor index under the same a unified index system
with the influence degree on the suitability of the
reusing of the abandoned mine land. The score is
10-point scale, and the score of different level is set
as 10 point, 6 point, 3 point, 1 point (Fig. 4).
4.6.4 Comprehensive evaluation
With the use of raster calculator in ArcMap,
making a comprehensive calculation of the suit-
ability evaluation of residential, business, manu-
facture, agricultural and forestry and breeding
according to the evaluation model in formula 1
and the weight of each factor, and obtaining the
suitability comprehensive evaluation score of the
Figure 4. Diagram of single factor evaluation.
122
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 122
related reusing type of each evaluation form in
Yangzhuang Mine.
Under the present situation of land use in
Yangzhuang Mine, the total area of various
wastelands is 354.99 hm2. As shown in Figure 5,
we obtain that the highly suitable area is 2.5 hm2
with the suitability comprehensive evaluation of
residential type, which occupies 0.7% of the total
area under cultivation, the occupied proportion is
very small, and they are mainly distributed in the
northeast corner of mining industrial square in
Yangzhuang Mine, the shallow water-logged area
in the south coast of subsidence lake in southwest
area of mining area which is less effected by the
subsidence and coal gangue deposited land, the
terrains of these places are flat, the transportations
are convenience, and the population is concen-
trated, which are very suitable for the develop-
ment of residential areas, but the distributions are
mostly scattered, and is at a small scale.
The general suitability area is also very small, it
is 11.80 hm2, which occupies 3.3% of the total area
of wasteland, it mainly consists of coal gangue
deposited land in Yangzhuang Mine, abandoned
industrial square of Youyi Second Mine and part
subsidence shallow water area without govern-
ance, the terrains of these places are flat, they are
far from populated regions, and the transporta-
tions are convenience. The area of critical suitabil-
ity wasteland is 15.34 hm2, which occupies 4.32%
of the total area, it is scattered distributed in all
places in Yangzhuang Mine, and mainly consist of
the dry and irrigable land suffer from subsidence,
coal gangue deposited land and subsidence water-
logged area. The area of most unsuitable waste-
land is 325.34 hm2, which occupies 91.65% of the
total area of wasteland, and it is mainly distributed
in regions which will still suffer from serious influ-
ence of mining-collapse in the future, they are not
suitable for the development of residence, and are
mainly rural homesteads which have already been
removed and various agricultural lands.
Figure 5. Comprehensive suitability evaluation in the
target of residential type.
8/27/2014 5:58:18 PM
 4.6.5 Multi-suitability evaluation
In the result of comprehensive evaluation, we find
that the reusing function of abandoned land in
mining are is multi-suitability on the evaluation
aiming at different using purposes.
In the process of guiding the reusing of aban-
doned mine lands, a multi-suitability evaluation
is usually needed for a specific abandoned land
to determine its best use. The result of compre-
hensive evaluation above is saved in vector data
in GIS, each suitability level has its related digital
representation, and save the property field suit-
ability level in property table. The value of highly
suitability is 1, the value of general suitability is
2, and the value of critical suitability is 3, the
value of un-suitability is 4.
Then we represent suitability level field of five
different reusing types of residential land, busi- Figure 6. Multi-suitability evaluation of abandoned
mine lands of Yangzhuang mine.
ness sand service facility land, manufacture land,
agricultural and forestry land and breeding land
with A, B, C, D, E, and obtain the value of level-
comparison field with addition, which represent
with J. The computational formula of level-
comparison field value is as follows:

J = A*10000 + B*1000 + C*100 + D*10 + E

The value of level-comparison shows the

multi-suitability evaluation of element evalua-
tion of each abandoned mine lands. For example,
level-comparison value of a certain abandoned
mine land is 31412, which means the suitability
level of residential use direction of this wasteland
is critical suitable, the suitability level of busi-
ness sand service use direction is highly suitable,
the suitability level of manufacture use direction
is un-suitable, the suitability level of agricultural
and forestry use direction is highly suitable, the
suitability level of breeding use direction is general
suitable. The results of multi-suitability evaluation
of the reusing of abandoned land in Yangzhuang
Mine are as shown in Figure 6.
4.6.6 Comparison evaluation
After three objective evaluation steps above, it still
exists the situation that the highest suitability lev-
els are the same in some kind of use directions in
multi-suitability evaluation results. For the realistic
guiding significance of evaluation result in plan-
ning and reusing of abandoned mine lands, we
try to bring driven specific index into comparison
evaluation, which means that according to the
result of the development situation in mine with
field investigation, listing the outstanding problems
of social economic development that exist in each
abandoned mine lands. And represent four kinds
of mining development situations of human settle-
ment situation, commercial and service situation,
Figure 7. Evaluation of the degrees of social and eco-
nomic development problems.
employment situation and farmland protection
situation with 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively, then we
get development situation figure of abandoned
lands in Yangzhuang Mine as shown in Figure 7,
for example, 3142 means that the most press-
ing issue in this area is to improve employment
situation, secondly is the improvement of human
settlement quality, thirdly is to improve the con-
tradiction between mining and agriculture, and the
contradiction between agriculture and farmland,
the last is to increase business services industry.
With the analysis on the highest suitability levels
in multi-suitability evaluation results of the reus-
ing of abandoned lands in Yangzhuang Mine, if
there are two or more kinds of same levels, then we
should run a comparison evaluation on the same
highest suitability level in multi-suitability evalua-
tion results combined the evaluation result in the
serious degree of social economic development
problems of abandoned lands in Yangzhuang
Mine, then get the final suitability analysis result
as shown in Figure 8. For example, the multi-
suitability evaluation result of abandoned lands is

123

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 123 8/27/2014 5:58:21 PM

 Figure 8. Final suitability evaluation of abandoned mine lands in Yangzhuang Mine.

23423, which means the highest suitability level Table 3. Percentage of suitable land-use types.
appeared is residential suitability level and agri-
culture and forestry suitability level, the values of The optimum Area Percentage
the level are both 2. If the evaluation result in reusing types (hm2) (%)
the serious degree of social economic development Residential land 32.89 9.68
problems of these abandoned lands is 4123, Commercial service land 2.09 0.62
which means the most pressing issue in this area Industry land 10.96 3.26
is the problem of farmland protection situation. Agriculture and forestry land 219.20 64.51
So, we find that the most suitable use direction Fish breeding land 74.85 22.03
of abandoned lands is the direction of agriculture
and forestry with comparison evaluation.

4.6.7 Results analysis among land-lost farmers, government and enter-

We can obtain the follows from the statistics and
analysis of the results of the final suitability evalu-
ation diagram of reusing the abandoned lands of
Yangzhuang Mine: for the different ways of reus-
ing, survey region takes the largest proportion of
the final suitability evaluation to the land of agri-
culture and forestry. Because of most abandoned
land is the land of agriculture and forestry which
suffered effects, moreover the part of land will suf-
fer the effects of mining-collapse, and relative to
other use methods, going on developing agricul-
ture and forestry causing no idle land and getting
command of the risk of conceivable economic
losses in the low level, and it cant menace peoples
lives and the safety of the buildings and structures.
Therefore, the land for agriculture and forestry is
the mainly method of re-using. Secondly, the land
is for breed aquatics. Making a renovation and
utilization can develop the small-scale breeding
industry and solve the employment problem of the
part of the populace and alleviate the disparities
prises. And the next is residential land. Specific
data are shown in Table 3.
5 CONCLUSION
This paper takes Yangzhuang Mine in city Huaibei
as the example, with the supports of GIS it has set
up the database for suitability evaluation of reus-
ing of the abandoned lands in Yangzhuang Mine,
and it utilizes the spatial analysis function of GIS
to evaluate the appropriateness of reusing the
abandoned lands in Yangzhuang Mine, and it has
gotten the ranks as acreages about the suitability
of five types of reusing for the abandoned lands in
Yangzhuang Mine: agriculture and forestry type,
residence type, business service type and indus-
trial type. The research achievement has a signifi-
cant guiding for establishing the urban planning
of this region and it also has guiding significance
and reference value for the suitability evaluation of

124

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 124 8/27/2014 5:58:23 PM

 reusing the abandoned lands of other similar min-
ing area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is funded by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 41171441). The
authors thank Planning Bureau of Huaibei, Land
and Resources Bureau of Huaibei for their contri-
butions to the projects.
REFERENCES
Dabing Y., Wenxin Z. & Qing Y. 2011. Land reclamation
evaluation system in subsided area with GIS. Metal
Mine (10): 144147.
125
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Haiyin W., Xinchang Z. & Tingjun K. 2009. Theory and
application of suitability evaluation of urban con-
struction land based on GIS approach. Geography and
Geo-Information Science 25(1): 1417.
Jiang C. & Shanshan F. 2008. Strategy of industrial [1]
Changjing, Fengshanshan. Strategy of industrial
wasteland redevelopment of mining cities. Urban
Study 15(2): 5457.
Qingqing D. 2008. Land suitability evaluation with the
GIS approach. Chengdu: Sichuan normal university.
Xiuwei S. 2013. Spatial optimum allocation and manage-
ment information system of mining wasteland reusing.
Beijing: China university of mining and technology.
8/27/2014 5:58:26 PM
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Research on the characteristic of surface movement and its formation

mechanism under thick unconsolidated layer in Kailuan mine area

G.L. Bai
Tangshan Research Institute Co., Ltd., China Coal Technology and Engineering Group, Tangshan, China

Z.D. Yang & B.Z. Huang

Kailuan Group Limited, Tangshan, China

ABSTRACT: In recent years, the influence of coal mining on surface ecological environment getting
increasingly concerned, and the accurate prediction of coal mining subsidence under thick unconsoli-
dated layer has become a technical problem to coal enterprises and research institutes. The surface move-
ment parameter characteristics, such as surface subsidence factor, boundary angle, displacement angle,
etc., were analysed in this paper, combining the research results of surface movement in Kailuan mine
area, and the affecting factors of strata movement parameters was discussed at the same time. The strata
movement mechanism of mining under unconsolidated soil layer was studied basing the groundwater
dynamics and solidification theory in association with the hydrogeologic condition. The strata move-
ment and deformation mechanism was studied due to destruction of the groundwater seepage field and
consolidation of soil layer in underground coal mining. The results would be of great significance to the
accurate prediction of coal mining subsidence under unconsolidated soil layer, prevention and control of
mining damage, planning of coal mining.

Keywords: Kailuan mine area; thick unconsolidated layer; underground coal mining; strata movement
parameters; Biot consolidation theory

Influenced by many kinds of factors of geology,
hydrology, water, the law of surface rock move-
ment parameter with thick unconsolidated layer
compare with general underground mining has par-
ticularity and complexity the law of surface move-
ment, formation mechanism, Prediction method
and parameters have been difficults at home and
abroad. The law of surface movement and forma-
tion mechanism for underground coal minig with
thick unconsolidated layer were studied. It has
very great significance to predicate ground subsid-
ence and protect the buildings and the facilities.
1 THE REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND
HYDROGEOLOGY OF KAILUAN
MINE AREA
combination in central, and the pebbles or gravel
of composite structure in the lower.
Kailuan mine area contain five aquifers, the
pore confined aquifer at the bottom of Quater-
nary gravel, sandstone fissure confined aquifer in
the 5 coal seam l roof, sandstone fissure confined
aquifer from coal 12 to coal 14, sandstone fissure
confined aquifer from coal 14 to coal K3, and Ordo-
vician limestone confined aquifer at the bottom of
the coal coal measures basement strata respectively.
Quaternary pore unconsolidated aquifer is
Consist of different particle size of sand and gravel
interaction, rich in pore water, gradually thickening
from north to south, the clay, sub-clay in the mid-
dle become relatively water-resisting layer. Specific
yield is bigger in the north than its in the south, it
is 310 L/(s m) and L/(s m) respectively.

Kailuan mine area is a coal fields that under Ter-

tiary and Quaternary unconsolidated aquifer. The
soil layer get thicker from bedrock exposure zone
of Zhaogezhuang mine in the Kaiping main syn-
cline north limb to southwest, and the thickness
reach 800 m near Songjiaying in the Kaiping main
syncline south limb. For the general rock proper-
ties, fine sandstone in top, Sand and gravel strata
2 ANGLE DIMENSION PARAMETERS
OF SURFACE MOVEMENT FOR
KAILUAN MINE AREA
So far, All kinds of surface movement observation
station have been built in Kailuan mine area, such
as Qian Jiaying, Lin Nancang, Tangshan mine,

127

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 127 8/27/2014 5:58:26 PM

 Lv Jiatuo, Zhao Gezhuang, Fan Gezhuang, etc.

direction ()
The unconsolidated layer thickness change from
67 m300 m, comprehensive observation carried

Comprehensive displacement angle

65.8
7.16
64.3
61.9
67.9

57.8
71.9

75.7

64.5
Dip
for many times. The angle dimension parameters

62

46

of surface movement for Kailuan mine area were

direction ()
got through comprehensive analysis of the obser-
vation data. The results show that boundary angle
and displacement angle are smaller, and the angle

Rise

63.9
54.3

75.6

64.3
50.6
58.4
50.0
62.5
81.2
83.3
6.28

62.9
in the rise direction is smaller than its in the dip

68

direction. And the rise angle displacement is less

direction ()
averages 10.6 than dip displacement angle, and
Rise angle boundary is less averages 1.6 than dip
boundary angle. The surface movement angular

Strike

67.8
54.3

81.2

64.3
50.6
58.4
50.0
62.5
80.6
83.3

55.8
72.8
parameters of Kailuan mine area are shown in

68

Table 1.

direction ()
According to the key strata theory, the thick-
ness and rock property of overlying strata play a
major role in the surface movement of coal min-

58.1
5.36

46.2
50.6
38.7
44.7
52.2
37.7
67.9

50.7
Dip
ing under thick unconsolidated layer, and the thick

Comprehensive boundary angle

57

unconsolidated layer can be regarded as load. The

direction ()
influence of the ratio of stratum thickness to min-
ing thickness to angle dimension parameters was
studied in this paper.
Rise

44.0
35.0

56.4

39.8
41.2
39.8
53.9

32.8
40.1
The dimension of boundary angle and displace-

38

ment angle changes with the ratio of bedrock
direction ()

thickness to mining height, as shown in Figures 1

and 2.
Strike

From this figures, you can see that the angle

44.0
35.0

56.4

39.8
41.2
39.8
51.3

44.5
36.2
46.5
dimension increase with the increase of the ratio

of stratum thickness to mining thickness. But the
Mining

angle dimension increase rapidly while the ratio of

depth

483.5

256.5

593.5
stratum thickness to mining thickness is less than
304
320
472

335
442
580
275
325

524

255
268
(m)

or equal to 40; and the angle dimension increase
not obviously while the ratio of stratum thickness
Unconsolidated
Surface movement angular parameters of Kailuan mine area.

layer thickness

to mining thickness is more than 40, even instead

of reducing.
The relevant data analysis indicates that with the
188.8

increase of the proportion of unconsolidated layer

220
220

300
167
156
220
156
167
162
125
(m)

70
95
95

thickness to the mining depth, the angle dimension

descend instead.
height (m)

The original mechanical balance was destroyed

Mining

by underground mining, deformation and frac-

3.1
6.4
2.8
3.1
2.3

4.8
2.5
2.5
2.2
2.6
7.8
4.4
8.2

ture appear in overlying strata, the groundwater

6

in the aquifer will seepage into the mined-out area

length (m)

when water flowing fractured zone affect overlying

Sloping

aquifer.
100.3

According to the Terzaghi and Biot consolida-

150
425
150
140

319

112
155
160
150
580
580
56

80

tion theory, the pore pressure reduces when the

water permeates from aquifer, pore fissure medium
Observation

Dongxiaoer

Yugezhuan

effective stress of aquifer rock (soil) increases, the

station

medium deforms consolidates, the amount of sur-

1176E
1672E

E line
B line
F line
F271
F271

1118
1129

5281

face movement and deformation increase. For the

seepage characteristic of aquifer, other areas will

supply it when the local water loss from the aquifer,
Lin Nancang

Gezhuang
Qian Jiaying
Mine name

and the scope and the penetration of aquifer prop-

Tang Shan

Average

erties the influence range is mainly related with the

Table 1.

permeability characteristic of aquifer, the influence

Fan

range is great when there are a lot of pores and

128

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 128 8/27/2014 5:58:26 PM


Figure 1. Boundary angle changes with the ratio of
bedrock thickness to mining height.
fractures and high permeability in the aquifer, and
vice versa. Therefore, the aquifer consolidation
deformation is the main reason for bigger subsid-
ence coefficient and smaller displacement angle
mining under thick unconsolidated layer.
Besides that, according to the theory of min-
ing subsidence and rock mass mechanics, the rock
mass tensile strain in the rise direction is bigger
than it in the dip direction, and the tensile strain
plays an obvious role in adding porosity and per-
meability of rock mass. For thick unconsolidated
layer, permeability adding lead to deformation
129
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 129
Figure 2. Displacement angle changes with the ratio of
bedrock thickness to mining height.
increasing, the final result the angle in the rise
direction is smaller than in the dip direction.
3 CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS
The results show that boundary angle and dis-
placement angle are smaller, and the angle in the
rise direction is smaller than its in the dip direction
in Kailuan mine area.
For thick unconsolidated layer, the rock mass
tensile strain in the rise direction is bigger than it
8/27/2014 5:58:26 PM
 in the dip direction, permeability adding lead to
deformation increasing, the final result the angle
in the rise direction is smaller than its in the dip
direction.
The aquifer consolidation deformation is the
main reason for bigger subsidence coefficient and
smaller displacement angle mining under thick
unconsolidated layer.
Building the subsidence prediction mode is sig-
nificant to predicate subsidence under thick uncon-
solidated layer through the combination of Mining
subsidence theory and seepage flow mechanics.
REFERENCES
Chan Jun-rong. 2002. Surface movement observatory
observation data summary and analysis of 1672E the
stations in Qian jiaying mining company of Kailuan
Group Limited. Mine surving 1, 168:171.
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Han Kui-feng, Kang Jian-rong. 2009. Research on Pre-
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trol under thick unconsolldated layer[J]. Coal mine
safety, 2008, 11, 5355.
Wang Dong-pan. 2005. Research on Character of Sur-
fce Movememt Caused by Mining under Extra thick
Alluvium and High Diving Area[D]. Henan Plolys-
technic University.
Yin Zuo-ru, Zou you-feng, Deng Zhi-yi. 2010. Law
and parameters for strata and surface movement in
Kailuan mines[M]. The Science Publishing Company,
In June.
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(Natural Science), 29(1):6165.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Influence of aquifer drainage on land subsidence

in eastern Chinese coal mines

Q. Yu
School of Resources and Geosciences, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, China

J.R. Ma
State Key Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining
and Technology, Xuzhou, China

H. Shimada & T. Sasaoka

Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: This analysis is based on the existence of typical engineering and geological conditions
in the eastern Chinese coal mine area. In order to find the effect of aquifer drainage on land subsidence,
the geology conditions of the Baodian coal mine are analyzed, and then, a 2D numerical model of strata
layers was established for simulating the influence of aquifer drainage on land stability. Certain factors
including aquifer and upper layer depth were taken as the influence factors in the simulation. The results
indicated that the aquifer drainage can cause the land subsidence and the settlement in the industry
square is not the same and changed with the distance from the shaft. In a certain distance, the settlement
becomes small to lager away from the shaft and then becomes flatten.

1 INTRODUCTION numerical model of strata layers was established

for simulating the influence of aquifer drainage
Environment damage caused by coal mining oper- on land stability. Certain factors including aquifer
ation has got more and more attention. A large and upper layer depth were taken as the influence
number of problems emerged during the coal factors in the simulation.
extraction such as shaft deformation, surrounding
rock deformation, aquifer leakage, rock burst, and
2 GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
water inrush (Jaiswal and Shrivastva 2012; Sari et al.
2004; Li 2006). Serious shaft lining ruptures have
As the geological conditions are similar in eastern
often occurred in the eastern part of China, such
Chinese coal mines, in this analysis, the Baodian
as Datun, Xuzhou, Huaibei, Yanzhou, Yingxia,
coal mine was chosen as a typical example for the
Hebi, Dongrong, etc, since 1987 (Gu 2000). The
mines which are located in eastern China as shown
geological conditions of all these spots are almost
in Figure 1.
the same. All these shaft linings pass through deep
topsoil of Quaternary strata, for which the com-
position of the bottom aquifer is complex; before
shaft lining rupture, the water head of the bottom
aquifer fell dramatically and large scale subsidence
occurred. Researches on analysis of shaft lining
stability have been conducted in recent years and
some measures including water-resistant key strata
have been applied (Liang et al. 2009; Wang et al.
2010a; Sui et al. 2010; Pu et al. 2008; Wang et al.
2010b). Therefore, how the aquifer drainage causes
the land subsidence in industry square of coal mine
need to be cleared.
In order to find the effect of aquifer drainage
on land subsidence, the geology conditions of
Baodian coal mine is analyzed, and then, a 2D Figure 1. Location of the Baodian coal mine.

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 This coal mine belongs to Yanzhou Mining
Group in Shandong Province. The coalfield of this
coal mine is buried in the Quaternary stratum and
Jurassic stratum. This coal mine was commenced in
June 1986 and the production is over 3 million tons
per year. The mining level is now below 430 m
from the surface and the fully mechanized long wall
mining system is adopted for coal extraction.
The geological conditions of alluvium are
shown in Table 1. The total thickness of the Qua-
ternary alluvium in which the shaft passes through
was about 148 m, the cumulative thickness of the
aquifer was more than 20 m.
The initial water pressure in the aquifer was
1.45 MPa, and by July 1995, the pressure had been
decreased to 0.65 MPa. The average of water dis-
charge pumped up in each year of this coal mine
is shown in Figure 2. From 1991 to 2000, the
average water discharge was about 563.40 m3/h.
The variation of water level in the bottom aquifer
of Baodian coal mine from 1985 to 2000 is shown
in Figure 3. This figure shows that the water level
in the bottom aquifer dropped dramatically and
persistently. The water level in the bottom aquifer
dropped more than 20 m from 1985 to 1995 when
the first shaft lining failure occurred.
Because of the drop of water level in aquifer,
this layer was consolidated and compressed, which
could cause the ground subsidence around the
shaft. Figure 4 shows the settlement at different

Table 1. Geological condition of alluvium in the Bao-

dian auxiliary shaft.

Soil Depth Thickness

group (m) (m) Description

Upper 6.54 6.54 Humid soil, yellowish-

brown clay
15.80 9.26 Sandy clay
19.90 4.10 Yellow gravel Figure 3. Variation of water level in bottom aquifer at
23.50 3.60 Sandy clay, silty sand the Baodian coal mine.

Middle 46.10 22.60 Yellow sandy clay, clay

59.40 13.30 Clay with fine sand
interbed
63.40 14.00 Clay
87.67 24.27 Clay with coarse sand
interbed
93.58 5.91 Clay
Lower 106.18 12.60 Clayey coarse sand
116.45 10.27 Sandy clay
128.05 11.60 Clayey silty sand
140.00 11.95 Clay
148.60 8.60 Fine sand, silty sand

Figure 2. Water discharge in the past ten years of the

Baodian coal mine. Figure 4. Settlement at different depths.

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 depths of the mining field in Baodian mine from
May 1998 to July 2000. The observation borehole
was located at 150 m from the shaft. The settle-
ment in 100 m depth was greater than any other
depths before July 2000. This depth was just the
upper location of the aquifer layer. This meant
that a large settlement had been occurred in the
aquifer layer and that caused the subsidence of
ground surface. The obvious settlement of ground
surface in the mining field was occurred in just two
years and the last one was over 51 mm. The aver-
age settlement of the ground surface was about
24 mm/year.
3 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS ON BASIC
MODEL
In this study, the axisymmetric finite element
analysis code, Phase2, was used to show the influ-
ence of aquifer drawdown on shaft lining failure.
Axisymmetric modeling allowed analyzing a 3-D
excavation which was rotationally symmetric about
an axis. The input was 2-dimensional, but the anal-
ysis results apply to the 3-dimensional problem
to clear the mechanism of the movement of the
ground layers.
Figure 5. Axisymmetric model of strata layers and
shaft lining.
Table 2. Mechanical properties used in the analysis.
Parameters Sand layer
Youngs modulus (MPa) 42
Poissons ratio 0.3
Internal friction angle () 20
Cohesion (MPa) 3.0 102
Unit weight (MN/m3) 2.1 102
Tensile strength (MPa) 6.0 102
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 133
3.1 Basic model
The analysis model used to imitate the geological
condition is shown in Figure 5. The axis z is the
symmetric axis of the axisymmetric model and it
is the central axis of shaft. The axis x indicates the
direction of ground surface away from the center
of shaft.
The analysis boundary condition was set as
follows: the lower boundary was fixed in verti-
cal direction, the lateral boundaries were fixed in
horizontal direction, the upper boundary was free,
and both corner points in the lower boundary were
fully fixed. It was an axisymmetric model and elas-
tic analysis was applied.
The aquifer 30 m thick near the shaft lining was
assumed that the water level decreased. The water
head at the bottom aquifer was set 25 m (the
water head of the aquifers upper boundary), and
then changed to 45 m in order to simulate the
drainage process. The mechanical properties used
in the analysis are shown in Table 2. The param-
eters in this model were based on the geological
data and the shaft construction data of Baodian
coal mine.
3.2 Results and discussion
From Figure 6, it can be seen that the vertical
displacement happened after the aquifer drain-
age was downward. The displacement of shaft
lining is small, but the ground displacement
increases with the increasing distance from the
shaft lining.
Figure 7 shows the vertical displacement changes
of the upper boundary of aquifer with distance
from axis z. The displacement in the shaft lining
is small and less than 0.06 m at this boundary. As
the distance from the shaft lining increases, the
displacement of each ground layer increases. The
displacement of 100 m away from the shaft center
is about 5 times that of the shaft lining.
From the above results, the effect of aquifer
drainage on land subsidence can be described
as follows. The drop of water level caused voids
appearing in the aquifer. And the settlement of
upper layer occurred due to the consolidation of
Clay layer Aquifer Bedrock Shaft lining
73.5 42 1.0 104 2.0 104
0.3 0.35 0.25 0.15
20 20 35 35
3.5 102 4.0 102 11 35
2.1 102 2.2 102 2.7 102 3.0 102
7.0 102 7.5 102 6.0 16
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 4.1 Numerical analysis model
The analytical conditions and boundary condi-
tions are same with the previous model.
There were four stages in this model for the
simulation as shown in Figure 8. Stage 1: Initial
Model; Stage 2: Formation of a shaft (diameter
8 m); Stage 3: Formation of shaft lining (thickness
1 m); Stage 4: Drop of water level in aquifer (total
head of the aquifers upper boundary decreases).
The alluvium layer was divided into two parts:
the upper layer and the aquifer. The mechanical
property values used in the analysis are shown in
Table 3. The parameters in this model were based
on the engineering geological data and the shaft
construction data at Baodian coal mine.
In this simulation, five patterns were in different
depths and thickness of soil layers (see Table 4).
Pattern 1 was the basic pattern; the thicknesses of
the upper layer were increased in patterns 2 and
3; the thicknesses of the aquifer were increased in
Figure 6. Vertical displacement contours after drop of
water level in aquifer.
patterns 4 and 5. The initial thicknesses of upper
layer and aquifer were smaller than the previous
analysis model, in order to keep the stability of
the shaft lining. And the drop of water level in the
aquifer was the same in all those patterns.

Figure 7. Vertical displacement of upper boundary of

aquifer (A-A).

aquifer. The subsidence happens in the aquifer and

the upper layer; the shaft lining can decrease the
settlement of the surrounding strata in a certain
distance.

4 EFFECT OF STRATA THICKNESSES

In this section, the influence of strata thicknesses

on land subsidence was discussed by the finite ele-
ment code, Phase2. The different depths and thick-
nesses of the aquifer are specified as the factors.
The drop of water level in aquifer was the same
with the previous analysis model. The water level
of the bottom aquifer was assumed decreasing.
The water level of the bottom aquifer was set
25 m (water head of the aquifers upper bound-
ary), and then changed to 45 m. Figure 8. Model steps for numerical simulation.

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 Table 3. Material properties of the analytical model.

Parameters Upper layer Aquifer Bedrock Shaft lining

3
Unit weight (MN/m ) 0.021 0.022 0.027 0.030
Youngs modulus (MPa) 73.5 42 10,000 20,000
Poissons ratio 0.3 0.35 0.25 0.15
Tensile strength (MPa) 0.07 0.075 6 16
Internal frictional angle () 20 20 35 35
Cohesion (MPa) 0.035 0.04 11 35

Table 4. Patterns of different strata thicknesses. 4.2 Results and discussion

Upper Thickness The deformations of the upper boundary of the
layer Aquifer Bedrock ratio (upper aquifer in different patterns are similar due to the
Pattern (m) (m) (m) layer/aquifer) same condition of the drop of water level as shown
in Figure 9.
Pattern 1 130 20 100 6.5 In Figure 10, the displacements of upper bound-
Pattern 2 200 20 100 10 ary of the aquifer are following the water level
Pattern 3 260 20 100 13 dropping, when the water level has a 2 times drop,
Pattern 4 130 40 100 3.2 the settlement of the ground layer will increase
Pattern 5 130 80 100 1.6 almost 2 times.
From the above results, the strata thickness has
a little effect on land subsidence, as a result of
same water level drawdown. And the main reason
of the different settlement of land subsidence in
coal mine industry square is the water level draw-
down magnitude.

5 CONCLUSIONS

The geology conditions of Baodian coal mine is

Figure 9. Vertical displacement of upper boundary of
aquifer in different patterns.
analyzed in this paper. The influence of aquifer
drainage is analyzed by using numerical methods.
The influence factors such as strata thickness and
water level drawdown are taken into account in the
analyses. According to the above numerical analy-
ses, the following results can be obtained.
1. The effect of aquifer drainage on land subsid-
ence can be described as follows. The drop of
water level caused voids appearing in the aqui-
fer. And the settlement of upper layer occurred
due to the consolidation of aquifer.
2. The subsidence happens in the aquifer and the
upper layer; the shaft lining can decrease the
settlement of the surrounding strata in a certain
distance.
3. The strata thickness has a little effect on land
subsidence. The water level drawdown magnitude
is the main reason of the different settlement of
land subsidence in coal mine industry square.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Figure 10. Vertical displacement of upper boundary of Authors are grateful for financial assistance pro-
aquifer in different water level drawdown. vided by the Natural Science Foundation of

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 Jiangsu Province, China (No. BK20130179) and
A Project Funded by the Priority Academic Pro-
gram Development of Jiangsu Higher Education
Institutions.
REFERENCES
Gu, M. 2000. Failure of Shaft Caused By Special Geo-
logic Hazards and Corresponding Prevention Meas-
ures, Journal of Engineering Geology 8(2):197201.
Jaiswal, A. & Shrivastva, B.K. 2012. Stability analysis of
the proposed hybrid method of partial extraction for
underground coal mining. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci
52:103111.
Li, C. 2006. Disturbance of mining operations to a deep
underground workshop. Tunn Undergr Space Technol
21:18.
Liang, H. Zhou, G. Liao, B. 2009. In-site monitoring and
analysis of shaft linings additional strain in failure
and formation grouting. Procedia Earth Planet Sci
1(1):503511.
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Pu, H. Miao, X. Yao, B. 2008. Structural motion of
waterresisting key strata lying on overburden. J China
Univ Min Technol 18:03530357.
Sari, M. Duzgun, H. Karpuz, C. 2004. Accident analy-
sis of two Turkish underground coal mines. Saf Sci
42:675690.
Sui, W. Zhang, G. Wang, W. 2010. Chemical grouting
for seepage control through a fractures shaft wall in
an underground coalmine. Geologically Active pp:
36173623.
Wang, Y. Zhang, C. Xue, L. 2010a. Prediction and
safety analysis of additional vertical stress within a
shaft wall in an extrathick alluvium. Min Sci Technol
20(3):350356.
Wang, L. Miao, X. Wu, Y. 2010b. Discrimination condi-
tions and process of water-resistant key strata. Min
Sci Technol 20(2):224229.
8/27/2014 5:58:40 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

The wetland evolution process and ecological effect analysis

in coal-mining subsided land with high groundwater

J.F. Qu & S.L. Zhang

Low Carbon Energy Institute, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, China

K. Wang, G. Li & N.S. Bu

School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, China

ABSTRACT: Human mining activities are closely related to the occurring conditions of water resources,
land use/cover change and the ecological environment. In a high groundwater area, coal mining activi-
ties will cause the surface subsidence and lead to groundwater and due to the changes of hydrodynamic
conditions from the original land ecological environment of mining area in succession to aquatic-terres-
trial complex environment. Large areas of annual and seasonal water areas have many unique wetland
characteristics such as hydrology, soil and biological diversity. The wetlands in high groundwater mining
subsidence areas have their own evolution characteristics. These characteristics mainly perform landscape
pattern and landscape change process in the interaction of temporal and spatial scales. This evolution
has influence on energy flow of the ecological system in the mining area, material circulation and species
migration. And it has a significant environmental effect on maintaining regional ecological system bal-
ance, biological diversity, increasing carbon sink, etc.

1 INTRODUCTION wetland areas, mud or water, is static or flowing,

Coal mining activities in high groundwater area
will cause many damages, such as tie up of land
and land subsidence. The coal mining activities will
lead to the surface formation of perennial water
area, the seasonal water area and water slope.
These activities will make the land transform into
aquatic-terrestrial complex environment. Due to
coal mining activities have enormous influence on
the landforms, terrain and many other aspect, and
because of the period is short and hydrological
conditions, the species and the environment have
also changed much, in this long and seasonal water
conditions form the new ecological environment[1].
This new environment make the mining subsidence
area with high groundwater change the process
of carbon source and carbon sinks, and will also
change the function of water storage and flood
detention. With the development of this new
environment making these changes with wetland
ecological characteristics. According to the defi-
nition of the ramsar convention in 2002, Wetland
refers to natural, artificial or temporary marshes,
Fund Project: The National Science & Technology Pil-
lar Program during the Twelfth Five-year Plan Period
[2012BAB11B06].
or freshwater, brackish water, or salt water, includ-
ing the waters of the deep no more than 6 m in
low tide[2]. High groundwater mining subsidence
area is divided into two kinds: one is the kind of
perennial water to another is the seasonal water
area. Carbon sequestration capacity of these areas
is much higher than other land and these areas is
an important carbon sink area. For a long time,
the coal mining area management has made great
breakthrough, these breakthroughs are mainly con-
centrated in land reclamation, the increase of the
arable land and ecological restoration. Ecological
maintenance of mining subsidence area for high
groundwater area need according to the specific
features of subsidence seeper and seasonal water
area. Consider from the direction of strengthen-
ing ecological benefit and ecological restoration
of the wetlands in high groundwater mining sub-
sidence area, we need to consider the reclamation
activity and the regulation of water resources and
the coordination between the species structure to
ensure our governance activities will not make the
wetland into dry land, also wont lead to vegeta-
tion to be destroyed. Only in this way can enhance
the capacity of the terrestrial ecosystem carbon
sequestration and make it play a positive role. In
this paper we describe the wetland ecological fea-

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 tures from the direction of different features of
perennial water and seasonal water in high ground-
water mining subsidence area. We hope this article
can coordinate mining area land reclamation work
and be able to provide the basis for wetland main-
tenance in subsidence area.

2 THE SUCCESSION OF COAL MINING

SUBSIDENCE AREA WITH HIGH
GROUNDWATER TO WATER AREA
2.1 The coal mining subsidence on the change
of the landform and physiognomy
About 96% of coal mining in our country is
through underground mining. With the develop-
ment of underground coal mining, destroyed the
original stress balance of overburden of mined-out
area. The surface to form a approximate elliptic
subsidence basin that is much larger than the origi-
nal goaf area. Underground coal mining to make
the process of surface subsidence basin formed as
shown in Figure 1.
In addition, the same is underground mining,
different regions and different plots of the mecha-
nism for mining subsidence is not entirely the same.
Mining area in the plains of high groundwater level
have a better condition of rich soil water. The main
damage of coal mining activities in these area are
producing the surface water, lead to ground surface
crack and the formation of cultivated land with a
slope. There are many factors that can lead to the
surface collapse not only connected with coal min-
ing ways but also connected with the dip Angle of
coal seam, thickness, mining depth and mining fac-
tors itself. And subsidence depth, water conditions,
the stability of different subsidence area will vary.
Ground subsidence caused by coal mining is also
associated with the depth and the thickness ratio of
the coal, the smaller the ratio is the easier to appear
discontinuous deformation, and the higher the
groundwater level and the bigger the mining thick-
ness is the much more surface water that will be.
2.2 The water space of coal mining
subsidence area
The water space of coal mining subsidence area
have two kinds surface water and groundwater.
According to the aquifer medium, aquifer can be
divided into loose aquifer and bedrock aquifer.
Among them, the gravity water above the first
stable and water-resisting layer is called phreatic
aquifer. Phreatic aquifer depend mainly on surface
water and atmospheric precipitation recharge, with
close links to the surface water and atmospheric
precipitation. Coal bed topography change caused
Figure 1. Process of surface deformation caused by
underground mining.
1, 2, 3, 4: The location of the mining operation.
W1, W2, W3, W4: The corresponding mining Basin;
W5: Basin in the final.
Figure 2. Spatial distribution of water body on seam.
1. The phreatic surface; 2. Loose aquifer; 3. Water-
resisting layer; 4. The bedrock aquifer; 5. Coal seam;
6. The geoid; 7. The surface water; H: groundwater level;
H1: Phreatic buried depth; H2: Phreatic aquifer depth.
by mining, will change the atmospheric precipita-
tion and soil water-loop relationship between shal-
low groundwater. Water spatial distribution above
the coal seams shown in Figure 2.
Different depth of subsidence depressions are
caused by coal mining activities. The subsidence
cause changes in the surface of the ground and
changed the surface drainage condition inside the
small watershed. Coal mine area of surface run-
off are collected in mining subsidence area. The
depression and subsidence area is relatively inde-
pendent, surface subsidence of coal mining area in
small watershed raw water circulation balance has
been broken, and establish a new equilibrium con-
ditions. Due to subsidence in coal mining area the
coal mining area will form the relatively independ-
ent subsidence low-lying areas. And then set up a
new material, energy and information circulation,
and because more concentrated energy flow of the
material and energy circulation become more active.
Mining subsidence of runoff characteristics before
and after contrast is shown in Figure 3(a), (b).

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 Figure 3(a). Sketch map of farmland runoff direction before surface subsidence.

Figure 3(b). Sketch map of farmland runoff direction after surface subsidence.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of subsidence zone division.

Table 1. Land classification of the subsidence area in coal mine.

Num. Name Water level Implication

1 Perennial water Deep water Perennial water depth more than 3 m

2 Seasonal water
3 Non water areas
Moderate water Perennial water 13 m
Shallow water Perennial water deep within 1 m
During the year change water The flood water, not water in winter
and spring
The inter annual changes in water Flat water years water logging, soil moisture
saturation, drought is not water
Non water areas All the year round without water and soil
moisture in the unsaturated condition

2.3 Hydrological conditions change on the

influence of the subsidence seeper area
There are three types of land in high groundwater
coal mining subsidence area, that is the perennial
water area, the seasonal water area and subsidence
water area. Besides, resulting in a large number of
surface subsidence and water (Fig. 4), but also the
formation of mass slope farmland in subsidence
area around. This part of slope farmland water
state is seasonal, hydrological conditions and

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 changes present years, annual dynamic change of
water. In accordance with the conditions of coal
mining subsidence area water, its classification as
shown in Table 1.
3 THE SUCCESSION OF ECOLOGICAL
FUNCTION IN HIGH GROUNDWATER
COAL MINING SUBSIDENCE AREA
TAKING XUZHOU JIULI COAL
MINING AREA AS EXAMPLE
3.1 The basic function of wetland
Wetland is one of the earth four terrestrial ecosys-
tems, is the source of fresh water and one of the
most abundant species gene pool and also is the
basic condition for humans sustainable develop-
ment (Yan 2006). It has a natural water features,
known as kidney of the earth (Xu & Chen 1999).
Because wetland has both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystem attributes. The edge effect both the types
and species of wetland ecosystem is extremely rich
and diverse (Wang & Zhao 2000). Wetland diver-
sity of animal and plant community is the basis
for the high productivity. Wetland ecosystem has
light, heat, water, nutrients and other special con-
ditions, so the wetland ecosystem productivity is
very rich. In addition, wetland also has a water
storage, flood detention, water purification, soil
nutrient retention, biodiversity conservation, car-
bon sequestration, landscape and many other eco-
logical functions (Luan et al. 2012). At the same
time they also regulate the function of regional
climate environment, water conservation and air
purification.
3.2 Changes of organic carbon storage
and reclamation of mining subsidence
As a result of changes in the ecological characteris-
tics of mining area with high ground water level of
mining subsidence, perennial and seasonal water
area, between land and water environment and
have wetland hydrological conditions, hydrologic
condition factors changed area of aerobic and
anaerobic environment of coal mining subsidence,
directly leads to the transformation of physical and
chemical processes of ecosystem changes and CO2,
CH4 source or sink (Waddington & Roulet 2000;
Zona et al. 2009). Distribution also showed similar
wetland characteristics of organic carbon in coal
mining subsidence space. Mining subsidence land
reclamation has been put into cultivated land as the
main target, but reclamation activities will result
in new disturbance on ecological environment in
Subsidence Area. In the coal mining subsidence
area, carbon cycle in NEE, ecosystem respira-
140
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 140
tion and soil respiration all showed significantly
changes (Smith et al. 2007). Farmland reclamation
will release of organic carbon in the soil and it will
generally reduce soil carbon reserves (Fang et al.
2010; Ge et al. 2008). If too much emphasis on the
subsidence water area for land reclamation it will
effect the distribution of soil organic carbon (Lin
et al. 2008). According to the sampling analysis of
changes in soil organic carbon reserves in Xuzhou
Jiuli coal mining subsidence area. In Jiuli coal
mining subsidence area of organic carbon storage
change data to prove the characteristics of organic
carbon distribution.
3.2.1 The soil samples collected in nine coal
mining subsidence area
The terrain of Xuzhou Jiuli coal mining subsidence
wetlands is from the outside to the center gradually
become low. From high to low there were five types
of soil samples collected, they were farmland, not
water slope farmland, seasonal water slope farm-
land, water area and deep water area. From the
edge of the subsidence area to the subsidence water
level, a straight line along the direction, we conduct
soil sample collection of every subsidence depth
of 20% (Fig. 5). We have arranged five sampling
points in each subsidence slope, and then select the
soil sampling at the representative position.
3.2.2 Testing and results of soil samples
The purpose of testing the collected soil samples
is to explain the distribution characteristics of
soil organic carbon in coal mining subsidence, to
research the change of soil organic carbon pool,
and to compared the characteristics with wet-
land carbon sink. So all of the soil physical and
chemical properties that have effected on the soil
organic carbon pool of coal mining subsidence
were tested and analysis. According to the date of
soil sample organic carbon content and soil bulk
density of mining subsidence, to calculate of differ-
Figure 5. Different test units divided according to the
subsidence depths.
8/27/2014 5:58:43 PM
 ent types of regional soil organic carbon density in
per unit area. The test results are shown in Table 2.
3.2.3 Analysis of changes in soil organic
carbon in high ground water coal
mining subsidence area
According to the analysis of different samples of
high groundwater coal mining subsidence, the soil
organic carbon density of no water condition was
smaller than that in the control field. This shows
that in the formation process of slope subsidence
land, soil organic carbon loss has occurred, due
to the action of gravity of soluble organic carbon
losses with runoff. The soil organic carbon density
of seasonal water condition area was slightly greater
than that in the control field. Due to the impact of
hydrological condition changes, this part of soil
organic matter decomposition and the organic car-
bon accumulation depends on different seasons.
Perennial water area of soil organic carbon density
was significantly higher than in the control field.
This shows that the perennial water area has obvi-
ous function of carbon sink, forming the organic
carbon pool of mining subsidence area.
3.3 Other ecological functions of succession
of coal mining subsidence area
In Xuzhou Jiuli coal mining area, the large area
of water makes the aquatic ecological environ-

Table 2. Subsidence wetland in different sampling points of organic carbon density.

Organic Unit Organic carbon Organic carbon

Sample content weight density OCi density change
Number status (g/kg) (g/cm3) (t/km2) (t/km2) Remarks

1 Edge slope 20.43 1.48 6999 681 Organic carbon

farmland density change is
2 No water sloping 19.75 1.46 6689 991 the difference with
cultivated land the reference field
3 No water sloping 17.58 1.53 6229 1451 machine carbon
cultivated land density, reference
4 Seasonal water sloping 21.33 1.61 7967 287 fields was
cultivated land 7680 (t/km2)
5 The perennial 27.6 1.75 11183 3503
water area

Table 3. The ecological function changes before and after surface subsidence in high ground water coal mining are.

Before the state of mining After the state of mining Changes of the ecological
Number subsidence subsidence function

1 Dry land, irrigation and drainage
system is complete
2 Rainfed crops, turf
3 The flat land, soil nutrient balance,
suitable for farming
4 Organic carbon pool is relatively
average, content is rich, stable
5 Changes of hydrological conditions,
the season did not significantly
affect
6 The farmland landscape, air
purification, water conservation
functions not significant
Irrigation and drainage system
can not be used
Aquatic plants, reeds, cattails,
water lilies, ling and
submerged plants algae
Different land depression,
soil nutrient distribution
is not uniform, easy loss
Soil loss on slope land,
water area of carbon density
was significantly higher than
that in other regions
Easily affected by the drought
and flood conditions
Wetland landscape, water
and aquatic plants can
purify water, air, etc.
Lower land productivity,
enhance water storage,
flood detention capacity
Species richness, vegetation
succession of aquatic plants
Soil loss on slope land,
depressions rich matrix,
promoting the production
of water ecosystem
The water area of carbon
sequestration function
enhancement
Hydrological changes of
distribution succession
direction carbon apparent
trend in wetland
A large area of stagnant water
improves microclimate
regulation ability

141

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 141 8/27/2014 5:58:44 PM

 ment. Its ecological function changes is mainly
water conservation, flood detention, biodiversity,
ecological water purification, wetland landscape
and other aspects of the function. According to
the subsidence area investigation and obtain the
relevant data from the Xuzhou Jiuli coal mining
subsidence, ecological changes before and after the
coal mine in high groundwater coal mining area as
shown in Table 3.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
A large area of stagnant water lacks of special
planning and wetland potential developing in high
groundwater mining subsidence. It needs to estab-
lish a reasonable bonding point between the added
cultivated land and reserved waters area when
having land reclamation in mining subsidence
area. Perennial water area can be used as artificial
wetland according to local conditions to enhance
the function of ecological restoration of mining
subsidence area. Effect of wetlands can be mainly
summarized as follows based on field investigation
and sample analysis in high groundwater mining
subsidence area.
In macroscopic view, ground water area caused
by subsidence is large and volume. It can be used
as a backup source of agricultural irrigation.
The water cycle is changed and disturbed by sea-
son, hydrological, drought and flood conditions.
Aquatic plants, animal species increased signifi-
cantly in perennial water area Beside, it also real-
izes the ecological function of wetland in ecological
landscape and water conservation.
From the micro perspective, soil nutrient will
loss under the action of runoff and gravity, and
deposit in the matrix of water area. According to
the result of test, the spatial distribution of soil
organic carbon is similar to wetland carbon sink
function, organic carbon accumulation is rich and
carbon sinks function is significant in the region of
the perennial water. In addition, due to the changes
of water level with the seasons, the capacity of
slope farmland carbon sink is not stable in coal
mining subsidence area, this is basically identical
with the result that wetland carbon source, car-
bon sinks function are influenced by hydrological
conditions.
142
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 142
It is highly advantageous to improve the local
ecological environment in mining subsidence in
high groundwater coal mining area. It is appropri-
ate to retain a certain amount of water when we
make the land reclamation plan in mining subsid-
ence area. At the same time, we should plan layout
some regulation systems such as water distribution
system, water supply system and drainage system to
implement the regional carbon sequestration, water
conservation, clean air, regulate humidity, etc.
REFERENCES
An Shu-qing. 2003. Wetland ecological engineering.
Beijing: Chemical industry press.
Fang J.Y. et al. 2010. Ecosystem carbon stocks and their
changes in Chinas grasslands. Sci China Life Sci 53:
757765.
Ge Quan-sheng et al. 2008. Study on Chinese land use,
land cover change and the carbon cycle over the past
300 years. Science in China press 38(2):197210.
Lin Zhen-shan & Wang Guo-xiang. 2005. Remediation
of subsided land and creation of constructed wet-
land in mining area. Journal of Natural Resources
20(5):790795.
Lin Fan et al. 2008. Organic Carbon Density of Soil of
Wetland and Its Change after Cultivation along the
Yangtze River in Anhui Province, China. Wetland
Science 6(2):192197.
Luan Jun-wei et al. 2012. Foreign Research Progress
on Carbon Cycle in Wetland Ecosystems. Wetland
Science 10(2):235242.
Smith, P. et al. 2007. Policy and technological constraints to
implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options
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Wang Li-rong & Zhao Huan-ting. 2000. Common fea-
tures of the estuarine Wetland in China. Marine
Science Bulletin 19(5):4754.
Waddington, J.M. & Roulet, N.T. 2000. Carbon balance
of a boreal patterned peatland. Global Change Biology
66(1):8797.
Xu Hai-zhui & Chen Qi. 1999. Nature Reservation
and Biodiversity in Wetlands. Environment Herald
5:4243.
Yan Jun. 2006. The protection and sustainable exploita-
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Zona, D. et al. 2009. Methane fluxes during the initiation
of a large-scale water table manipulation experiment
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Cycles 2233(2):2013.
8/27/2014 5:58:44 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Scenario analysis of mining subsidence in Huaibei city

and governance patterns

R.Y. Zhang, W. Xiao, J. Yang, J.T. Ren, S. Jiang & P.F. Wang
Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration, China University of Mining and Technology,
Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: According to field research, this paper analyzed the space distribution characteristics of
mining subsidence and predicted the future subsidence situation in Huaibei. Based on the analysis above,
and land reclamation experience all around China, five typical reclamation and governance patterns
applying to Huaibei were summarized, which were wetland park pattern, eco-city with mountain and
water pattern, plain reservoir pattern, integrated farming pattern, and concurrent mining and reclamation
pattern. Then taking into account the geographic conditions, coal seam characteristic, land use and future
development of coal mines in Huaibei, the subsidence area was divided into five governance zones. All
the research results will provide foundation for the future mining subsidence reclamation in Huaibei, and
provide references for other mining subsidence governance in China.

1 INTRODUCTION applied to Huaibei. Finally, considering the condi-

Coal is the main energy in China and accounts for
about 70% of primary energy consumption (Hu
et al. 2013). According to statistics, in 2013, Chinas
coal output is 3.68 billion tons with an increase of
0.8% over the previous year. Underground mining
accounts for about 92% of the total production
(Hu & Xiao 2013a). In the process of coal develop-
ment, it inevitably leads to a great deal of subsidence
and serious destruction for the original ecosystem.
Especially in high groundwater level plain mining
area, the coal mining results in plenty land sub-
merging into the water (Xiao et al. 2013a, b, Yang
et al. 2013), and losing the original function, which
aggravates the contradiction between human and
land. Meanwhile it brings a series of problems for
society, economy, ecological environment and so on
(Hu & Xiao 2013b). Therefore, mining subsidence
governance research has attracted wide attention
of experts and scholars both at home and abroad.
In recent years, many researchers have studied coal
mining reclamation and governance modes (He
et al. 2013, Wang et al. 2009, Chen et al. 2009). But
most of the researches are comprehensive analy-
ses and researches, and different areas have their
unique characteristics. This paper chooses Huaibei
city as the research region which is a typical high
groundwater level plain mining area. Based on the
analysis of its coal mining subsidence features and
governance situation, this paper summarized five
typical reclamation and governance patterns which
tion of coal mines, coal mining subsidence situation,
present situation of land use and future develop-
ment direction, subsidence areas were divided into
five governance zones in Huaibei. All of these have
vital significance to the future subsidence reclama-
tion in Huaibei.
2 CURRENT AND FUTURE PREDICTED
COAL MINING SUBSIDENCE
IN HUAIBEI
Huaibei is a coal resource-based city, which is built
and prospers because of coal. It is located in north-
ern part of Anhui Province, with a total area of
2741 km2. Xiangshan District, Lieshan District,
Duji District and Suixi County are under the juris-
diction of Huiaibei. It lies in the hinterland of
eastern China, and connects Jiangsu, Shandong,
Henan, and Anhui Province, and is adjacent to
Xiaoxian in the north, Mengcheng in the south,
Suzhou in the east, and Woyang and Yongcheng in
the west. Transportation of Huaibei is very conven-
ient. There are railways of Jinghu, Longhai, and
Fujia, six national and provincial roads, as well as
highways of Jingtai, and Lianhuo. It is only 60 km
from Huaibei to Guanyin Airport of Xuzhou, and
280 km to Lianyungang Port. Huaibei is the near-
est city from the deep water port in Anhui Prov-
ince. The location of Huaibei in Anhui Province is
showed in Figure 1.

143

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 143 8/27/2014 5:58:45 PM

 Figure 2. Distribution of coal mines in Huaibei.

Figure 1. Location of Huaibei in Anhui Province.

Huaibei is an important coal base in China, with

50 coal mineral deposits, 8 billion tons reserves,
and 40 million tons annual output. Since 1958,
Huaibei has been provided 900 million tons coal
with high-quality to our country, and is known
as the power of the township in eastern China.
Recently there are 45 coal mines in Huaibei, of
which 20 large and medium-sized mines. Coal
mining presented the exploitation pattern of two
blocks and a small piece. Two blocks refers to
Huaibei Mining Industry Group Company and
Wanbei Coal-electricity Group Company, The
former has 15 mines in Huaibei, and the latter
8 mines. A small piece refers to 20 local coal min-
ing enterprises with 22 coal mines. The distribution
of coal mines in Huaibei is showed in Figure 2.
While Huaibei has made outstanding contribu-
tions to national economic development, it formed Figure 3. Distribution of coal mines in Huaibei.
a lot of subsidence area, and paid a heavy price
of resources decline and ecological environment
deterioration. According to statistics, at the end of Table 1. Predicted subsidence data.
2012, there is 186.7 km2 coal mining subsidence in
Huaibei, which result in more than 280000 land-lost Name of Total Water area
farmers, and 400 collapsed and destroyed villages. District/ subsidence
Country (km2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)
The current subsidence in Huaibei is showed in
Figure 3. Xiangshan 8.6 5.4 62.8
Meanwhile, coal mining subsidence is increasing District
year by year, which will add 131.9 km2 by 2020, of Lieshan 7.5 4.3 57.0
which about 69.3 km2 water area, accounting for District
52.6% of the total subsidence. Sustainable devel- Duji District 21.4 12.2 57.0
opment of Huaibei will face serious challenges. Suixi County 94.4 47.5 50.3
The detail information of future subsidence was Total 131.9 69.3 52.6
showed in Table 1.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 144 8/27/2014 5:58:45 PM

 3 RECLAMATION AND GOVERNANCE
PATTERNS OF SUBSIDENCE
IN HUAIBEI
Based on the analysis of current and future sub-
sided situation in Huaibei, and land reclamation
experience all around China (Ma 2009, Wang
2007, Jiao & Lu 1999), this paper summarized five
typical reclamation and governance patterns which
are applicable to Huaibei: wetland park pattern,
eco-city with mountain and water pattern, plain
reservoir pattern, integrated farming pattern, con-
current mining and reclamation pattern.
3.1 Wetland park pattern
Wetland is an important natural ecosystem. It
plays a significant role in adjusting climate, con-
serving water, controlling flood, resisting drought,
reducing soil erosion, cleaning up environment,
protecting biological diversity and ecological bal-
ance, and so on. In order to restore the regional
ecosystem, and improve ecological environment,
we can combine subsidence water area with local
rivers to create Wetland park.
3.2 Eco-city with mountain and water pattern
If subsidence water area is nearby the city with
mountain, we can make full use of this geographi-
cal advantage to govern the subsidence land, and
consider the need of citys construction at the same
time, especially the leisure need of citizens. Thereby
we can transport the traditional development pat-
tern that focuses on economic to current pattern
that pays attention to overall benefits including
economic, society, environment, and resources.
And eventually achieve the interaction between
subsidence governance and city development.
3.3 Plain reservoir pattern
In the region which is short of water, if there is lots
water with high quality in the subsidence area, we
can turn disadvantage of subsidence to advantage.
Use the technology of digging deep to fill shal-
low to reclaim the water area into plain reservoir,
which can supply water for industry and daily life,
and the shallow area into agricultural land. We can
also make full use of the reclaimed reservoir for
irrigation to construct high-standard farmland,
and promote local agricultural production.
3.4 Integrated farming pattern
In agricultural and pastoral areas, we can use
the technology of digging deep to fill shallow
to reclaim the water area into aquaculture pond,
145
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 145
which can cultivate fish, aquatic plants, waterfowl
(ducks, geese, etc.). The technology of filling can
also be used at the same time to reclaim the shallow
area into farmland or livestock farm of breeding
and processing. All above will eventually form the
situation of fish and dock polyculture, livestock
and egg processing. The subsidence area will be
made into integrated farming with agriculture,
fishing, and sideline occupation.
3.5 Concurrent mining and reclamation pattern
In the region with many farmland, we can use the
technology of concurrent mining and reclama-
tion to reclaim the subsidence land. Concurrent
mining and reclamation is a new technology
focusing on protecting soil. It fully considers the
underground mining and ground reclamation
measures, reasonably adjusts mining measures to
reduce the land damage and optimizes the recla-
mation time and plans before or during the sub-
sidence. It can rescue the precious topsoil in time,
increase the proportion of reclaimed farmland,
make reclaimed farmland reach the local level of
productivity as soon as possible, and ensure food
security in the end (Hu & Xiao 2013a, b).
4 GOVERNANCE AREAS OF
SUBSIDENCE IN HUAIBEI
According to the typical reclamation and govern-
ance patterns above, the topographical features in
Huaibei, which is higher in the north and lower in
the south, and hydrological characteristics of criss-
cross, we can be sure that improve the ecological
environment in northern area can get twice the result
with half the effort for the whole regions ecological
environment in Huaibei. So the subsidence in north-
ern Huaibei was divided into wetland park area.
Based on the citys future development and lei-
sure demand, subsidence in the core region of city
can be reclaimed as eco-city with mountain and
water, which can not only beautify the city, but also
supply recreational places for citizens. So the sub-
sidence in the core region of city was divided into
eco-city with mountain and water area.
There are four big coal mines in the middle of
Suixi County of Huaibei, The four big coal mines
are closely linked, and have a long history of coal
mining. So in this area there is a large amount of
subsidence with deep and high quality water. So
we can make full use of this feature to construct
plain reservoir.
In the southern Suixi County, agriculture and
animal husbandry develops very well. So this paper
divided the subsidence in this area into integrated
farming area.
8/27/2014 5:58:49 PM

Figure 4. Governance areas in Huaibei.
There has been a demonstration area using the
technology of concurrent mining and reclamation
in Liuqiao No. 2 coal mine, and achieving good
result. So it can promote the use of this technology
in this region. Thus this paper divided the subsid-
ence in northeastern Suixi County of Huaibei into
concurrent mining and reclamation area.
To sum up, the subsidence in Huaibei could be
divided into five governance zones, which were
showed in Figure 4.
4.1 Wetland park area
Wetland park area is located in Duji District in
northern Huaibei, and includes five coal mines of
Huaibei Mining Industry Group Company and
some local coal mines. Based on the topographical
features in Huaibei, which is higher in the north
and lower in the south, and hydrological charac-
teristics of crisscross, use ecological restoration
technology to construct wetland park, which can
link water together, and improve local ecological
environment in Huaibei.
4.2 Eco-city with mountain and water area
Eco-city with mountain and water area is located
in southwestern of Xiangshan District and north-
east of Lieshan District in Huaibei, and includes
two coal mines of Huaibei Mining Industry
Group Company and some local coal mines.
146
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 146
Transportation is very convenient, with only 2 km
from the central city. Tourism resources are very
rich, such as Huaibei national mine park, Xiang-
shan forest park, Longjishan scenic spot. So we
can make full use of coal mining subsidence water
area in this region, advantageous geographical
condition and tourist resources, to build eco-city
with mountain and water, develop residents leisure
venues, ecological tourism, etc, and create unique
leisure tourism brand of Huaibei.
4.3 Plain reservoir area
Plain reservoir area is located in the middle of
Suixi County of Huaibei, and includes four coal
mines of Huaibei Mining Industry Group Com-
pany. The four mines are closely linked, and have
a long coal mining history. Meanwhile the water in
mining subsidence is deep, and the quality is pretty
good. We can use the technology of digging deep
to fill shallow to dig deep the subsidence in deep
water area, and combine with water resources
integrated planning of Huaibei to construct plain
reservoir. It can supply urban domestic water, agri-
cultural irrigation water, and industrial water of
Linhuan coal preparation plant.
4.4 Integrated aquaculture area
Integrated aquaculture area is located in the south-
ern Suixi County of Huaibei, and includes three
coal mines of Huaibei Mining Industry Group
Company and four coal mines of Wanbei Coal-
electricity Group Company. Agriculture and ani-
mal husbandry develops very well in this region. In
order to eliminate the negative impact of the coal
mining subsidence on the rural economy, this zone
can be reclaimed as integrated aquaculture area.
We can develop aquaculture, cultivate aquatic
plants in the water area, and use soil dug out and
coal waste of Linhuan coal preparation plant to
raise the shallow places, which can be reclaimed as
cultivated land or livestock farm of breeding and
processing. Then it would promote the develop-
ment of the local economy.
4.5 Concurrent mining and reclamation area
Concurrent mining and reclamation area is
located in northwestern Suixi County of Huaibei,
and includes three coal mines of Wanbei Coal-
electricity Group Company. It has been set up a
concurrent mining and reclamation demonstration
are in Liuqiao No. 2 coal mine which is 0.24 km2,
and also achieved significant success. This dem-
onstration area can promote the implementation
of concurrent mining and reclamation, which can
not only improve the rate of reclaimed land, but
8/27/2014 5:58:49 PM
 also reduce the reclamation cost. According to the
related material, 80% of coal mining subsidence is
arable land in Huaibei. It is a serious threat to the
quantity of cultivated land in Huaibei. In order to
increase the reclaimed cultivated land area, we can
use the concurrent mining and reclamation to gov-
ernance the subsidence in this region.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
Coal mining has a long history in Huaibei. Based
on the situation of current and future coal mining
subsidence in Huaibei, and land reclamation expe-
rience all around China, this paper summarized five
typical reclamation and governance patterns which
are applicable to Huaibei. According to the above
patterns, the subsidence area in Huaibei was divided
into five governance zones. All of these will provide
basis for the future mining subsidence reclamation
in Huaibei, and provide references for other mining
subsidence governance in China. Especially in the
area with high ground water level, coal mining will
result in a large area of water accumulation, which
will not only lose a lot of precious topsoil, but also
be not convenient to take reclamation engineering.
So this paper suggested using concurrent mining
and reclamation technology to improve the recov-
ery rate of land, to ease the growing tension over
the contradiction between human and land, and to
protect the countrys food security.
REFERENCES
Chen Xinsheng, Wang Qiaoni, Zhang Zhiguang 2009.
The introduction of coal mining subsidence reclama-
tion mode. China Land 3:60.
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He fang, Qiao gang, Liu Ruiping, Chen Huaqing 2013.
Discussion for mining land reclamation models.
Northwestern Geology 46(2): 201209.
Hu Zhenqi, Xiao Wu, Wang Peijun, Zhao Yanling 2013.
Concurrent mining and reclamation for underground
coal mining. Journal of China Coal Society 38(2):
301307.
Hu Zhenqi & Xiao Wu 2013a. Optimization of concur-
rent mining and reclamation plans for single coal
seam: a case study in northern Anhui, China. Environ-
mental Earth Sciences 68(5): 12471254.
Hu Zhenqi & Xiao Wu 2013b. New idea and new tech-
nology of mine land reclamation: concurrent mining
and reclamation. Coal Science and Technology 41(9):
178181.
Jiao Huafu & Lu Lin 1999. Study on the reclamation
of coal mining subsidence landA case study of
Huaibei city in Anhui province. Economic Geography
19(4): 9094.
Ma Hongkang 2007. Study on reclamation modes of
subsidence region of Huaibei city. Energy Environ-
mental Protection 21(1): 4850.
Wang Qiaoni, Chen Xinsheng, Zhang Zhiguang 2009.
Design of rehabilitation mode for coal mining induced
subsidence areas based on comprehensive benefit
assessment. China Coal 35(1): 8992+86.
Wang Shidong 2010. Research on land reclamation
model of subsidence area in coal mines in Henan.
Mining Research and Development, 30(4): 8183+100.
Xiao Wu, Hu Zhenqi, Yang Yaoqi, Miao Huiling, Zhou
Xiangbo 2013a. Determination of sensitive area for
concurrent mining and reclamation construction in
underground coal mines. China Coal 39(9): 107111.
Xiao Wu, Hu Zhenqi, Li Taiqi, Wang Fengjiao, Li Hui,
Liu Kunkun 2013b. Dynamic subsidence simula-
tion and land reclamation efficiency analysis of sur-
face ground above mining block. Coal Science and
Technology 41(8): 126128.
Yang Guanghua, Hu Zhenqi, Yang Yaoqi 2013. Infor-
mation extraction of coal mining subsidence farmland
submerged in waterTaking Jining City of Shandong
Province as a case. Metal Mine 9: 152157.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Study on reclamation modes of coal mining damaged land

in Henan Province

Y.Q. Pan, C.Y. He, L.L. Ge & Z.Y. Wang

Henan Academy of Land and Resources Sciences, Zhengzhou, China

Z.Y. Gu
Henan Institute of Geological Survey, Zhengzhou, China

F.S. Liu
Department of Land and Resources of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, China

ABSTRACT: This paper conducted a comprehensive analysis of the current utilization area and dis-
tribution of three major kinds of damaged land, namely excavated land, sunk land and deposited land,
caused by coal production in Henan Province, discussed existing problems and achievements in the recla-
mation of coal mining damaged land and summarized three reclamation modes, i.e. utilization of intensi-
fied agro-ecology, utilization of fruit, grass and forestry ecology, and utilization of agriculture, forestry,
fishery and poultry ecology, provided reference for further intensified promotion of coal mining damaged
land reclamation in Henan Province.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 ANALYSIS OF CURRENT SITUATION

Henan Province is an important major coal indus- 2.1 Overview of distribution of coal resources
try province with coal output once ranking second
Henan Province covers an area of 166,000 sq. km.
for 19 consecutive years in the country and the
governing 18 provincial cities with abundant coal
province has supplied large amounts of industrial
resources. The coal bearing area with vertical depth
food to Central China and East China for years,
of under 2000 m in the entire province is approx.
making tremendous contributions to the national
18,900 sq. km. in which the area of proved coal
economic development of both Henan and sur-
reserves is about 3,800 sq. km. By estimate, coal
rounding provinces. However, with the rapid
reserves of shallow occurrence with vertical depth
development of the coal industry, problems such
under 1500 are 60.069 billion tons in which avail-
as cultivated land damage, environmental pollu-
able reserves are 23.734 billion tons and predictive
tion and ecological deterioration become increas-
reserves are 36.335 billion tons (reliable reserves
ingly serious, resulting in adverse impact on the
21.872 billion tons). There are a total of 19 coal
grain production of Henan Province as well as the
mines in Henan Province which are mainly distrib-
production and life of the local people. According
uted to the west of Beijing-Guangzhou railway,
to the general requirements of Henan Province of
covering 10 provincial cities including Zhengzhou,
realizing new industrialization, new urbanization
Luoyang, Sanmenxia, Hebi, Xinxiang, Jiaozuo,
and agricultural modernization without sacrificing
Pingdingshan, Shangqiu, Xuchang and Jiyuan.
agriculture and grain, ecology and environment,
efforts shall be intensified in the reclamation of
coal mining damaged land, promotion of rational
2.2 Current situation of land damage
exploitation of coal resources and coordinated
development of economy, society, resources and The types of coal mining damaged land in Henan
environment. How to find an effective land rec- Province include excavated land, sunk land and
lamation mode that suits the specific situation of deposited land. As of 2013, through a prelimi-
Henan Province has become an urgent problem to nary investigation of 10 provincial cities in Henan
be solved. Province involved in coal mining, the area of land

149

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 149 8/27/2014 5:58:51 PM

 Table 1. Current utilization of coal mining damaged land in 10 provincial cities in Henan Province (Unit: hectare).

Including:
Administrative Sunk Excavated Deposited cultivated
No. unit area area area Total land

01 Zhengzhou 6945.12 104.77 7049.90 5931.14

02 Luoyang 2126.87 10.62 2137.49 1816.34
03 Sanmenxia 8357.75 45.60 77.24 8480.59 7137.52
04 Hebi 1666.99 21.05 1688.03 1423.61
05 Xinxiang 3205.58 4.58 3210.16 2737.56
06 Jiaozuo 2139.90 7.22 2147.11 1827.47
07 Pingdingshan 10805.11 391.51 11196.62 9227.56
08 Shangqiu 3576.63 13.03 3589.66 3054.44
09 Xuchang 7590.25 234.18 7824.43 6482.08
10 Jiyuan 140.30 6.50 146.80 119.82
Total 46554.48 45.60 870.71 47470.79 39757.53

damaged by coal mining in Henan Province was

47470.79 hectares (including damaged cultivated
land 39757.53 hectares), in which: sunk land was
46554.48 hectares representing 98.07% of the total
damaged land area in Henan Province; excavated
land was 45.60 hectares representing 0.10%; and
deposited land was 870.71 hectares representing
1.83%. (For current utilization of coal mining dam-
aged land in 10 provincial cities in Henan Province,
refer to Table 1).
In the 10 provincial cities of Henan Province,
damaged land is principally concentrated at areas
with rich coal resources and rapid economic devel-
opment, mainly in five provincial cities including
Pingdingshan, Sanmenxia, Xuchang, Zhengzhou,
Shangqiu and Xinxiang, covering an area of
41351.35 hectares and representing 87.11% of
the total area of land to be reclaimed in the entire
province. (For structural percentage of the cur-
rent utilization of coal mining damaged land in
the 10 provincial cities in Henan Province, refer to
Fig. 1).
2.2.1 Sunk land
Sunk land refers to land which is damaged due to
surface subsidence after underground coal min-
ing (Wu, Q., Liu, F.C. and Li, D., et al., 2005).
At present, the area of sunk land caused by
coal mining in Henan Province is 46554.48 hec-
tares. The land damaged by surface subsidence
is mainly at the core grain production area of
Henan Province, mostly fertile land with substan-
tial productivity. The area of cultivated land at
the surface subsidence area is 39757.53, account-
ing for 83.75% of the coal mining damaged land
in Henan Province. Through analysis of the sunk
land of Henan Province, the sunk land is mainly
caused by underground coal mining and its dis-
tribution is consistent with the distribution of
Figure 1. Structural percentage of the current utiliza-
tion of coal mining damaged land in the 10 provincial
cities in Henan.
coal mines in the province. Based on the land-
form of the sunk land, for high water table coal
mining area at plain areas, subsidence leads to
surface relief mostly with accumulated water
and this type is mainly distributed at Yongcheng
Coalfield in Shangqiu City; for hilly and moun-
tainous areas, subsidence only results in surface
relief, cracks or landslide, generally with no accu-
mulated water and this type is mainly distributed
at areas in Henan Province except Yongcheng
Coalfield. The reclamation orientation of sunk
land is closed related to landform, geological
conditions, climate and land use structure. At
plain areas, soil is abundant and therefore can be
reclaimed as agricultural land consisting mainly
of cultivated land; hilly and mountainous areas,
on the other hand, should generally be used for
developing economic forest or other forestry and
animal husbandry.
2.2.2 Excavated land
Excavated land mainly refers to discarded dam-
aged land left after open pit coal mining (Wu, Q.,

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 Liu, F.C. and Li, D., et al., 2005). Most of the land
is severely damaged due to excavation and excava-
tion is direct destruction of the original landform,
shallow strata and biological population, resulting
in complete loss of the original land, loss of the
life supporting system functions at the open mine
area, particularly damage to the vegetation sys-
tem which makes the ecological environment more
fragile and accelerates the deterioration speed,
severely threating the ecological safety at the mine
area. In the entire province, only the open mine at
the north of Sanmenxia and Yima City employs
the open mining method for coal mining and the
excavated land area is 241.21 hectares. In recent
years, the Bureau of Land and Resources of Yima
City has actively raised funds and utilized 195.61
hectares of land through reclamation. Up to now,
there is still 45.60 hectares of excavated land to be
reclaimed urgently.
2.2.3 Deposited land
Deposited land refers to land deposited by solid
waste such as coal gangue and coal ash and open
coal mine dump (Wu et al., 2005). The area of
deposited land to be reclaimed in the entire prov-
ince is 870.71 hectares. In the entire province,
deposited land exists more or less at 19 coalfields
of the 10 provincial cities, mainly at surface plants,
coal gangue dump and refuse dump of production
enterprises. In particular, gangue dump not only
deposits land but also exhibits strong acidity and
alkalinity in leaching water or contains toxic and
hazardous elements; if the site is not selected prop-
erly and anti-seepage measures are not taken, it
will contaminate the surrounding soil, ground and
underground water and constitutes environmental
hazards, which is one of the main environmental
issues at mine areas. For deposited land with large
amounts of highly toxic industrial and mining
solid waste which is difficult to develop by apply-
ing cushion soil, or where the topographic slope
is large, it is generally suitable for reclamation as
forest and grassland; other kinds of deposited land
can be reclaimed as cultivated land through engi-
neering measures.
3 EXISTING PROBLEMS
AND ACHIEVEMENTS
3.1 Existing problems
Before issue of the revised version of Land Rec-
lamation Regulation, the land reclamation techni-
cal team of Henan Province was weak and local
governments made insufficient investment in the
reclamation of historically left land in debt. It
was very difficult to supervise the reclamation of
151
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 151
damaged land of non-key project enterprises and
township enterprise with small amounts of land
used. The capital source for land reclamation was
narrow with inadequate social capital investment.
Ownership disputes often arose during and after
land reclamation, leading to difficulty in smooth
land reclamation. The land reclamation techni-
cal specifications were not scientifically rational,
quantifiable and practical. Regarding the reclama-
tion of industrial and mining waste land, the unit
undertaking the project did not fulfill its reclama-
tion obligations due to the low standard of recla-
mation deposit and government departments fail
to take measures for the reclamation project in a
timely and adequate manner.
3.2 Achievements
Henan Province implemented the real-time track-
ing of the reclamation of coal mining damaged
land and periodically urged to carry out inspec-
tions, issue a series of documents and regulations.
A group was established, headed by the leader in
charge from the provincial government with rel-
evant departments involved as members, responsi-
ble for organizing the implementation of the land
reclamation work. Various provincial cities also
established corresponding bodies to be in charge
of the work. Supervision systems were developed
so that responsibility of relevant personnel could
be investigated if promised matters were not han-
dled on time. It was required that the land recla-
mation obligator include the land reclamation
expense in the project investment budget and, after
approval of the land reclamation plan, deposit was
demanded for land reclamation. For enterprises
and individuals that failed to accomplish the land
reclamation tasks, land reclamation expense should
be paid in full so that the local government would
organize the reclamation. For damaged land that
was indeed impossible to be restored to its origi-
nal state, the reclamation obligator was required to
pay the land compensation in full.
4 STUDY ON LAND RECLAMATION
MODES
Establishment of the reclamation modes of coal
mining damaged land is closely related to factors of
the area such as climate, hydrology, landform, coal
mining method and land destruction form (Han
2004). With the objective of restoring the original
primary productivity of damaged land as far as
possible as the starting point and the land destruc-
tion form and land productivity damage level as
the leading factors while considering factors such
as local natural geological conditions, land damage
8/27/2014 5:58:52 PM
 form, destruction scale and reclamation technique,
the coal base land reclamation modes are classified
into the following types.
4.1 Utilization of intensified agro-ecology
For areas with slightly damaged land, the surface
tends to be uneven due to land excavation or sink-
ing, but generally this type of damaged land area
does not have accumulated water with insignificant
change in soil layer and soil nutrients and therefore,
the original practical value can be restored simply
by minor repairs and leveling and improving sup-
porting facilities in the fields (Chen et al., 2003).
For example, the intensified agro-ecology mode
can be adopted for reclamation for most lands in
Zhengzhou, Luoyang, Hebi, Xinxiang, Jiaozuo,
Pingdingshan and Xuchang. After reclamation,
the land is mainly used for planting, with the goal
of developing high yield, high quality and high-
efficiency agriculture so that an integrated com-
mercial grain production base can be established,
focusing on local preponderant crops as well as
local specialty planting and processing.
Make full use of the landscape space embedded-
ness and the multiple cropping principle, rationally
combine the crop space structure and scientifi-
cally arrange the crop rotation sequence and grad-
ually enlarge the interplanting area to increase the
multiple crop index.
Introduce and promote advanced cultivation
operation and management technology to increase
the farmland intensified utilization level.
Perfect the reclamation area irrigation and water
conservation and road and agricultural protection
forest system, rationally arrange the field irrigation
and drainage system so as to turn the land to be
reclaimed into a main grain production base for
the coal base or even the entire region.
4.2 Utilization of fruit, grass and forestry ecology
Due to the impact of coal mining, the villagers
houses and infrastructure are damaged to vary-
ing degrees. Cracks occur at some places on the
ground, roofs and walls, some buildings (struc-
tures) tilt and deform entirely and severe situations
such as house sinking occur at some mine areas,
forcing the villagers to relocate in an overall man-
ner (Wu et al., 2005). Regarding reclamation of this
kind of abandoned village sites, simple filling or
non-filling type techniques and necessary leveling
measures can be taken according to the level of
damage of ground buildings and sinking depth so
as to restore it to arable land (Huang & Luo, Y.M.
2003). After reclamation, this type of land is poor
in soil fertility and productivity and therefore for-
est trees with low demand on soil conditions and
152
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 152
strong growing capacity can be selected for forest
and orchard planning. For example, the coal base
in Sanmenxia employs the fruit, grass and for-
est ecological utilization mode, improves the soil
physical and chemical properties by planting suit-
able grass seeds (such as alfalfa) and enhance the
land productivity by green grass ploughing, laying
a sound land use condition for further planting of
farm crops.
4.3 Utilization of agriculture, forestry, fishery
and poultry ecology
At the high water table coal mine area of Shangqiu
City, perennial water accumulation often occurs
despite of insignificant surface excavated damage
and sinking level, affecting the normal growth of
surrounding farm crops. The land at this type of
reclamation area is often soaked in accumulated
water in rainy seasons and saltpetering occurs in
spring. The low level of land utilization results in
large area of land uncultivated.
Reclamation of this type of land mainly employs
the method of deep digging and filling up shallow
area (Hu et al., 2005). For deep sinking area, exca-
vators or mud pumps are used for further excava-
tion to make it into a aquaculture base for shrimp
and fish; at the same time, livestock raising bases
are established at the surrounding area to raise pigs
and chickens so as to form the three-dimensional
raising which integrates livestock and fish and
shrimp. Meantime, the excavated soil is placed at
areas with insignificant sinking and land leveling
technique is applied (cover with surface soil when
necessary) so that this land can be used to grow
farm crops and protection forest with field water
conservation facilities improved, thus forming a
landscape pattern (Lv 2006) of aquaculture, live-
stock, farmland and forest belt to realize the objec-
tive of joint development of raising and planting
industries and establishment of a good agriculture,
forestry, fishery and poultry ecological mode. In
the meantime, suitable grass seeds are selected to
improve the soil physical and chemical properties
and soil fertility and productivity are improved by
green grass ploughing, laying a sound land use con-
dition for further planting of farm crops (Wu et al.,
2003). At Yongcheng Coalfield of Henan Province,
reclamation through aquaculture is made at deep
subsidence areas, reclamation through planting
is made at shallow subsidence areas, reclamation
through raising fish and ducks while growing fruits
and vegetables are carried out at unstable subsid-
ence areas with both deep and shallow subsidence
and reclamation through restoring of the mine area
ecological environment is conducted by building an
aquatic ecological garden at subsidence areas with
large water surface near the city of Yongcheng.
8/27/2014 5:58:52 PM
 5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper conducts an in-depth analysis of the
current utilization of coal mining damaged land
in Henan Province, existing reclamation problems
and achievements and proposes three reclamation
modes, i.e. utilization of intensified agro-ecology,
utilization of fruit, grass and forestry ecology,
and utilization of agriculture, forestry, fishery and
poultry ecology. In practice, the selection of recla-
mation modes not only depends on the destruction
form and degree of the land to be reclaimed but is
related to other factors such as the natural geologi-
cal conditions of the area and the level of suitabil-
ity of the land to be developed. Therefore, rational
land reclamation techniques shall be selected with
land reclamation modes flexibly used by applying
cultivation, gardening, forestry, animal husbandry
and fishery appropriately to realize optimal rec-
lamation and utilization of damaged land at coal
mine areas.
153
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 153
REFERENCES
Chen, L.Q., Liu, Z.T. and Bie, J.Y., et al., 2003. Study on
Mine Area Land Damage and Reclamation, Beijing:
China Land Press.
Han, Z.M., 2004. Research on Coal Mining Subsidence
Area Land Reclamation Modes, Beijing: China Agri-
cultural University.
Huang, M.H. and Luo, Y.M., 2003. Mine Area Land
And Ecology Restoration, ACTA PEDOLOGICA
SINICA, 40(2):161169.
Hu, Z.Q. and Yang, X.H., et al., 2005. On Restoration
of Mine Area Ecological Environment, Resource and
Environment, (1): 3840.
Lv, G.S., 2006. Mine Area Ecological Environment Issues
And Control, Safety in Coal Mines, (3): 5253.
Wu, C.F. and Xu, B.G., et al., 2003. Land Ecology,
Beijing: China Land Press.
Wu, Q., Liu, F.C. and Li, D., et al., 2005. Mine Environ-
ment Research Theory and Practice, Beijing Geologi-
cal Publishing House, 7476.
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 Part 3: Soil, vegetation and biological diversity

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Utilization of river sediments as topsoil to reclaim brownfields

and other sites

R.G. Darmody & J.C. Marlin

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, IL, USA

ABSTRACT: Dredging of water bodies is done to maintain and enhance their economic and envi-
ronmental qualities. This is necessarily accompanied by the need to deal with the dredged sediments. In
the USA, dredged material was historically viewed as spoil to be disposed in the least expensive method;
later, concern over social and environmental issues with dredging and sediment disposal created interest
in finding better alternatives. Beneficial use of sediment as topsoil is an option for uncontaminated, fine-
grained material. Our studies in Illinois show that sediment improves degraded soil at old commercial
and industrial sites or brownfields. Due to improved handling technologies and changing perceptions
beneficial use of dredged sediment will continue to gain acceptance. The challenge is to develop improved
project designs and dredging and sediment handling technology. In the future, sediment may become an
important commodity for restoration of ecological, agricultural, and urban landscapes hundreds of kil-
ometers from dredging sites.

1 INTRODUCTION Important considerations for beneficial use include

Today, the majority of dredging supports naviga-
tion in rivers, harbors, and canals. However, glo-
bally, fresh water bodies are losing about 1% of
their capacity annually to sedimentation (Sloff,
1991; Mahmood, 1987). This is a serious prob-
lem from two points of view. First, the capacity
of the reservoir to store irrigation or drinking
water is diminished, and second, if the sediment is
removed, it must be placed somewhere. Sediment
removal will be increasingly important as means of
addressing the issue of diminished reservoir capac-
ity. Much sediment can be viewed as a resource out
of place and may be useful if returned to the land.
This is particularly true in fresh water ecosystems
and where industrial contamination is slight. Coin-
cidently, many areas near waterways and water
bodies need soil for landscaping, remediation, and
restoration. Abandoned industrial sites, known as
brownfields, are often situated near water bodies.
That makes it feasible to move sediment by barge,
avoiding both the problems associated with bor-
rowing topsoil from natural areas, and the need
to truck larger volumes of material through urban
areas. Clean sediment can help address these
issues of reclaiming brownfields and locating sedi-
ment disposal areas if it is returned to the land as
topsoil.
Because dredging occurs in water bodies from
seacoasts to inland rivers and lakes, sediments and
dredging motivations and techniques vary widely.
salinity, grain size, and degree and type of contam-
ination. Numerous technical disciplines have a role
to play in project development including hydrol-
ogy, engineering, sociology, biology, ecology, ped-
ology, geology, and toxicology. As an example of
how sediment utilization as topsoil can work, this
paper will focus on our experiences with the Illi-
nois River basin in the center of the United States,
which has major industrial and agricultural areas.
Traditionally, sediment was placed as close as
possible to the dredging site to keep costs low. In
many locations, nearby floodplains, bays, and wet-
lands were filled. This provided land for develop-
ment of ports, industry, and residential properties.
In combination with levees, dams, and other struc-
tures, these projects changed sediment transport
and deposition patterns over entire river basins.
This in turn impacted the waterway including
shoreline features.
There was little official concern regarding the
loss of bays, marshes, estuaries, and floodplain
lakes until the 1970s. By that time, understanding
of the importance of shallow water habitat and
sediment transport to ecosystems improved. The
decline in migratory water birds and in mollusks
and fish whose young require protected shallow
water habitats, was noted. National concern over
social and environmental issues created interest in
finding beneficial uses for clean dredged material
and environmentally safe methods for containing
or treating contaminated sediment.

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Figure 1. Illinois River watershed in Illinois in central
US (Illinois State Water Survey Map).
Beneficial use of sediment has gained institu-
tional support over the past 30 years. The potential
uses of dredged material depend on local circum-
stances and sediment characteristics. Like many
concepts, beneficial use means different things to
various interests. For example filling a wetland may
provide land for development but simultaneously,
it destroys ecological habitat. Coarse material is
particularly useful for beach restoration, shoreline
protection, and ecological habitat enhancement,
flowable fill, but poor for use as topsoil. As the
percentage of fines and nutrients increase, poten-
tial uses range from reclaiming strip mines and
industrial land to higher uses in agriculture, parks,
and residential developments. This paper involves
some of the research and demonstration projects
we did in Illinois with beneficial use of sediments
from the Illinois River, a river which flows from
Chicago to the Mississippi (Fig. 1).
2 SEDIMENT PROPERTIES
Sediment from the Illinois River was collected with
a coring tool that allowed continuous 2 m cores
to be collected. We analyzed the cores for several
physical, agronomic, and chemical properties.
158
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 158
Physically, sediment tends to be of a silty texture,
with finer and coarser materials in deposits where
water velocity is slower or faster. The sediments in
the Illinois River are typically silty clay loam or
silty clays, similar to Illinois topsoils (Table 1).
The sediment typically had desirable chemistry
and physical properties. The pH was near neutral,
ranging from 7.3 to 8.0 for 21 selected sediment
core samples. Organic matter content was also
generally favorable for agriculture, ranging from
0.2 to 22%. Extractable plant nutrients such as S,
P, Ca, Mg, and K were also plentiful in the sedi-
ments. Contents of Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn, while gen-
erally higher than typical agricultural soils in the
region, were within a range favorable for agricul-
ture. Because the Illinois River is fresh water, the
Na content was quite low and would not create the
problems often associated with coastal and marine
sediments. Except for crops with high Fe or low
pH requirements, the chemistry of these sediments
was favorable for supporting agronomic crops.
In the case of the Illinois River, the waterway
caries discharge from Chicago, so until regulations
strengthened, contamination was large concern.
We tested the sediment for 24 metals, 22 pesticides,
7 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), and 72 semi-
volatile organics, including polyaromatic hydrocar-
bons (PAHs). The US Army Corps of Engineers
recently published a summary of guidance for
determining the suitability of dredged material
for beneficial use (USACE, 2007). It reviewed lit-
erature on the topic including various guidance,
screening, and regulatory documents from states
and regions. Such guidance for specific contami-
nants varies across the country and in individual
states, complicating sediment disposal planning.
And because of changing industrial patterns,
and better pollution control, contamination shows
a depth trend in sediment cores, with older and
younger sediment being less coordinated than that
deposited in the 1940s1960s (Fig. 2).
Because Chicago was the source of much chem-
ical contamination, levels of pollutants showed an
easily explainable pattern. Metal content along the
Illinois River generally decrease with distance from
the Chicago metropolitan area (Cahill, 1986, 2002,
2008) (Fig. 3).
However, samples from Lower Peoria Lake gen-
erally had low levels of organic compounds of con-
cern (Table 3).
For example, most pesticides including DDT and
its directives were below the detection limit as were
PCBs. However, benzo(a)pyrene was an exception;
it ranged from 49320 g/kg in the samples, and
was higher than the desired screening level. How-
ever, it was well below background levels of soil
in Chicago where it was to be placed at a future
park site. Inorganics were also generally lower than
would be a problem. Among the potentially toxic
8/27/2014 5:58:53 PM
 Table 1. Physical properties of Peoria Lake sediment core samples.

Core no. Munsell color

USDA1
Depth (cm) Hue Name texture Consistence

194
787 10YR 4/3 Brown Sand Loose
127 2.5Y 4/3 Olive brown Sand Loose
167207 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey SiCL Soft
196
2767 5Y 2.5/1 Black SiC Liquid
107 5Y 2.5/1 Black SiC Liquid
147 10Y 2.5/1 Greenish black SiC Soft
187 2.5Y 5/2 Grayish brown L Soft
197
27 5Y 2.5/2 Black SiL Liquid
67 5Y 2.5/1 Black SiCL Very soft
107 5Y 2.5/1 Black SL Very soft
147227 2.5Y 4/1 Dark gray SiCL Firm
198
747 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark gray SiL Liquid
87 10YR 2/1 Black MPt Spongy
127147 10Y 3/1 Very dark greenish grey SiCL Soft
167247 5Y 3/1 Very dark gray SiC Soft
200
747 2.5Y 3/2 Very dark grayish brown SiL Liquid
87247 5Y 2.5/1 Black SiCL Very soft

1. Texture: L = Loam; SiL = Silt loam; SiCL = Silty clay loam; SiC = Silty clay; SL = Sandy
loam; MPt = Mucky peat. All analyses are field estimates.

Table 2. Agronomic chemistry of dried Peoria Lake sediment core samples.

Core no.

Depth (cm) pH % OM S P Ca K Fe Cu Zn

194
787 7.5 0.6 105 45 3798 32 374 1 5
127 7.3 0.2 35 14 2975 23 278 1 2
167207 7.6 2.7 206 60 4868 114 378 4 36
196
2767 7.5 4.5 413 93 6281 177 290 7 46
107 7.4 5.4 586 38 5823 147 333 4 44
147 7.5 5.1 417 37 5576 156 332 3 31
187 7.9 0.7 42 12 8125 63 245 3 2
197
27 7.5 4.6 339 78 6410 175 286 6 41
67 7.4 5.3 390 143 5914 138 289 8 89
107 8.0 3.9 89 10 23372 43 204 1 2
147227 7.9 1.9 80 19 7569 70 295 3 2
198
747 7.5 4.4 479 126 6326 166 281 6 51
87 7.5 21.7 360 32 4948 60 280 2 4
127147 7.4 14.0 143 23 8985 67 218 3 4
167247 7.9 1.8 51 13 5848 66 306 4 2
200
747 7.4 4.4 333 106 6224 179 281 7 53
87247 7.3 4.7 446 124 6873 164 292 8 95

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 Table 3. Total analyses of selected Illinois River
sediment cores from Lower Peoria Lake.

Core # 194 195 196

Depth (cm) 8230 8250 8190

Benzo(a)pyrene 49 320 200

Total PCBs <500 <500 <500
4,4-DDD ND ND ND
4,4-DDE ND ND ND
Figure 2. Lead content of sediment deposited in Peoria 4,4-DDT ND ND ND
Lake varied over time. It generally rose during industri- Arsenic 2.7 8.4 6.8
alization and then decreased as pollution control regu- Cadmium 0.4 4.7 1.2
lations took force and it was banned from gasoline and Calcium 32,000 28,000 36,000
paint (Cahill, personal communication).
Chromium 8.8 57 25
Copper 9 51 26
Iron 7,900 25,000 18,000
Lead 13 59 31
Magnesium 13,000 12,000 15,000
Manganese 260 690 480
Nickel 8.8 47 21
Zinc 42 280 130
Mercury 0.05 0.30 0.22

Table 4. DTPA extractable metals from Peoria Lake

Sediment core samples.

Core no. DTPA extractable (ppm)

Depth (cm) As1 Cd Cr Pb Ni

194
787 <0.0312 0.0468 <0.0312 1.03 0.136
127 <0.0312 0.0240 <0.0312 0.60 <0.125
167207 0.0486 0.6421 0.0324 6.10 1.892
196
2767 0.0810 0.0235 <0.0312 7.90 1.748
107 0.0588 0.4887 <0.0312 12.65 2.475
147 0.0491 0.3278 <0.0312 7.59 1.609
187 <0.0312 0.1080 <0.0312 0.90 0.152
197
27 0.0727 0.0204 <0.0312 8.18 1.713
67 0.1455 0.0236 0.0649 15.98 6.189
107 <0.0312 0.0943 <0.0312 0.24 0.585
147227 <0.0312 0.1099 <0.0312 1.48 0.537

Figure 3. Concentration of metals in Illinois River 198

sediment with distance from Chicago. There was a zinc 747 0.1160 1.4144 0.0388 11.88 4.239
smelter near km 336 (Cahill, personal communication). 87 <0.0312 0.2452 <0.0312 1.44 1.212
127147 <0.0312 0.2897 <0.0312 1.61 1.116
167247 <0.0312 0.1102 <0.0312 1.01 0.406
metals, Hg was quite low, and Pb was <70 mg/kg. 200
It is interesting to note that the sandy sediment 747 0.0730 1.2140 0.0354 9.25 1.810
core (194) was much lower in most potential con- 87247 0.1435 2.4063 0.0660 15.89 3.001
taminants because it was composed mostly of sand
rather than silt and clay like the other cores. The 1
Values below Minimum Detection Limit (MDL) indi-
regulatory consensus was that the sediment would cated as < MDL.

160

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 improve conditions in the area proposed for the
lakefront park.
For example, most pesticides including DDT
and its directives were below the detection limit
as were PCBs. However, benzo(a)pyrene was an
exception; it ranged from 49320 g/kg in the
samples, and was higher than the desired screen-
ing level. However, it was well below background
levels of soil in Chicago where it was to be placed
at a future park site. Inorganics were also gener-
ally lower than would be a problem. Among the
potentially toxic metals, Hg was quite low, and
Pb was <70 mg/kg. It is interesting to note that
the sandy sediment core (194) was much lower in Figure 4. A Cable Arm bucket loaded sediment drained
most potential contaminants because it was com- of free water into barges in Lower Peoria Lake.
posed mostly of sand rather than silt and clay like
the other cores. The regulatory consensus was that
the sediment would improve conditions in the area
proposed for the lakefront park.
In general, our experiments and demonstra-
tions showed that a variety of plants grew well in
sediment and the sediment did not contain enough
metals to create concern (Table 4). The analyses
indicate that the sediment deposited in the lake
during the past century is quite similar agronomi-
cally to fertile native topsoil.

3 CHICAGO BROWNFIELD
RECLAMATION
Due to changing manufacturing patterns, there
are abandoned industrial sites across the US that
are often located near cities. One such site is the
former US Steel South Works plant in Chicago.
The plant occupied 232 ha bordering Lake Michi-
gan. The company agreed to give the city 40.5 ha
along the lake in exchange for help in developing
the rest of the property for commercial and resi-
dential purposes. As at many such sites, the lack of
good quality topsoil prevented reclamation. Our
project team learned of the citys need for topsoil
and informed them of the abundance of high qual-
ity sediment in Lower Lake Peoria where dredging
was needed.
The project began in early April of 2004 with
dredging of sediment from a portion of the lake
that was about a meter deep. After some trial and
error, a 5,897 kg low profile, high-density Cable
Arm Clamshell bucket filled barges with sediment.
Free water drained from the bucket, so little water
entered the barges (Fig. 4).
The contractor used standard hopper barges
with a 1361 metric ton capacity. One and a half to
two barges were loaded each day. Dredging in the
high quality sediment was possible to a depth of
3.3 m, allowing full loading of barges. They then
were towed 270 km to the park site.
Figure 5. Sediment flows from a truck onto the barren
field at the Old US Steel site in Chicago. The sediment
was in a barge for about a week during the trip from Peo-
ria. No containment was needed.
In Chicago, barges were offloaded into high capac-
ity mining trucks, which we were able to use because
no public roads were crossed. Trucks dumped the
cohesive sediment on the ground where it formed
piles about 0.85 m high. The material stayed in place
and needed no containment (Fig. 5).
Bulldozers and end loaders spread the mud
2030 cm deep. After about a week of drying, the
material was pushed in to piles 1.8 m high with
bulldozers. Grass seed spread on the piles was
growing within ten days. On the north side of the
site the trucks placed the sediment about one m
deep and did not spread it. In total, over the sum-
mer the contractor delivered about 94,500 metric
tons in 68 barge loads.
Soil formation began over the summer as the
material developed cracks and went through
wet-dry cycles after rains. The sediment was
quickly covered with seeded grass and volunteer
weeds. Weeds were 2 m high by September, four
months after initial placement. The south field was
subsequently leveled and planted with grass, while
the north field was left alone. By spring the top

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Figure 6. Five months after sediment placement, the
north field was covered with grass and sunflowers as well
as volunteer tree seedlings and weeds.
10 cm was granular soil structure and plants had
quickly covered the fields (Fig. 6).
The project demonstrated that deep sediment
is readily handled with conventional equipment.
The handling properties of the sediment on site
were excellent, and the cost of building contain-
ment structure was avoided. Soil formation and
revegetation proceeded rapidly even on the north
field where the material was not worked (Marlin
and Darmody, 2005). After four years the soil is in
excellent shape (authors personal observation).
This beneficial use project demonstrated sev-
eral positive benefits. By viewing the sediment as
a resource out of place, it was taken from where it
was harmful and put to use where needed. In addi-
tion, it restored some depth to a portion of lower
Peoria Lake and provided additional economic
benefits because the sediment was removed from
a recreational channel that needed dredging. And
finally, if not for the sediment, the Chicago Dark
District would have had to purchase and trans-
port topsoil from other areas. Trucking the soil
over local highways and through neighborhoods
would have damaged roads and inconvenienced
residents, and left the borrow area devoid of its
native topsoil.
4 CONCLUSION
Beneficial use of dredged material will become
more necessary as traditional placement sites
become less available. Clean sediment can make
excellent topsoil, as research in Illinois and else-
where supports (Daniels et al., 2007, Darmody
et al., 2002, 2004). Contamination of sediment
increases dredging costs, harms public welfare, and
makes it more difficult to use sediment for agricul-
tural and other beneficial purposes. Moderately
contaminated material can often be used as a soil
amendment in many areas where testing shows it
162
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 162
will not be harmful, such as landfill cover and in
parks and forestry applications. Industry can take
steps to improve sediment quality by reducing the
amount of contaminants entering streams. Careful
placement of dredged material can restore environ-
mental habitat making projects more beneficial in
the long term. As demand grows for fresh water, it
is likely that dredging of reservoirs will increase. A
challenge for the future is to investigate how vari-
ous methods and technologies can be combined to
make beneficial use more economical and efficient.
Our reclamation of the brownfield in Chicago was
a convincing demonstration of the efficacy of uti-
lizing dredged sediments as a topsoil replacement.
REFERENCES
Cahill, R.A. and J.D. Steele. 1986. Inorganic Composition
and Sedimentation Rates of Backwater Lakes Associ-
ated with the Illinois River, Illinois State Geological
Survey, Environmental Geology Notes 115, 61 p.
Cahill, R.A., and W.C. Bogner. 2002, Investigation of
Metal Distributions and Sedimentation Patterns in
Lake DePue and Turner Lake, Waste Management
and Research Center Research Report 98, 95 p.
Cahill, R.A., G.L. Salmon, and J.A. Slowikowski. 2008.
Investigation of Metal and Organic Contaminant
Distributions and Sedimentation Rates in Backwa-
ter Lakes along the Illinois River, Illinois Sustainable
Technology Center Research Report -112, 128 p.
Daniels, W.L., G.R. Whittecar, and C.H. Carter III.
2007. Conversion of Potomac River dredge sediments
to productive agricultural soils. p. 183199. In R.I.
Barnhisel (ed.), Proceedings of the National Meeting
of the American Society of Mining and Reclamation,
Gillette, WY, June 27, 2007. Published by ASMR,
3134 Montavesta Rd., Lexington, KY 40502.
Darmody, R.G., and J.C Marlin. 2002. Sediments and
sediment-derived soils in Illinois: pedological and
agronomic assessment. Envir. Monitoring and Assess-
ment 77: 209227.
Darmody, R.G., J.C. Marlin, J. Talbott, R.A. Green, E.F.
Brewer, and C. Stohr. 2004. Dredged Illinois River
sediments: plant growth and metal uptake. J. Env.
Qual. 33: 458464.
Mahmood, K. 1987. Reservoir Sedimentation: Impact,
Extent and Mitigation. Tech. Paper No. 71, The
World Bank, Washington DC. 118 pp. http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/.
Marlin, J.C. and R.G. Darmody. 2005. Returning the Soil
to the Land, The Mud to Parks Project. The Illinois
Steward, 14 (1): 1118. http://www.istc.illinois.edu/
special_projects/il_river/IL-steward.pdf.
Sloff, C.J. 1991. Reservoir Sedimentation: A Literature
Survey. Communications on Hydraulic and Geotech-
nical Engineering, report No. 912. Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Delft University of Technology. 124 pp.
USACE. 2007. Illinois River Basin Restoration Compre-
hensive Plan with Integrated Environmental Assess-
ment. Rock Island, St. Louis, Chicago and Detroit
Districts. Rock Island, Illinois.
8/27/2014 5:58:59 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

The relationship between plant community and soil factors in spoil

bank of coal mine under different reclamation modes

T.Z. Wang
College of Life Science, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
Research Institute of Ecology Environment of Inner Mongolia Coal Mine, Hohhot, China

X.D. Huang
China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, China

Y.Y. Bao & X.R. Gan

College of Life Science, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China

ABSTRACT: This paper selected six sample sites, which were taken by quadrate method. There were
the comparative study of plant community and soil factors in reclamation spoil bank, no reclamation
spoil bank and the original vegetation. According to the effective important value, we obtained the origi-
nal data matrix of 228 74 sample-specie and 228 11 sample-specie environmental factors. 8 plant com-
munities were divided by TWINSPAN method. By analysis and verification of DCA, these results are
consistent with those of TWINSPAN. DCCA analysis showed that two factors of soil organic matter and
soil density affected the plant community distribution, structure and composition. In the process of com-
munity succession, Populus albavar.pyramidalis Bunge, Medicago sativa L. selected for reclamation had
not been completely retained. Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth became the dominant species. Compared
with the original community, the community species composition of spoil bank was simple. The existing
communities were neither the designed patterns nor the original structure of communities.

1 INTRODUCTION The vegetation belonged to transition type

The situation of coal as the main energy will last
for a long time in China. Surface mining was the
primary way of exploitation of coal in Chinese
Northwest. There were a lot of open pit coal mine.
HeiDaiGou open-pit Coal Mine was located in
Zhungeer County, Erdos city of the Northwest
Chinese. The HeiDaiGou and Long Wang groove
was seasonal river. HeiDaiGou Open-pit Mine was
located between the two grooves in the 11110-
11125E, 3925-3959N range. The mining area
was 55 square kilometers. The area belonged to the
hilly loess plateau region. Millions of gullies dis-
tributed in the area.
The climate was typical semi-arid temperate
continental climate. The annual average tempera-
ture was in range between 6.2C and 7.2C. The
average annual rainfall was between 379 mm and
420 mm. The evaporation was 1943.6 mm. The
annual average wind speed was 2.2 m/s.
Zonal soil is Castano-cinnamon soils form pisha
sandstone. Azonal Loess soil distributed widely in
the area and was loose, erodible, lacking organic
matter.
from typical grassland vegetation to desert grass-
land (IMNTCAS 1985), and was characterized
by grasses and shrubs with scattered trees. The
most common plant species in the areas included
StiPabungeana Trin, Thymus mongolicus Ronn,
Caragana davazamcii Sancz.
An annual output of HeiDaiGou Open-pit
Mine was 25000000 tons of raw coal. Coal min-
ing formed a large area of the bare spoil bank
which was ecological function loss. Mine ecologi-
cal recovery was urgently needed (Li Yong-Geng
2004). After decades of reclamation, vegetation
of spoil bank had partial recovery through recla-
mation mode of tree and shrub grass. But it was
not clear for us to understand species composi-
tion, spatial pattern and distribution of the plant
community. This paper chose plant community
of spoil bank as the research object. The origi-
nal vegetation (O), no reclamation spoil bank
(N) were selected as dual control plots. The exist-
ing plant communities were studied in order to
provide reference data and technical support for
improving the quality of ecological restoration
further.

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 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS number, coverage, plant density, relative abun-
dance, diameter at breast high, plant height (Fang
2.1 Sample selection J Y et al.2009).
Two-way Indicator Species Analysis (TWIN-
On the basis of a field survey and preliminary soil
SPAN) were used to class plant communities (Hill
analyses, sampling was done at the end of vegeta-
M O 1979, Zhang J D 1994). The plant Important
tion growth period in June-August 2010. Spoil bank
Value (IV) were calculated according to the follow-
stage was 10 meters high, fifty meters in width.
ing formula (1), (2).
The top platform area was 0.66 square kilometers.
Initially vegetation restoration and management
GIV = (RF + RC)/200 (1)
measures were used in Spoil bank for three years.
North spoil bank of HeiDaiGou Open-pit mine
where GIV was Important Value of grass and
were reclaimed in 1997. Two sampling sites (A14,
shrub vegetation; RF was Relative Frequency; RC
B14) were seceded in north spoil bank. The A7 and
was Relative Coverage.
B7 two sampling sites of eastern spoil bank take
revegetation measures in 2003. Sampling sites were
TIV = (RD + RDO + RH)/300 (2)
in top platform of spoil bank and had no differ-
ence of shady and sunny slope except for O site.
where TIV was Important Value of Tree vegeta-
The O sampling sites had original vegetation and
tion; RD was relative density; RDO was relative
located in sunny slope of the same altitude. Other
dominance; RH was Relative Height.
detailed parameters were shown in Table 1.
2.3 Physical and chemical properties of soil
2.2 Investigation and classification method of
Soil samples of 020 cm were collected by the
plant community
Quadrate diagonal mixing method when plant
The plots of 100 m 100 m were randomly selected community survey was done. Particle sizes of soil
in each site. Each plot was divided in 36 subplots are analyzed by Malvern 2000 Laser Mastersizer
(1 m 1 m) for the sampling of grass and shrub made in United Kingdom. The soil density was
vegetation. 2 subplots (15 m 15 m) were arranged determined by the Pycnometer method, soil mois-
in each plot for tree vegetation. 216 subplots of ture by the Drying method, total nitrogen in soil
grass and shrub plus 12 subplots of tree equal by the Semimicro kjeldahl method, Soil available
228. Subplots according to the first shrub grass, nitrogen by NaOH-diffusion method, total phos-
tree sequence were numbered. The main measured phorus by HClO4-H2SO4 Microwave Digestion
index of plant community included plant name, Mo-Sb colorimetric method, available phosphorus

Table 1. Basic information of six sampling sites.

Sites Reclamation
number Reclamation mode year (a) Location Altitude (m)

A14 Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge + 14 394759.05N, 1250

Medicago sativa L. 1111638.84E
B14 Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + 14 394724.15N, 1274
Agropyron mongolicum Keng 1111650.83E
A7 Populus alba var. pyramidalis 7 39472.96N, 1238
Bunge + Medicago sativa L. 1111743.00E
B7 Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + 7 394611.31N, 1192
Agropyron mongolicum Keng 1111625.52E
O Located in south spoil bank, no 0 39470.99N, 1182
reclamation, dumped rock and 1111612.12E
soil in 2009, Only pioneer plant
N Located in Xiliang Village, The original Sandy loam of 394551.86N, 1201
vegetation of StiPa bungeana Trin + quaternary period 111 846.12E
Caragana davazamcii Sancz. + Thymus
mongolicus Ronn., Occasionally found
a single Pinus tabulaeformis Carr

* A14, B14 instead for the two sites of North spoil bank; A7, B7 instead for the two sites of East spoil bank; O instead
for South spoil bank; N instead for original vegetation.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 164 8/27/2014 5:59:00 PM

 by NaHCO3-Mo-Sb Colorimetric method, total
potassium by the NaOH melt-Flame photometric
method, available K by Ammonium acetate-Flame
photometric method, Organic Matter (OM) by
Potassium dichromate dilution heat method,
calcium carbonate by Neutralization titration
method. The above method referenced physical
and chemical analysis of soil (ISSCAS 1978, Page
1982).
2.4 Community distribution and environmental
factors
The Two-way Indicator Species Analysis (TWIN-
SPAN) was used to analyze distribution patterns
of plant community. The results of TWINSPAN
were validated by the method Detrended Cor-
respondence Analysis (DCA). If the two are the
same, the proxy variable of soil environmental fac-
tors were confirmed after forward selection and
Monte Carlo test (Lep L 2003, Franklin J et al.
2006). The relationship between plant community
and soil factors were studied by using module of
Ordination Axes Clustering (OAC) in Detrended
Canonical Correspondence Analysis (DCCA)
(Zhang J T et al. 1994) . The mathematical prin-
ciple of DCCA method saw reference of Liu W Y
2011.
2.5 Statistical analysis
80 plant species were identified from 228 subplots.
Sample-species original data matrix of 228 74
was prepared after rejecting the important value of
less than 5%. After forward selection and Monte
Carlo test, seven proxy variables stood for eleven
soil factors variable. Sample-environment original
data matrix of 228 7 was prepared. These two
matrix data were sequenced through program of
DCA, DCCA of CANOCO 4.5 software. The rela-
tionship diagram between plant communities and
environmental factors was drawn by canoDraw
process of CANOCO 4.5 software.
Differences between sites were tested using one-
way ANOVA of SPSS software V.15. A probabil-
ity level of 0.05 was considered to be statistically
significant. In the process of analysis, logarithm
transformation of parameters of plant or soil was
used to satisfy homogeneity of variance assump-
tion and normal distribution. Analysis of TWIN-
SPAN was done by WinTwins3.2 software.
3 RESULTS
3.1 The plant community classification
According to Classification principle and system
of Chinese vegetation (ECCV 1980), the result of
165
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 165
Figure 1. The TWINSPAN classification dendrogram
of 228 plots.
D = Group code; N = Quadrat number; I Salsola collina
Pall. + Agriophyllum squarrosum (L.) Moq.+ Leymus
secalinus Georgi. Tzvel; II Calamagrostis epigeios (L.)
Roth + Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge + Pinus tabu-
laeformis Carr. III Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth +
Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge + Caragana dava-
zamcii Sancz.; IV Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.+ Agropy-
ron mongolicum Keng + Caragana davazamcii Sancz.;
V Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.+ Poa sphondylodes Trin.ex
Bunge + Cleistogenes squarrosa (Trin.) Keng; VI Pinus
tabulaeformis Carr.+ Caragana davazamcii Sancz +
Agropyron mongolicum Keng; VII Caragana davazamcii
Sancz + Thymus mongolicus Ronn + Lespedeza davurica
Laxm.; VIII Caragana davazamcii Sancz + Stipa beviflora
Griseb.+ Cleistogenes songorica Roshev.
TWINSPAN and actual ecological significance,
228 sampling subplots were classified as 8 commu-
nity types (Fig. 1).
I Salsola collina + Agriophyllum squarrosum +
Leymus secalinus community
Community I included subplots 191228 in no
reclamation spoil bank (N) of natural recovery for
one year. Community coverage is less than 10%,
accompanying Pinus tabulaeformis Carr., Setaira
viridis.
II Calamagrostis epigeios + Populus alba var.
pyramidalis Bunge + Pinus tabulaeformis Carr
community
Community II included subplots 116, 1827,
29, 31, 34, 36, 38, 40, 41, 56, 58 in reclamation spoil
bank (A7, A14). Reclamation mode of A7, A14
was arrangement of Populus alba var. pyramidalis
Bunge and Medicago sativa L. in the beginning of
ecological restoration. Populus alba var. pyramida-
lis Bunge distributed discontinuously in Calama-
grostis epigeios (L.) Roth community, dead wood
lying on the ground. Community coverage is less
than 45%, accompanying Ceratoides arborescens
Losinsk., Artemisia giraldii Pamp.
III Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth + Populus
alba var. pyramidalis Bunge + Caragana davazamcii
Sancz. Community
It included subplots 17, 28, 30, 77104 in recla-
mation spoil bank (A7, A14), accompanying Poa
8/27/2014 5:59:00 PM
 sphondylodes Trin.ex Bunge, Stipa beviflora Griseb.
Community III and II had the same reclamation
mode. The thickness of covering soil was 50 cm.
The soil profile showed gravel and red clay of the
Tertiary period.
IV Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + Agropyron mongoli-
cum Keng + Caragana davazamcii Sancz. Including
32, 33, 35, 37, 39, 4255, 57, 5976 subplots,
community IV located in reclamation spoil bank
B7, reclamation mode was Pinus tabulaeformis
Carr and Agropyron mongolicum Keng seven years
ago. Currently accompanying species of commu-
nity IV had Artemisia sacrarum Ledeb., Lespedeza
davurica Laxm..
V Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + Poa sphondylodes
Trin.ex Bunge + Cleistogenes squarrosa (Trin.)
Keng.
Community V in B14 site included 106, 108
111, 113138 subplots. Community V and VI had
the same reclamation mode 14 years age, currently
accompanying Artemisiadalai lamae Krasch,
Potentilla verticillaris Steph ex Willd. Mean cover-
age was 25%.
VI Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + Caragana davazam-
cii Sancz + Agropyron mongolicum Keng;
Including 105, 107, 112, 139142 subplots, com-
munity VI located in part of reclamation spoil
bank B14. VI and IV had the same reclamation
mode. Currently accompanying species of commu-
nity had Artemisiadalai lamae Krasch, Scorzonera
austriaca Willd. Coverage was only 35%.
VII Caragana davazamcii Sancz + Thymus mongoli-
cus Ronn + Lespedeza davurica Laxm.; it included
143, 144, 146, 148153, 163170, 172177, 179190
subplots in N site. Soil organic matter contents of
N site was higher than other site. The soil profile
showed A, B, C layer visibly. Humus thickness was
23 cm. The surface of Loessal Soil cover accom-
panied StiPa bungeana Trin, Stipa beviflora Griseb.
Coverage was between 55% and 60%.
VIII Caragana davazamcii Sancz + Stipa bevi-
flora Griseb. + Cleistogenes songorica Roshev of
community.
VIII included 145, 147, 154162, 171, 178 subplots
in part of N site. VIII and VII had the same soil
texture. In addition to dominant species, accom-
panying plants had Potentilla verticillaris Steph ex
Willd., Spiraea aquilegfolia Pall).
3.2 Community distribution and environmental
factors
After removing plants of the IV less than 5%,
sample-species original data matrix of 228 74
were firstly analyzed by DCA. The result of DCA
166
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 166
showed that the first axis of length is equal to
7.881 greater than 4.0 (Fig. 2). The calculation
method Unimodal model (DCA, DCCA) replaced
linear model (Redundancy analysis, RDA, Princi-
pal components analysis, PCA).
The analysis of DCA showed that 4 axis charac-
teristic values were 0.912, 0.421, 0.074 and 0.045.
The contribution rate of first two axis was 74.2%,
higher than 70%, reflected basic information of
plant community.
Plant community types of DCA were consistent
with results of TWINSPAN classification.
Two-dimensional DCA ordination diagram
(Fig. 2) was drawn according to the front two
axes. Vegetation of sampling sites was divided
into 8 plant communities. Community along the
first axis had obvious gradient change from left
to right that was successively sparse pioneer plant
community of no reclamation dump, Populus alba
var. pyramidalis Bunge and understory shrub com-
munity, Pinus tabulaeformis Carr and understory
shrub community. Combined with the data of soil
environmental factors, the first axis of two-dimen-
sional DCA ordination diagram represented dif-
ferent organic matter, second axis mainly reflected
changes of soil density.
The two-dimensional DCCA ordination dia-
gram (Fig. 3) reflected the relationship between
plant community and environment. Eigenvalue
of first axis was 0.895, the contribution rate of
58.7%. Eigenvalue of second axis was 0.356, the
Figure 2. Two-dimensional DCA ordination diagram.
I Salsola collina Pall. + Agriophyllum squarrosum (L.)
Moq. + Leymus secalinus Georgi. Tzvel; II Calamagrostis
epigeios (L.) Roth + Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge +
Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. III Calamagrostis epigeios (L.)
Roth + Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge + Caragana
davazamcii Sancz.; IV Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + Agro-
pyron mongolicum Keng + Caragana davazamcii Sancz.;
V Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + Poa sphondylodes Trin.ex
Bunge + Cleistogenes squarrosa (Trin.) Keng; VI Pinus
tabulaeformis Carr. + Caragana davazamcii Sancz + Agro-
pyron mongolicum Keng; VII Caragana davazamcii Sancz
+ Thymus mongolicus Ronn + Lespedeza davurica Laxm.;
VIII Caragana davazamcii Sancz + Stipa beviflora Griseb.
+ Cleistogenes songorica Roshev.
8/27/2014 5:59:01 PM
 contribution rate of 17.4%. The cumulative contri-
bution rate was 76.1% (greater than 70%).
Environmental factors were represented by arrows
in Figure 3. The quadrant of arrow expressed posi-
tive or negative correlation between environmental
factors and sorting axis. The length of the arrow
line represented correlation degree of an environ-
mental factors and species distribution. Line was
longer, correlation was greater, On the contrary, the
smaller. The angle between line of arrow and axis
represented correlation an environmental factors
and sorting axis. The smaller angle, the correlation
was high, whereas the correlation was low.
Figure 3. Two-dimensional DCCA ordination
diagram.
OM = Soil organic matter; P = Soil fertility factor,
SM=Soil moisture, SD = Soil density; CL = soil clay,
RM = Reclamation model, RY = Reclamation year;
I Salsola collina Pall. + Agriophyllum squarrosum (L.)
Moq. + Leymus secalinus Georgi. Tzvel; II Calamagrostis
epigeios (L.) Roth + Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge +
Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. III Calamagrostis epigeios (L.)
Roth + Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge + Caragana
davazamcii Sancz.; IV Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + Agro-
pyron mongolicum Keng + Caragana davazamcii Sancz.;
V Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. + Poa sphondylodes Trin.ex
Bunge + Cleistogenes squarrosa (Trin.) Keng; VI Pinus
tabulaeformis Carr. + Caragana davazamcii Sancz +
Agropyron mongolicum Keng; VII Caragana davazamcii
Sancz + Thymus mongolicus Ronn + Lespedeza davurica
Laxm.; VIII Caragana davazamcii Sancz + Stipa beviflora
Griseb. + Cleistogenes songorica Roshev.
The first axis of Figure 3 reflected soil Organic
Matter (OM) of plant communities. It was not dif-
ficult to see that organic matter play a decisive role
on the distribution of plant communities all Soil fac-
tors. With the increase of organic matter, commu-
nity distribution pattern along first axis from left to
right, community sequentially from the type I, II, IV,
III, V, VII, VIII gradually evolved. Along the sec-
ond axes, soil density of community I, II, V, VII was
smaller in order. These could be interpreted as the
influence of humans activities on the environment
soil was different from the community I, II, V, VII.
DCCA and DCA ordination diagram had
obvious similarity in general. But the distribu-
tion pattern of community was more compact in
the DCCA ordination diagram (Fig. 3) than DCA
ordination diagram (Fig. 2). Change of all envi-
ronment agent variables see Table 2.
The angle of the arrow line of soil moisture, soil
fertility, organic matter, reclamation mode, recla-
mation year was less than 90 degrees. They were
positively correlated and influenced mutually spe-
cies distribution. Effect of reclamation year on soil
organic matter was greater than the reclamation
mode. The arrow of soil density, clay, soil fertility,
organic matter, soil moisture, reclamation model,
reclamation year in the opposite direction, they
were negatively correlated.
3.3 Spatial pattern of community and similarity
Community I and VII, VIII dispersed in both ends
of Figure 3. Center distance of I, VII, VIII com-
munity was farther than III, II, IV, V, VI commu-
nity. Their species composition, spatial location
was bigger differences. This was consistent with the
actual situation of community position and quad-
rat location. Plant species of community I in the
no reclamation had great differences than other
community in sites. II, III, IV, V, VI, community
focused on center f Figure 3. Effects of environ-
mental factors on the community II, III, IV, V, VI
were very similar. Effect of artificial reclamation
on II, III, IV, V, VI was in line with the actual.

Table 2. Variation characteristics of environmental proxy variables of each association.

Clay Soil density OM Soil Reclamation Reclamation

Community (%) (g/cm3) (g/kg) P moisture (%) model year (a)

I 51.12 2.14 0.050 0.54 7.89 0 0

II 48.43 1.91 0.104 1.06 10.10 1 7
III 48.45 1.90 0.141 1.18 14.20 2 14
IV 43.56 1.89 0.123 1.08 12.15 1 7
V 45.23 1.81 0.159 1.34 15.14 2 14
VI 44.12 1.79 0.138 1.16 13.14 2 14
VII 27.25 1.67 0.389 1.88 15.98 0 0
VIII 26.19 1.59 0.274 1.25 14.54 0 0

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 4 DISCUSSION showed that the artificial community of Caragana
davazamcii Sancz and Hedysarum scoparium Fisch
4.1 Species suitability and plant community was developed into community of annual herb
succession dominant species, which had Pinus tabulaeformis
Carr., Herba Eragrostidis Pilosae, Bassia dasy-
Artificial community of Populus alba var. pyrami-
phylla O. Kuntze, Crownofhorns Euphoriae Herb.
dalis Bunge and Medicago sativa L. was not in
The study of artificial community of different
accordance with desired developing direction of
age Caragana microphylia Lam. in the Horqin sandy
mining enterprises. With the passage of time grad-
land, Chinese also showed that the original simple
ually, it replaced by Calamagrostis epigeios (L.)
artificial vegetation evolved into complex shrub grass
Roth + Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge + Pinus
community (Su Y ZH 2004). Artificial vegetation
tabulaeformis Carr. and Calamagrostis epi-
gradually lost advantage position in the succession
geios (L.) Roth + Populus alba var. pyramidalis
process of refuse heap (Zhang JB 2011). A suitable
Bunge + Caragana davazamcii Sancz. community.
local native species effectively improved soil nutri-
The reasons were as follows.
ent content, vegetation cover degree and accelerated
Leaf transpiration intensity of Populus alba
plant community succession process of vegetation
var. pyramidalis Bunge was greater than Pinus
restoration in Loess Plateau (Guo Z B et al. 2012).
tabulaeformis Carr (Yang JW et al. 2004, Xi CH
From the above analysis, spoil bank reclamation
et al. 2007). The lack of spoil bank water led to the
should be choice native species, take artificial meas-
Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge poor adapt-
ures, promote community secondary succession.
ability to environment. The diameter of survival
Populus alba var. pyramidalis Bunge was less than
10 cm and the local villagers called them as old
5 CONCLUSION
but small tree.
According to the research of alien plants in
The key factors affecting distribution, patterns,
Inner Mongolia, Medicago sativa L. from Iran
species composition of plant community were soil
origin was useful for alien invasive species (Soyolt
density, organic matter. On effects of these two
et al. 2007). Medicago sativa L. was the deep root
factors, Agropyron mongolicum Keng disappeared
plant (Sun H R et al. 2008, Li W R et al. 2010),
gradually in the process of secondary succession
high water consumption plant (Krogman KK
of plant communities of spoil bank. Calamagrostis
et al. 1965). Under suitable conditions, the length
epigeios recovered from natural seed bank, became
of Medicago sativa L. root increased 1 m one year.
the dominant species of reclamation spoil bank.
The soil density of spoil bank reached 1.91 g/cm3.
The existing plant community, tree grew hardly
Soil density was limiting factor for plant recovery,
in very bad condition. The tree as the reclamation
growth, development that affect the rooting depth
plant was not suitable for the soil environment of
of Medicago sativa L.
HeiDaiGou spoil bank.
The thickness of spoil bank overburden soil was
Mining enterprises should abandon the dump-
50 cm. The abandoned bedrock was beneath 50 cm
ing technology which rolled frequently surface of
topsoil. A small amount of plant struggling to bed-
spoil bank.
rock layer would be withered due to lack of water.
In succession, Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) instead
of Medicago sativa L. was due to the soil density
limitation. Cause of increased soil density was the REFERENCES
dumping technology which dumped a layer of rock
Editorial Committee of Chinese Vegetation (ECCV)
and soil compaction once for expanding capacity. 1980. China vegetation. Beijing: Science Press.
Fang J.Y, Wang X.P et al. 2009. Methods and protocols
4.2 Similarity of plant communities for plant community inventory. Biodiversity Science
17 (6): 533548.
From Figure 3, similarity between community I, Franklin J, Wiser S.K, Drake D.R, Burrows L.E, Sykes
VII, VIII and community II, III, IV, V was very W.R. 2006. Environment, disturbance history and
poor. The existing communities were neither the rain forest composition across the islands of Tonga,
designed patterns of mining enterprise nor the Western Polynesia. Journal of Vegetation Science
structure of original communities before no exploi- 17(2):233244.
Guo Z.B, Wang D.Z, Liu C AN, Liu F, Li F.M 2012.
tation of coal resources. After artificial community Effect of Introducing Biennial Legume Species,
long time succession, artificial species gradually Melilotus officinalis, on Plant Community in the Early
disappeared or reduced. The study of artificial Stage of Vegetation Succession and Soil Nutrients in
vegetation protection system in arid desert area the Semiarid Loess Plateau of China. Acta Botanica
form Baotou to Lanzhou Railway (Xu C L 2003) Boreali-occidentalia Sinica 32(4):07870794.

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 Hill M.O. 1979. A FORTRAN Program for Arranging
Multivariate Data in an Ordered Two-way Table by
Classification of the Individuals and Attributes, Sec-
tion of Ecology and Systematics, New York: Cornell
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Inner Mongolia and Ningxia integrated survey Team of
Chinese Academy of Sciences (IMNTCAS) 1985. The
vegetation of Inner Mongolia. Beijing: Science Press.
Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Science
(ISSCAS) 1978. Physical and chemical analysis of soil.
Shanghai: Shanghai science and Technology Press.
Krogman KK, Hobbs EH 1965. Evapotranspiration of
irrigated alfalfa as related to season and growth stage.
Canadian Journal of Plant Science 45(4):310313.
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logical Data Using CANOCO. New York: Cambridge
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logical variation and water use in alfalfa under drought
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Li Yong-Geng & Jiang Gao-Ming 2004. Ecological resto-
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an over review. Acta Ecologica Sinica 24(1):95100.
Liu W.Y, Li SH Q 2011. Quantitative Classification
and Ordination of Naturally Colonized Plant Com-
munities on Yongdingzhuang Coal Gob Piles in
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25(1):8489.
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Sun H.R, Wu R.X, Li P.H, Shao S, Qi L.L.L, Han J.G
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

An experimental study for assessment of soil erosion at rehabilitation

area in Indonesian coal mine

A. Hamanaka, N. Inoue, H. Shimada, T. Sasaoka & K. Matsui

Kyushu University, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: Mining operation of open cut mines has serious impacts on surrounding environment.
Therefore, an appropriate rehabilitation program has to be taken into consideration. Soil erosion is one of
the major environmental problems in open-cut mines in tropical regions. The soil erosion leads to unsuc-
cessful rehabilitation due to topsoil losses. In order to succeed rehabilitation, the condition of soil erosion
in the rehabilitation area has to be predicted accurately. As one of an efficient method for prediction of
soil loss, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is the most widely used method of predicting soil loss in
forestry. However, when considering the application of this equation in rehabilitation area, a sufficient
consideration is needed because the condition of these areas is very different from that of forestry. This
paper describes the reliability to predict soil erosion in rehabilitation area by means of USLE, and dis-
cusses the several considerations on soil erosion.

1 INTRODUCTION As one of an efficient method for predicting

the soil loss by rainfall, the Universal Soil Loss
Japan imports almost of coal resources from Equation (USLE), as modified for forestland by
abroad countries. Indonesia is the second larg- Dissmeyer and Foster (1984), is the most widely
est coal exporter to Japan and open cut mining is used method of predicting soil loss in forestry
applied to produce coal resources, mainly. As the (Hood et al. 2002). The USLE is simple, easy to use,
demand of coal not only in Indonesia but also in and require numerous input parameters or extensive
the rest of the world is increased dramatically due data sets for prediction. However, when considering
to increasing the energy supply in the world, the the application of this equation in rehabilitation
development of coal mining is advanced in order area, a sufficient consideration is needed because
to meet the demand of coal. However, a mining the condition of the area is quite different from that
operation of open cut mines gives serious impacts of forestry. From these reasons, the estimation of
on surrounding environment. Therefore, in order to soil erosion by means of USLE and artificial rain-
prevent and minimize the impact for environment, fall experiment in a laboratory were carried out in
rehabilitation of the post mine surface should be order to assess soil erosion in advance.
conducted as soon after the surface mining opera-
tion has finished.
Among the impacts on environment, soil ero-
sion is one of significant problems in the post
mine surface. Indonesia belongs to tropical rain-
forest climates and soil erosion is easy to acceler-
ate under the high rainfall level, especially in sharp
cloudbursts such as squall. From this reason,
severe erosion phenomena such as gully erosion,
surface erosion, raindrop erosion and rill erosion
and soil degradation (see Fig. 1) are likely to occur
in Indonesian surface mining (Jha & Kapat 2009).
This situation leads to the unsuccessful rehabilita-
tion in the post mine surface. Therefore, the degree
of soil erosion in the rehabilitation area has to be
assessed adequately and some countermeasures
have to be taken in order to monitor and/or man-
age rehabilitation area in the long term. Figure 1. Erosion in the rehabilitation area.

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 2 ASSESSMENT OF SOIL EROSION
2.1 Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
The USLE is derived from a large database based
on many years of data from plot experiments in
the United States. This equation is the most widely
used the empirical model worldwide for estimat-
ing soil loss. It calculates mean annual soil loss
as a product of five factors (Wischmeier & Smith
1978).
A = R * K * LS * C * P (1)
where A = average annual soil loss (tons/ha/year);
R = rainfall and runoff factor (MJ mm ha/h/year);
K = soil erodibility factor (ton ha h/ha/MJ/mm);
LS = slope and length of slope factor; C = crop-
ping-management factor; P = supporting/conserva-
tion practice factor.
Rainfall and runoff factor: R
R represents the effort energy and intensity of
rainfall. This factor is showed as following (Wisch-
meier & Smith 1978).
R=EI (2)
E = 916 + 331 Log10 I (3)
where E = Energy in the rainfall (MJ/ha); I = Maxi-
mum rainfall intensity of the rain (mm/h).
To apply the USLE model, R factor can be cal-
culated related on available data. Monthly rainfall,
daily rainfall and yearly rainfall are treated to cal-
culate R value.
Soil erodibility factor: K
The soil erodibility factor (K) represents the sus-
ceptibility of a soil type to erosion. K is decided
as following equation in this study (Wischmeier &
Smith 1978).
K = 2.1 M 1.14 (106) (12 a)
+ 0.0325 (b 2) + 0.025 (c 3) (4)
where M = (%silt + %very fine sand)(100-%clay);
a = The percent organic matter content; b = Soil
structure code; c = Soil permeability rating code.
The b and c values is defined as based on a lot
of experimental data under the various type of
soil. Usually, value for K factor ranges from 0 to
0.7 in metric units, and high-clay content soil indi-
cates the lower K factor values and high-sand and
high-silt content soils indicates the higher values
(Goldman et al. 1986).
Slope and length of slope factor: LS
The length and slope steepness factor (LS) rep-
resents the effect of topography on erosion. LS
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 172
factor can be described as (5) equation (Haan
et al. 1994).
m
LS =
22.14 (65.41 sin + 4 65
2
)
i + 0.065 (5)
where = Slope length (m); = Slope angle
(degree); m = 0.2 for gradients less than 1%, 0.3 for
1 to 3% slopes, 0.4 for 3.5 to 4.5% slopes, and 0.5
for slopes of 5% and greater.
Cropping-management factor: C
Cropping management factor is defined as the
ratio of soil loss from land with specific vegetation
to the corresponding soil loss from clean-tilled,
continuous fallow. When the soil surface is bare,
C is 1.0 and C factor value of 0.1 is used if a com-
plete cover of newly seeded annual grasses is well
established before the onset of rains (Goldman
et al. 1986).
Supporting/conservation practice factor: P
P factor is defined as the ratio of soil loss with a
given surface condition to soil loss with the culti-
vation method. Supporting conservation practices
in the field reduces the velocity of runoff and the
tendency of runoff which flow directly down a
slope. When there are no supporting practices in
the target area, this factor is 1.0 (Wischmeier &
Smith 1978).
In this study, as the bare ground in the rehabili-
tation area of Indonesian coal mine is focused as
the target area, the USLE for predicting the soil
loss is dealt as A = R * K * LS.
2.2 Artificial rainfall experiment
In order to discuss the soil erosion under the vari-
ous conditions, a laboratory study was conducted
in order to predict total soil loss under various soil
conditions by using an artificial rainfall simulator,
which was prepared in our laboratory. The advan-
tages of this experiment are to evaluate soil ero-
sion for a short period and flexibility for arranging
topography and soil texture (Commandeur 1992).
The soil loss of soil sample from the artificial rain-
fall was measured in this experiment. The equip-
ment used is showed in Figure 2. Rainfall was
simulated by drops of water free falling, starting
at zero velocity, from protruding needles with an
internal diameter of 0.80 mm (Dimoyiannis et al.
2001). A certain amount of rainfall which was
arranged by changing the pressure head by adjust-
ing the water flow into the rainfall simulator gave
the soil samples within the allotted amount of time.
The duration of every experiment was 30 minutes.
A soil sample was set on a rectangular shaped bed
sizing 311 103 50 mm. The slope of soil bed
172
8/27/2014 5:59:03 PM
 Table 1. Soil sample.

Sand Silt Clay Slope

Sample (%) (%) (%) degree ()

1 10.43 56.56 33.01 16.69

2 1.04 29.07 69.89 16.69
3 28.11 30.00 41.89 8.53
4 15.31 34.51 50.19 8.53

Figure 2. Artificial rainfall equipment.

was changed by the pulley. In this experiment, vari-

ous amount of rainfall gave the soil samples in the
predetermined time under the various soil compo-
sition and topographic condition.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Soil sample Figure 3. Comparison of experimental value and cal-

At first, field research was conducted in order to
investigate the soil composition and topographic
condition in the rehabilitation area (Lembak
Block) of Kaltim Prima Coal mine. In addition,
soil samples were prepared in the same distribu-
tion of grain size and 15% of water content as with
field condition and artificial rainfall experiment
was carried out (see Table 1). After that, in order to
investigate the effect for soil loss by the difference
of soil grain size, the performance of soil runoff
and the characteristics of the individual soil sam-
ple (sand, silt and clay) were discussed.
3.2 Prediction of soil loss by means of USLE
First of all, the prediction of soil loss for soil sam-
ples of similar distribution of grain size by the
USLE is discussed. Figure 3 shows the relationship
between soil loss and R factor in each soil condi-
tions. Furthermore, the experimental values and the
calculation values by the USLE are showed as total
soil loss. From these results, it can be said that soil
sample 2 is matched with the experimental values
and calculation values. On the other hand, these
values are not corresponded with increasing of R
factor in soil sample 1. Considering the differences
of soil conditions, average grain size of soil sample
2 is smaller than soil sample 1 because almost 70%
of soil sample consists of clay material. Therefore,
it can be concluded that the applicability of the
culation value.
USLE for prediction of soil loss in the rehabilita-
tion area depends on soil composition and rainfall
intensity. In order to estimate and/or evaluate the
soil loss by this equation with accuracy, some cor-
rections including the effect of soil composition
and climate condition has to be needed.
3.3 Characteristics of the individual soil
In order to discuss the applicability of the USLE
in the rehabilitation area in detail, the charac-
teristics and the performance of soil loss on the
individual soil were investigated. The state of con-
sistency, called the Atterberg limits, is one of the
strongly related parameter for soil loss as the ero-
sion characteristics. Therefore, it can be said that
this parameter can be used as the predictive value
on soil loss. Figure 4 shows the distributed mecha-
nism of soil by the different consistency limits.
High consistency limit means that the cohesive
strength between soil particles is high because soil
has the high water retention capacity. On the other
hand, its strength decreases because of occurrence
of free water under the low consistency limit. Due
to this, the risk of soil erosion decreases in the high
consistency limit because of high cohesive strength
as the reactive force for soil erosion (Taniguchi
et al. 2011).

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 Figure 5. Plasticity chart.

Figure 4. The distributed mechanism of soil.

Table 2. Liquid and plastic limit in each soil.

Sample Sand Silt Clay

Soil density, s (g/cm3) 2.59 2.58 2.60

Liquid limit, wL (%) 36.9 40.3 54.7
Plastic Limit, wP (%) 25.2 27.7 28.5
Plasticity Index, Ip 11.7 12.6 26.2
Classification ML ML CH

The Atterberg limits test was conducted to

determine the liquid and plastic limits (see Table 2)
and the soil samples were classified by means of
plasticity chart (see Fig. 5). The consistency lim-
its of clay shows high compared to that of sand
and silt. Furthermore, clay was classified as CH
whereas sand and silt were classified as ML. From
these results, it can be expected that the soil ero-
sion of sand and silt by rainfall is easy to occur
due to low consistency limits. Moreover, soil par-
ticle density is rarely different by the soil type and
shows approximately 2.6 g/cm3. Therefore, once
occurrence of soil erosion, the soil loss by rainfall
may increase at an accelerated rate in sand and silt
because these particle sizes are bigger than that of
clay.
Figure 6 shows the results of artificial rainfall
experiment on the individual soil. The slope angle
was arranged to 15 degree. From these results, it
can be said that the clay is matched with the experi-
mental values and calculation values. By contrast,
the soil loss of experimental value in the sand and
silt exceeds dramatically than that of calculation
value though these values are matched in the lower
R factor. There is a clear correlation between con-
sistency indices and the results of artificial rain- Figure 6. Comparison of experimental value and cal-
fall experiment. Therefore, it can be said that soil culation value.

174

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 174 8/27/2014 5:59:06 PM

 characteristics related to soil erosion such as parti-
cle size and Atterberg limits are an important fac-
tor in order to predict soil loss in the rehabilitation
area under the high rainfall intensity.
3.4 Several consideration on soil erosion
According to the results obtained in this study,
USLE can apply the soil having a high erosion
resistance, while soil loss of the soil with low con-
sistency limits is difficult to be estimated by USLE
under the high rainfall intensity. It can be consid-
ered that the excessive soil erosion such as rill ero-
sion and surface erosion which is not available to
predict by USLE occurred due to the cause of high
tractive force by water flow generated between soil
particles in the soil having a low consistency limit.
From these reasons, it can be said that some cor-
rections considering the condition in-situ such as
soil component and climate condition have to be
needed in order to predict the soil loss accurately
by means of USLE.
Furthermore, it can be suspected that the risk of
soil erosion is considerably increased in the rehabil-
itation area depending on soil characteristics since
the excessive soil erosion is likely to occur under
soil having a low consistency limit and a high rain-
fall intensity. In order to minimize the risk of ero-
sion in rehabilitation area, adequate rehabilitation
process to prevent soil erosion has to be considered
such as selective placement of soil, establishment
of erosion control structures, and planting rapid
growing cover crop species immediately.
4 CONCLUSION
This paper described the present situation of soil
erosion in Indonesian coal mine and discussed the
applicability of USLE for predicting the soil loss
under the rehabilitation area of Indonesian coal
mine by the laboratory experiment. Consequently,
the prediction of soil loss by the USLE becomes to
be difficult with increasing the proportion of sand
or silt in the soil though soil loss of experimental
175
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 175
value and calculation value are accorded each other
in the soil composed mostly of clay.
Consistency indices are useful and simple tools
for the prediction of soil erosion. In the low con-
sistency limits materials, it can be expected that
excessive soil erosion is likely to occur due to
high tractive force from free water between soil
particles.
In order to predict the soil loss accurately by the
USLE, the more discussion about some corrections
considering the condition in-situ such as soil com-
ponent and climate condition have to be needed.
Additionally, immediate measure to minimize ero-
sion risk has to be also considered since the risk of
soil erosion is considerably increased in the reha-
bilitation area depending on soil characteristics.
REFERENCES
Commandeur, P.R. 1992. Soil erosion studies using
rainfall simulation on forest harvested areas in British
Colombia, Proc. of the Chengdu Symposium, pp.
2128.
Dimoyiannis, D.G., Valmis, S., & Vyrlas, P. 2001. A rain-
fall simulation study of erosion of some calcareous
soils, Global Nest: the Int. J. 3(3), pp. 179183.
Goldman, S.J., Jackson, K., & Bursztynsky, T.A. 1986.
Erosion and sediment control handbook, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Haan, C.T., Barfield, B.J., & Hayes, J.C. 1994. Design
Hydrology and Sedimentology for Small Catchments,
New York: Academic Press, New York.
Hood, S.M., Zedaker, S.M., Aust, W.M., & Smith, D.W.
2002. Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)-Predicted
Soil Loss for Harvesting Regimes in Appalachian
Hardwoods, NJAF 19(2), pp. 5358.
Jha, V.C. and Kapat, S. 2009. Rill and gully erosion risk
of lateritic terrain in South-Western Birbhum District,
West Bengal, India, Soc. nat. 21(2), pp. 141158.
Taniguchi, Y., Komine, H., & Murakami, S. 2011. Domi-
nant Influence of Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil
to Erosion Characteristics of Fine Grain Soil in River
Levee and Bank, Proc. of 46th Japan National Confer-
ence on Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 10511052.
Wischmeier, W.H., & Smith, D.D. 1978. Predicting Rain-
fall Erosion LossesA Guide to Conservation Planning,
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Maintenance and construction of territorial waters

in secondary wetland driven by coal mining

S.Z. Li & Y.J. Lu

China Coal Technology Engineering Group Tangshan Research Institute Ltd., Tangshan, Hebei, China

Y. Feng
Kailuan (Group) Co., Ltd., Tangshan, Hebei, China

ABSTRACT: Coal mining subsidence in high phreatic water level area often lead to heavy water-logging.
Secondary wetland construction in the water-logging area is one of the important ways to create an eco-
logical mining city and healthy-residing city. Territorial water plays a determined role in the structure and
function of wetland ecosystem. The succession of water-logging area, reasonable construction of territorial
water and its maintenance driven by coal mining are key factors which limited the construction of secondary
wetland ecosystem in high phreatic water level mining area. According to the research results and their prac-
tices in the construction of secondary wetland in mining subsidence area of Tangshan South Lake, here we
introduced ecological water recycle character driven by coal mining, construction technologies of secondary
wetland, remediation and controlling technologies of water pollution, and maintenance technologies of
water recycle in high phreatic water level area. This is one of the current hot research areas in ecological min-
ing city. The research results and technologies can be expected to utilize in similar mining area.

Keywords: Tangshan South Lake; high phreatic water level area; secondary wetland in mining subsidence
area; maintenance and construction of territorial waters

The area of subsidence land caused by coal mining
had been over 20,000 hm2 in Tangshan City, and
areas locating in the south of the central were about
3000 hm2, and the largest seasonal and perennial
water areas were 700 hm2. It bright some problems
of surface uneven, puddles all over, harsh environ-
ments because of long mining. All villages relocated
because subsidence areas were not suitable for living.
There was few people tread because of the discharge
of construction and household garbage, sewage, ash
in subsidence areas. It wasted a lot of land resources,
and seriously damaged the ecological environment
of the city, restricted the urban development. The
leaderships of the municipal government made the
construction of the four main functional areas
strategic plan in 2007 to build the scientific develop-
ment demonstration and the happiest area of all the
people in Tangshan. South Lake Eco-City was one
of the four functional areas. It took the mining sub-
sidence areas into the suburban secondary wetland
ecological landscapes.
Water is the core of the secondary wetlands and
the first element to maintain the wetland ecosys-
tem stability. South Lake wetland construction area
is located within the range of Tangshan mining.
The problems of complex geological conditions,
different mining depths, tremendous seam dip
changes resulted in the complicated development of
water flowing fractured zone. In addition, the single
water area of water pits was small and close scatter,
average water depth was shallow and large change in
mining subsidence areas and the water pits crossed
steeply inclined and tilted mining areas. There were
some problems of the water infiltration, difficult
maintenance and easy pollution affecting wetlands
waters stability. The water areas close to the urban
district and the subsidence areas were pooling area
for a variety of pollution sources in Tangshan Mine.
Therefore, the construction technologies of subsid-
ence secondary wetlands were studied from the water
balance, the water construction and the water cycle
maintenance combining the regional hydrogeology
and underground mining conditions to ensure the
secondary wetlands construction long-term stable.
1 ECOLOGICAL WATER CIRCULATION
CHANGE CHARACTERISTICS DRIVEN
BY COAL MINING
Variations characteristics of ecological water cycle
were obtained on the basis of the original data

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 collection, field surveys and historical monitoring process of the surface water, limited the secondary
data analysis in subsidence areas in Tangshan coal wetland ecosystem functions.
mine outskirts.
1. Mining subsidence forms varying sizes water.
Acreages of perennial water pit were gradually 2 CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
increasing with the addition of mining years. OF SECONDARY WETLAND WATERS
2. Direction of the surface runoff that from the IN SUBSIDENCE AREA
northwest to southeast along the front was
changed into subsidence pits. 2.1 Technology of expanding the areas of lake
3. Phreatic levels of subsidence pits showed in mining subsidence water areas
the declining trend comparing the change of
Proportion of the mining subsidence secondary
phreatic level between 2008 and 2005. Phreatic
wetland waters was lower in Tangshan Mine. The
level of 6 water pit was 2 m in 2005, but it
single water area of water pits was small and close
became 0.75 m in 2008, and the phreatic level
scatter, average water depth was shallow and large
of 8 water pit was 0 m, but it became 1.9 m
change in mining subsidence areas and the water
in 2008 taking 6 and 8 typical water pit as
pits crossed steeply inclined and tilted mining
example. Phreatic level reduced about 2 m dur-
areas. There were some problems of the water infil-
ing three years indicating the presence of the
tration, difficult maintenance and easy pollution.
phreatic level dewatering risk caused the mining
In order to achieve the basic natural functions and
subsidence.
city services functions of the secondary wetland in
4. Maximum surface subsidence depth reached
subsidence water areas, according to the require-
11 m affected by subsidence in Tangshan
ments of the city development planning and the
Mine. Surface subsidence changed the original
secondary wetland ecological water, the mining
recharge relationship between surface water and
subsidence areas were expanded the areas of lake
groundwater. Three kinds of supply relationships
and reformed to expand the acreage of the stable
due to subsidence timing and seasonal: Original
water area. On the one hand, the relative dispersion
surface elevation was lower than the elevation of
subsidence pits were reformed. Different wetlands
the underground water in the initial of the subsid-
depths were designed to meet the requirements of
ence resulted by subsidence. Underground water
diverse wetland biology growth according to the
recharged subsidence pits forming the surface
status of subsidence water and the water eleva-
water until the subsidence pits water levels and
tion; on the other hand, the shallow water areas
the phreatic levels were balance; Subsidence pits
were heaped mountain and made landscape carry-
water levels rises much faster than the phreatic
ing out the lake island construction to create basic
levels after forming subsidence pits in rainy. So
conditions for the wetlands urban services.
the subsidence pits water recharged the under-
Relative concentration of the water pits were
ground water; Decline rate of the subsidence
expanded and trimmed during the process of sec-
pits water levels was higher than the phreatic
ondary wetland construction in Tangshan mine
levels after forming subsidence pits in non-rainy
in Kailuan. After the expansion of the lake, the
season. So the underground water recharged the
original scattered water pits were relatively concen-
subsidence pits continuously.
trated, the number of subsidence water pits became
Aforementioned ecological water cycle char- the five large wetland waters from 49, and the areas
acteristics can be seen that the surface mining of waters became 467.78 hm2 from 303.03 hm2
subsidence changed the original ecological water adding 164.75 hm2 to provide the foundation for
circulation pattern, cut off the original surface the wetlands functional stability (Table 1). Water
water. Subsidence pits damaged the flow update wetlands after expanding the areas of lake created

Table 1. Changes of the water areas before and after expending the area of lake.

Number of pits Total areas Maximum Minimum Average

(piece) (hm2) (hm2) (hm2) depth (m)

Before expending 49 303.03 24.91 0.33 1.2

the areas of lake
After expending 5 467.78 266.71 20.95 2.3
the areas of lake
Changes 44 164.75 1.1

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 a city waterfront environment for Tangshan City,
achieved the goals of flood protection and drainage
Safety, efficient allocation of the water resources,
natural and healthy aquatic ecosystems and beauti-
ful and pleasant water landscape.
2.2 Application of anti-seepage technology
in mining subsidence wetlands
It would damage the original surface soil imper-
meable layer that cutting and filling construction
work inevitably during the process of expending
the areas of lake. It resulted that the surface water
bodies maybe leak the surface water to mined-out
area in mining subsidence cracks. It must be pre-
pared to seepage, anti-erosion work to protect wet-
lands water resources after the expansion of lake.
Mining subsidence areas need be transformed
basement renovation and treated anti-seepage to
prevent subsidence water feeding into the under-
ground, protect production safety and the wetland
water bodies for some water areas by the shallow
tilt and steep seam mining subsidence. Because the
parts of hydraulic conductivity fractures had been
closed to the surface owing to the movement of
overburden, and there were still the surface cracks
and residual subsidence deformation at the same
time. It took the different measures in accordance
with the coalbed tilt degree. Measures of dewater-
ing, dredging, compacting base, controlling seep-
age by covering 300500 mm thick clay to compact
12 layers were applied inclined and gentle inclined
coal seam mining areas. Process: Lower support
layerGeomembrane layerUpper protective
layer. Treatment processes were shown in Figure 1,
and the profile was shown in Figure 2.
Support layer Elevation under the support layer
in the bottom of lake excavated. Support layer
was laid 150200 mm gravel layer, leveled with
80 mm coarse sand, and then laid 30 mm fine
sand. Relative density reached into 93% by rolling
68 times with 12t aureole bucker.
Geomembrane layer Geomembrane layer was
applied into seam welding seal.
Protective layer upper the membrane Geomem-
brane protective layer was laid using Progress
method. First, 300 mm loess was laid, then,
Figure 1. Geomembrane treatment process in steeply
inclined zone.
179
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 179
Figure 2. Seepage control profile of steeply inclined
zone.
150 mm sand was laid, and third, 150 mm natu-
ral sand and gravel was laid. Each layer must be
compacted.
3 APPLICATION OF WATER POLLUTION
TREATMENT AND PREVENTION
AND CONTROL TECHNIQUES IN
SUBSIDENCE AREA
Subsidence areas were filled with urban sanitary
sewage, household garbage, gangue and fly ash
in Tangshan Mine. Sources were complex status
of point combining face. It was the key to build
wetlands removing pollution sources in the South
Lake.
3.1 Closure garbage landscape green technology
Closure garbage landscape green technology aimed
at the sanitary sewage covering 10.57 hm2 and
locating the west of project area. Sanitary sewage
had operated for 19 years. Amount of landfill was
4.5 million t. Height was nearly 60 m. It had been
discontinued. Sanitary sewage was recycled com-
bining with wetland construction plan in order to
avoid garbage nudity impacting on the surround-
ing environment. Pollution control of the garbage
hill included slope trimming, integrated seal of
geotextile overburden (Fig. 3), leachate collection-
diversion treatment systems, landfill gas collection-
diversion treatment systems, landscape green etc.
They were the keys of that pollution sources treat-
ment that leachate collection-diversion treatment
systems and landfill gas collection-diversion treat-
ment systems. Landfill leachate was discharged
into the regulation pool by traversing the gravel
reverse osmosis filtration, the blind drain col-
lection (Fig. 4) and HDPE pipe, and then dis-
charged after the centralized treatment. Landfill
gas was collected by the crest vertical landfill col-
lection wells and slope lateral gas guiding blind
drain. Interconnected valves controlled suction.
8/27/2014 5:59:09 PM
 Average thickness was about 7 m. There were two
ways that internal digestion and external forthput-
ting to remove pollution sources.
External forthputting: most of coal ash was
used to build Tangshan-Tianjin, Beijing-Shenyang,
Tanggang high speed as roadbed fill material before
the construction of South Lake.
Internal digestion: Coal ash and gangue mainly
were used in backfill reclamation and landscap-
ing. Part of the coal ash and construction waste,
gangue and other physical mixture were filled into
the small subsidence pits forming land in South
Figure 3. Waste comprehensive closure. Lake. And then the land was carried out plants
greening after casing soil (Fig. 7); Residual coal ash
and gangue were stacked nearby the northeastern
region of the field forming coal ash hillside. Then,
the coal ash hillside was carried out plants green-
ing after casing 100 cm soil.
Anti-seepage dam was built to avoid the poten-
tial pollution of mountain piled by coal ash and
gangue adjacent to the 6th wetland water (Fig. 6).
Top width of the anti-seepage dam compacted by
clay was 1 m. Side slope was 1:1 near the coal ash
and gangue and 1:1.5 near the water. Compaction
was not less than 96% using the method of strati-
fication backfill.

Figure 4. Leachate blind ditch schematic.

Figure 5. Landscape after governing the garbage hill. Figure 6. Seepage control dam profile schematic.

Exhaust gas was discharge using the method of

regular combustion. Pollutants achieved a zero
discharge by the overall seal covering soil, biogas,
leachate collection and treatment, Landscape
green for the garbage hill. These greatly improved
the ecological environment around South Lake,
and formed an iconic landscape of South Lake
wetlandPhoenix (Fig. 5).

3.2 Coal ash gangue field treatment

Coal ash gangue field located between the 2nd and
the 6th subsidence pit covering nearly 100 hm2. Figure 7. Coal ash landscape.

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 3.3 Water pollution treatment measures seepage and other water balance of water bodies
loss regional (Table 2). The results indicated that
Coal mining subsidence affected by repeated mining
the supply of 34,608,400 m3 was greater than the
near the city center in Tangshan Mine. Water pollu-
loss of 24,119,600 m3 providing conditions for the
tion was the characteristics of garbage hill, coal ash
secondary wetlands water maintenance.
and gangue, industrial waste, sewage and other point
sources from Qinglong River combining surface
sources. Pollution ingredient sources were complex. 4.2 Water conservancy engineering construction
Garbage hill, coal ash and gangue and other sources
On the one hand, water conservancy engineering
would be closed in the field of green governance.
construction ensured the unimpeded wetland water
Industrial and sanitary sewage were discharged into
supply channel, on the other hand, ensured the
project area through the Qinglong River. The main
appropriate ecological water level and landscape
liquid pollution sources were collected by closing the
of wetland waters. Water conservancy engineer-
outfall of Qinglong River into the western suburbs
ing construction included the water conservancy
sewage treatment factory. Sewage was discharged
engineering and the water conservancy facilities
into Qinglong River after the treatment compliance.
engineering.
In addition, planting reeds and canna both depu-
Water conservancy engineering Water conserv-
ration functional and ornamental landscape were
ancy engineering was mainly the communication
planted to improve the ability of water purification
of water supply channel. Focus were on dredging,
in wetlands; Slope was planted vegetation surround
controlling seepage, greening vegetation on both
the waters to reduce soil erosion, reduce nutrient
sides on the basis of the original 5.2 km river of
inputs and avoid eutrophication; Secondary wetland
Qinglong River, as well as, building 6.7 km aque-
water bodies were replaced by the irrigation water
ducts channel of the wetland waters excavation
from Douhe river. Wetland waters were applied in
and the east side of Douhe river.
the irrigation by Meihe river to achieve wetlands
Water conservancy facilities engineering Because
waters regular depuration.
each wetland water surface elevation was disparity
Wetland water environment had been funda-
(Table 3). In order to avoid inter-wetland waters
mentally improved after pollution removal, bio-
directly communicating causing the terrain higher
logical treatment, irrigation replacement water in
wetlands, intercepting dam, rubber dam or sluice
the project area.
were built to ensure that wetland ecosystem was
steady, ecological water of the each wetland waters
was relatively stable, and the excess water discharge
4 SECONDARY WETLANDS WATER
automatically to reach drainage function in flood
CIRCULATION MAINTENANCE
according to the requirements of the wetland
TECHNOLOGY IN COAL MINING
waters planning ecological water level.
SUBSIDENCE
Relatively stable wetland ecological water and
beautiful urban wetland ecological landscape were
4.1 Analysis on water balance
formed by using maintenance technology achieve-
Rainfall of 610 mm was far less than the evapo- ments of the wetland water.
ration of 1796 mm in Tangshan. It needed sup-
ply water and improve water fluidity in order to
4.3 Water circulation modes
ensure the stable functions of secondary wetlands,
ensure the amount of water stability and improve After the communication of the water system,
wetlands water purification capacity. Firstly, in according the wetlands ecological functions main-
the paper, the authors analyzed the western sub- tenance and the requirements of the flood protec-
urb sewage treatment factory, drainage, rainfall, tion, it took two water circulation modes: Water
water supply and atmospheric evaporation, water circulation modes in flood (Fig. 8). Aqueducts were

Table 2. Analysis results of regional water balance.

Western suburbs
sewage treatment Atmospheric
Project factory Drainage Rainfall evaporation Seepage Total

Water supply 2920 255.5 285.34 3460.84

Water loss 840.13 1571.83 2411.96

Unit: Ten thousand m3/a.

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 Table 3. Surface hydrology (wetland waters) observa- closed in order to mitigate the pressure of the wet-
tion results. lands flood protection in rainy season from July
to September in Douhe river. Excess waters of
Number of Water surface Depths Areas the 2nd wetland flowed into Qinglong river, then
wetland waters elevations (m) (m) (m2)
flowed into the 8th pit by the South Lake inlet of
2 11.727 3.497 291001 Tangxu Road, and last, discharged from the south-
6 9.416 1.500 1247768 ern outlet of the project area. Water circulation
7 3.905 1.817 209500 modes in non-flood (Fig. 9). Southern outlet gates
810 6.534 2.498 2667125 were closed in non-flood season in the winter and
9 3.302 2.096 262387 autumn. 810 wetland waters flowed into the 6th
wetland water by pumping station, then, flowed
into the 2nd wetland water, and last, flowed back
810 wetlands by Qinglong River. It formed a
water cycle process.

5 SUMMARY

Demonstration areas of the secondary wetlands

were 9.5 km2 constructed using the project results
in coal mining subsidence in Tangshan Mine.
Surface subsidence, ground water and ecology
barren conditions were changed by waters estab-
lishment, pollution treatment, vegetation land-
scape construction, urban services function areas
construction and other constructions. It formed
green lung improving the region climate and eco-
logical environment of Tangshan. Maximum and
minimum temperatures were lower and elevated
34 C than the normal according to monitoring
in Tangshan. Secondary wetland constructions
provided a green space and leisure and entertain-
ment in South Lake. Number of foreign tourists
Figure 8. Water circulation modes in flood. was more than 300 million every year. In addi-
tion, fundamental improvement of the ecological
environment enhances the image and investment
environment of the city in Tangshan. Social and
economic benefits were significant.

Figure 9. Water circulation modes in non-flood.

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

The accumulation of heavy metals by Sorghum plants cultivated

in biochar present

P. Soudek, I.M. Rodriguez Valseca, . Petrov & T. Vank

Laboratory of Plant Biotechnologies, Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Lysolaje, Czech Republic

J. Song
Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT: Heavy metal pollution of soil is usually related to human activities. Sites near mining
activities or heavy industry are often highly contaminated with toxic metals. Such polluted soil is hardly
usable for agricultural purposes because the pollution can be transferred to a food chain. To avoid the
spread of contaminants it is possible to use phytoremediation techniques which can immobilize or
decrease the pollution. For phytoremediation purposes, it is essential to select an appropriate plant spe-
cies which should be metal tolerant with high biomass production and known agronomic techniques. The
above mentioned conditions include woody plants, grasses, and crop plants. Now the primarily interest
concerning biomass crops is focused on energy crop (i.e. Miscanthus giganteus, Salix sp., Populus sp., Zea
mays, and Sorghum sp.). Sorghum bicolor is C4 grass widely used as a forage crop. It is the fifth most
important cereal in the world. The use of charcoal to improve soil properties is increasingly studied.
The work focused primarily on the potential benefit of carbon sequestration in soil, soil improvement,
increased crop yield, reduction of nutrient leaching, and removal of organic contaminants.

1 INTRODUCTION pyrolysis, the chemical properties of carbon fixed

Production and consumption of heavy metals
leads to an increase of their concentration in the
environment with significant negative environmen-
tal impacts. At the same time, there are increased
and stricter limits on their content in natural and
waste waters, surface waters, and groundwater, but
also in soils or sludges. Therefore, new procedures
applicable in waste management are needed in an
effort to secure the control of hazardous pollutants
in the environment. Phytoremediation is one of the
methods that is able to remove heavy metals from
the environment. This process uses plants and their
associated microorganisms to accumulate metals
in the plant body. The advantage of this method
is minimal interference with the environment. The
limits of its effectiveness are due to high concentra-
tions of contaminants and poor characteristics of
contaminated soils.
Biochar is able to help with phytoremediation
due to its ability to reduce mobility (Beesley et al.
2011) and phytotoxicity (Beesley et al. 2010) of
certain organic and inorganic pollutants in soil.
Biochar is a biomass converted under a suffi-
ciently high temperature (300600 C) and limited
air or without air (Lehmann and Joseph 2009). By
in biomass are changed so that it is more resistant
to microbial decomposition (Lehmann and Joseph
2009). Carbon bounded in biochar has a residence
time in the soil for many centuries to millennia
(Steinbeiss et al. 2009). Due to its long residence
time in soil, biochar in may present a means of
carbon capture and storage, which could lead to
a reduction of CO2 in the atmosphere to slow cli-
mate change (Lehmann and Joseph 2009). The
primary purpose of the application of biochar in
soils is to improve soil fertility and increase crop
yields (Lehmann and Joseph 2009, Steinbeiss
et al. 2009). Its not a new idea, because in some
ancient cultures (especially in the humid tropics)
biochar was deliberately added into the soil, were
it created black soil, which shall not be exhausted
within a few years after deforestation. Most of
such land is located in the Amazon, which is
called Terra Preta (black soil) and its age exceeds
a thousand years (Ennis 2012). Biochar due to
its porosity increases the soils ability to retain
moisture and positively influences its aeration.
Along with water, it holds nutrients or added soil
fertilizers (N, P, K), thus decreases their washout
into the water and eutrophication of these waters.
Biochar can form complexes with minerals, such

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 as those that create humus. Its huge internal sur-
face is a substrate for rich microbial colonization
(Steinbeiss et al. 2009) and can serve as refuge for
recolonisation by microorganisms. Biochar also
contains all the nutrients present in the original
biomass, and they are slowly released from it.
Unlike the ash which retains only alkali (K, Ca,
Mg), biochar also contains phosphorus and sul-
fur. The amount of nitrogen in the biochar is half
compared with the original biomass. Due to its
properties the biochar is also able to mitigate the
effects of pollutants through their sorption and
sequestration (Bornemann et al. 2007, Chen and
Yuan 2011), and may serve for the remediation of
contaminated soils and sediments (Beesley et al.
2010). But the amount of information that relates
to the application of biochar in order to improve
efficiency of phytoextraction and phytostabiliza-
tion is currently very limited.
The aim of this work was to expand knowledge
about protection mechanisms of sorghum plants
under Cd, Cu, and Pb stress in presence of biochar.
The metals accumulations in roots and shoots of
hydroponically grown Sorghum bicolor plants were
studied.
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 Plant material and chemicals
The seeds of S. bicolor L. (cv. Expres) (obtained
from SEED SERVICE s.r.o., Czech Republic) were
germinated in Perlite (Perlit Ltd., Czech Republic),
the seedlings were transfer to tested substrate and
after 8 weeks were used for the experiments. Heavy
metal ions (Cd2+, Cu2+, and Pb2+) were obtained
from salts Cd(NO3)2 4H2O, Cu(NO3)2 3H2O,
and Pb(NO3)2 (PENTA, Czech Republic). Tested
concentration of each metal was 0.1 mM. The bio-
char was used from ash tree (OFFICIO P.S. Ltd.,
Czech Republic). For the watering of plants during
the experiment, modified Hoaglands solution (pH
5.5) was used (Hoagland, 1920). The plants were
kept at 23 C and with relative humidity about 60%
and they were irradiated with a 16 h light (average
irradiation of 72 mol/m2 s1 at the plants surfaces,
with horizontal differences in irradiation less than
20%, sodium discharge lamps400 W, (Thorn
Radbay). Four-week old plants were used for the
experiments.
2.2 Experimental design
Sorghum seedlings cv. Express were cultivated
(each plant per one pot) in Perlite, mixture Perlite/
sand (19:2, v/v), mixture Perlite/biochar (9:1, v/v)
or mixture Perlite/biochar (19:1, v/v), respectively.
Modified Hoaglands medium was supplemented
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 184
with heavy metals. Samples were harvested after
14d of cultivation. The roots of plants were
washed subsequently with double distilled water,
0.1 M EDTA solution, and double-distilled water
again. Before storage, the roots were analyzed by
scanner. All leaf and root samples were frozen in
liquid nitrogen and stored at 80 C. The frozen
samples were used for photosynthetic pigment
analysis or they were lyophilized (FreeZone 2.5,
Labconco, USA). Lyophilized plant samples were
used for heavy metal determination. Four replica-
tions were done for each treatment and each metal
concentration.
2.3 Heavy metal determination
Approximately 0.25 g of dry plant sample was pre-
digested in 5 mL of mixture HNO3/HClO4 in ratio
7:1 (v/v) overnight at lab temperature. Then 3 mL
of acid mixture were added to clean the walls of
tube and the contents of the closed Teflon vessel
digested in gradient to 100% power after 15 min.
and at 100% power for further 25 min. Digestion
was accomplished in a Multiwave reaction system
(Multiwave PRO, Anthon Paar GmbH, Austria).
The cooling was made another 20 min. The sam-
ples were filled up to 10 mL volume and analyzed
by an AAS spectrophotometer (SenAA, GBS,
Australia).
2.4 Chlorophyll measurement
Leaf samples (1020 mg FW) were extracted
with 10 mL methanol overnight. The absorbance
of methanolic extract was evaluated using 470,
652.4, and 665.2 nm and it was monitored in a
Tecan Infinite 200 PRO microplate reader (Tecan,
Switzerland). The fluorescence was measured every
2 min for 4 h. All samples were analyzed in tripli-
cate. Chlorophyll and carotenoid contents were
calculated according to Lichtenhaler (1987).
2.5 Roots measurement
Roots of each plant were washed, then scanned on
a EPSON PERFECTION V700 PHOTO scanner.
The root images were processed by software Win-
RHIZO (Regent Instruments, Inc., Canada).
2.6 Statistics
The differences among treatments were tested by
one-way ANOVA with Tukey HSD multiple com-
parison test. Significance level P = 0.05 was used
for both analyses. Each treatment was represented
by four biological replicates. STATISTICA 8
(StatSoft, Tulsa, OK, USA) software was used for
all the computations.
184
8/27/2014 5:59:17 PM
 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cadmium, copper, and lead accumulation in the
plants negatively correlated with biochar concen-
tration in Perlite substrate (Figs. 13). Although
the addition of sand as the inert material into
Figure 1. Cadmium concentrations [g/g DW] in root
and shoot of S. bicolor after 14 days of growth in dif-
ferent substrates and watered by hydroponic solution
supplemented by cadmium; standard deviation is repre-
sented as S.D. (n = 4).
Figure 2. Copper concentrations [g/g DW] in root
and shoot of S. bicolor after 14 days of growth in differ-
ent substrates and watered by hydroponic solution sup-
plemented by copper; standard deviation is represented
as S.D. (n = 4).
Figure 3. Lead concentrations [g/g DW] in root and
shoot of S. bicolor after 14 days of growth in different sub-
strates and watered by hydroponic solution supplemented
by lead; standard deviation is represented as S.D. (n = 4).
185
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 185
Perlite substrate also had a significant effect on the
uptake of individual heavy metals. In the case of
cadmium, in comparison with the control plants,
an increase of the accumulation in the roots was
detected (Fig. 1). With copper accumulation, was
there no significant effect (Fig. 2). In case of lead
there was a significant reduction of metal uptake
in the roots (Fig. 3). The reason why the sand addi-
tion also reduce lead uptake is still unknown. All
tested metals accumulated primarily in the roots.
The restriction of metal absorption and translo-
cation to the shoots may be related to the avoid-
ance mechanism in the roots. Lead accumulation
is also affected due to its low solubility in nutrient
solution.
Photosynthetic pigments in the leaves were
affected by toxic metals. Their toxicity also caused
the yellowing of the leaves and the development
of necrotic spots. The chlorophyll and carotenoid
contents were found to be affected by free radi-
cal production in the presence of toxic metals
(Baccouch et al., 1998; Richards et al., 1998). The
decrease in Chl a and total chlorophyll content at
cadmium and lead treatment indicated a higher
oxidative stress (Fig. 4). Chl b content was on a
constant level. Subsequent chlorosis progression
was described by Ebbs and Uchil (2008). These
observations suggested a specific pattern of Chl
loss during metal-induced chlorosis, representing
either a direct effect of metals on the two Chl pools
or an indirect effect via oxidative stress.
The exposure of sorghum to heavy metals also
resulted in a reduction of the growth of the root
system. The differences between the control and
cadmium or lead treated plants were significant
(Fig. 5). Root growth decreased to 50.6 and 75.6%
of control in case of cadmium and lead (substrate
Perlite/sand), respectively. Copper did not affect the
roots significantly. In the case of cadmium addi-
tion, increase of the root length with increasing
Figure 4. Effects of heavy metal treatment (Cd, Cu,
and Pb) on the concentrations of chlorophyll a, b and
a + b (total) and carotenoids (Car) of S. bicolor of after
14 days of growth in different substrates (n = 4).
8/27/2014 5:59:17 PM

Figure 5. Roots length [cm] of S. bicolor after 14 days
of growth in different substrates treated by hydroponic
solution supplemented with cadmium, copper or lead;
standard deviation is represented as S.D. (n = 4).
proportion of biochar in Perlite (root length up
to 82.4% of control) was detected. In the case of
copper, an increase in root length with increasing
proportion of biochar in Perlite was also found,
but the highest root length (83.4% of control at
10% biochar) was significantly lower comparing
with plants cultivated in pure Perlite. The lower
proportion of biochar (5%) in Perlite significantly
induced the growth of roots in comparison with
pure Perlite in the case of treatment with lead. On
the other hand, a higher proportion of biochar in
Perlite reduced root growth.
Our findings are in accordance with published
data. The influence of toxic metals (Cd, Cu, and
Zn) was described for different plant species (Zea
mays, Helianthus annuus, Brassica pekinensis,
Brassica chinensis, Sorghum bicolor). Decrease
in root length was found to be inversely propor-
tional to the concentration of toxic metal in the
medium (Ouzounidou et al., 1995; Lin et al., 2003;
Doncheva, 1998; Liu et al., 2007; Soudek et al.,
2014). Effect of biochar addition was also studied.
Depending on the source of biochar, both positive
and negative, influence on the length of the roots
was observed (Zheng et al., 2013; Prendergast-
Miller et al., 2014).
4 CONCLUSIONS
Tested metals (Cd, Cu, and Pb) were accumulated
primarily in the roots of sorghum plants. In case
of biochar amendment, their transfer to the roots
decreased with biochar concentration. Application
of mixture of Perlite and sand cause a serious reduc-
tion of lead uptake to the roots and slightly increase
the cadmium uptake to the roots. The presence of
cadmium and lead resulted in a decrease of Chl a
and root length. These results indicated a specific
pattern of Chl loss during metal-induced chlorosis.
186
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 186
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Czech Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sports Project COST
Action TD1107 (Project No. LD 13029).
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Effects of understory cover on tree recruitment in gold mining

rehabilitation in monsoonal woodlands in Northern Territory Australia

E.W. Saragih, S.M. Bellairs & P.A.S. Wurm

Charles Darwin University, Australia

ABSTRACT: Gold mining is one of the principal industries in the Northern Territory of Australia.
Most of the mining occurs in monsoonal savanna woodland dominated by Eucalyptus and Acacia spe-
cies with a grass understory. After mining, rehabilitation includes broadcasting a seed mix of Eucalyptus,
Acacia and other tree species. Subsequent to initial establishment, continuing recruitment is important to
ensure the rehabilitated vegetation community is sustainable. This study assessed relationships between
tree recruitment and environmental parameters in gold mine rehabilitation areas. Tree density, sapling
density, tree seedling density, grass biomass and soil cover were measured across 14 rehabilitation sites
and 7 analogue sites. In natural woodland average sapling and seedling densities were two times greater
than in mine rehabilitation areas. In general ground cover, tree density and the presence of cattle grazing
are weakly correlated to tree recruitment. It suggested that after more than 10 years of rehabilitation,
tree recruitment in mine rehabilitation is common but is yet to develop to recruitment levels observed in
mature woodland. Tree recruitment monitoring is important to ensure vegetation sustainability in mine
rehabilitation and is a useful tool to guide land management.

1 INTRODUCTION Cattle grazing is considered suitable as an end

Gold mining in the Northern Territory of Australia
began in 1873 and is still one of principal indus-
tries (Carment, 2003). Mining is the most signifi-
cant contributor to the economy, accounting for
$2.5 billion in revenue and employing 4600 people
in Northern Territory (The Department of Mines
and Energy, 2013). Most mines in the Northern
Territory are situated in savanna woodland domi-
nated by Eucalyptus and Acacia trees with a grass
understory. This savanna woodland was typically
grazed by cattle grazing prior to mining (Holmes,
2002, Fensham & Skull, 1999).
All areas significantly disturbed by mining
activities are required to be rehabilitated and usu-
ally re-vegetation of the savanna vegetation is
required. Re-vegetation is important for ecosys-
tem restoration and protection as well as a cost-
effective and environmentally sustainable method
to stabilize the landscape (Yan et al., 2013) and to
allow the desired end land use. Goals for the veg-
etated post-mining landscape include development
of a functional sustainable ecosystem, protection
against erosion, maintenance of water quality,
and minimization of detrimental off-site effects
(Gillespie & Mulligan, 2003). The end land use
after mining may include the restoration of native
vegetation or to re-establish land use to pastoral,
agricultural, forestry or traditional indigenous uses
(Anonymous, 1998).
land use after mining in the Northern Territory
for various reasons. First, the mined lands were
typically grazed by cattle prior to mining. Second,
most of the mining areas are located adjacent to
pastoral sites thus it could be a challenge to pre-
vent cattle grazing the mine rehabilitation after
closure of the mine. Third, the pastoral industry
is still one of the principal industries in this region.
For the revegetated mine rehabilitation areas to
supported grazing would be reasonable. In other
regions of tropical Australia such as Queensland,
the government and community require the local
mining industry to rehabilitate mined lands such
that grazing is supported as a post-mining land use
(Grigg et al., 2000).
Assessing vegetation establishment in mine
rehabilitation is important. It is one of early sign
of rehabilitation success or failure. Recruitment
of saplings subsequent to initial sowing of the
rehabilitation areas is also an indicator to whether
the rehabilitating systems show evidence of suc-
cessional change (Gould, 2012). Vegetation
parameters are one set of indicators for mine
rehabilitation monitoring and assessment of reha-
bilitation success (Ludwig et al., 2003). Studies
on vegetation parameters that have been carried
out in mine rehabilitation areas in Australia to
justify rehabilitation success include: emergence
(Gillespie & Mulligan, 2003, Norman et al., 2006),
native and exotic grass establishment (Huxtable

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 et al., 2005) and comparison of species compos- 2 METHODS
tion, cover, density and diversity in mine rehabili-
tation with natural landscape (Herath et al., 2009, 2.1 Study area description
Gould, 2012). Most of studies have been assessed
The study area consists of six mine sites and is
vegetation during the initial establishment of
situated from 90 km to 340 km south of Darwin
rehabilitation. Few studies have assessed subse-
towards Katherine, Northern Territory, Australia.
quent tree recruitment. Also most studies have
The climate of the region is tropical monsoonal
been in the Mediterranean climatic or other tem-
with two distinct seasons: the dry and wet seasons.
perate areas of Australia, and few had been done
The average rainfall decreases with distance from
in the monsoonal tropics.
the coast, from 1660 mm at Darwin to 875 mm at
Assessing tree recruitment is important to show
Katherine. Darwin experiences mean temperature
vegetation sustainability in mine rehabilitation and
minimum of 1931C in dry season and maximum
is the main focus of this study. Tree recruitment
of 2533C in wet season. Katharine has mean
that takes place after initial tree establish menton
temperature minimum of 527C in dry season
the rehabilitation is important to replace trees that
and maximum of 2437C in wet season (Bureau
are killed and also allows late successional species to
of Meteorology, 2014). The landscape surrounding
establish. Tree recruitment is affected by seed avail-
the mine site is dominated by Eucalyptus woodland
ability and seed production, disturbance (Grant
with grass understory.
and Loneragan, 1999, Carter and Fredericksen,
The rehabilitation sites are waste rock dumps
2007, Yates et al., 1994) and availability of micro-
that have been rehabilitated for 1215 years.
site which suit the seedlings (Dupuy & Chazdon,
Analogue sites were selected in woodland areas
2008).
surrounding the mined site and they received little
Tree seedling and sapling establishment is
or no disturbance due to mining activity. The ana-
relatively easy to monitor. If tree recruitment is
logue sites were representative of the vegetation
occurring in study sites then it indicates that seed
type surrounding the mine and also of the range of
production and/or seed dispersal is occurring.
natural disturbance within this region. Some of the
Microsite conditions need to be appropriate for tree
analogue sites, and the mined rehabilitation sites,
recruitment as the vegetation community develops
are subjected to low levels of grazing by cattle and
structurally after initial establishment. Microsite
others were not grazed.
factors such as understory vegetation, litter, com-
At each rehabilitated and analogue site three
paction, soil cover, and concrete matric had been
transects were established within the site, within
identified to have an impact on tree recruitment
a distance of 300 m. All transects were orientated
(Dupuy & Chazdon, 2008, Howlett & Davidson,
down slope. Different sites were at least 500 m
2003, Chen et al., 2013). In addition disturbance
apart. Mine rehabilitation areas were sown with
such as grazing may also contribute on tree recruit-
a mix of Australian native tree, exotic and native
ment through affecting microsites and dispersal
grass seeds. Details of the study sites including
as identified in some studies in forests (Carter &
site code, mine name, whether sites were sloping
Fredericksen, 2007, Howlett & Davidson, 2003)
or flat, waste rock type, grazing status and the age
and grasslands (Griscom et al., 2005). Those micro-
of rehabilitation since initial sowing are presented
site factors were investigated in this study to assess
in Table 1.
their impact on tree recruitment. No studies have
focused on tree sapling and seedling establishment
2.2 Sapling and seedling density and composition
in old rehabilitation areas in gold mine rehabilita-
tion in relation to grazing. Sapling and seedling categories were based on plant
This study focused on assessing tree recruitment height. Saplings were trees that had heights rang-
on gold mine rehabilitation and its relationship with ing from 0.5 to 2 m. Seedlings were tree species that
environmental parameters and disturbance. The had heights ranged from 0 to 0.5 m. Height classes
purpose of this study was to evaluate tree recruit- of vegetation strata are based on National Veg-
ment as an indicator of the success of gold mine etation Information System (NVIS) of Australia
rehabilitation in Northern Territory, Australia. (Department of Sustainability Environment Water
The following objectives were assessed. (1) Is tree Population and Communities of Australia, 2011).
recruitment in mine rehabilitation similar to that of Sapling and seedling assessments were carried out
natural woodlands? (2) Domicrosite factors affect between JulyAugust 2013. Transects were used to
tree recruitment and do these differ between the assess the density and composition of saplings and
mine rehabilitation and analogue areas? (3) Does seedlings. Each transect was 30 m by 2 m width.
cattle grazing affect tree recruitment? (4) What is All saplings and seedlings were counted and
the implication of the study for mine rehabilitation were allocated to one of three categories: Acacia,
management and ecology? Eucalyptus/Corymbia or other species.

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 Table 1. Study site information the name of the mine, categories (low, medium and high grass cover) to
a description of whether the site was flat or sloping, the estimate dry yield grass biomass. Three quadrats
type of waste rock, whether it was grazed and the number per transect had the grass clipped off at ground
of years since the rehabilitation was sown. level forgrass biomass estimation. The grass bio-
Age of
mass was oven dried at 65 C for 48 hours and
rehabilitation weighted. Dry weight biomass per quadrat calcu-
Sites Mine Description (years) lated was based on dry weight per category rank
per quadrant. Average biomass per quadrant was
W1 Toms Gully Slope, oxide, 15 then calculated for each site based on all the quali-
ungrazed tatively assessed quadrats.
W2 Toms Gully Slope, sulfhide, 15
ungrazed
W3 Toms Gully Flat, sulfhide, 15 2.4 Soil cover and grazing assessment
ungrazed Litter cover were visually estimated inten quad-
W4 Woolwonga Slope, part of 13
rants that were established randomly along the
cattle station
transect, five quadrants on each side. Litter depth
W5 Woolwonga Flat, part of 13
cattle station was measured at five points along transect by using
W6 Brocks Creek Slope, ungrazed 13 metal ruler. Grazing may impact on soil compac-
W7 Brocks Creek Flat, ungrazed 13 tion and so soil compaction was measured at five
W8 Brocks Creek Slope, cattle 13 points per transect using a Batphone Soil hydraulic
grazing sign Penetrometer (SPMT-315).
is present
W9 Brocks Creek Flat, cattle grazing 13
2.5 Statistical analyses
sign is present
W10 Union Reefs Slope, ungrazed 12 Data analyses were conducted using SPSS 22
W11 Union Reefs Flat, ungrazed 12 (SPSS software, 2014). Data was obtained from
W12 Moline Slope, grazed 14 this study with disproportionate representation
W13 Maud Creek Flat, part of 13 of treatments as a result varying availability of
cattle station grazed and ungrazed study sites and this created
W14 Maud Creek Slope, part of 13 an unbalanced design. The mine rehabilitation
cattle station sites consisted of 14 sites across six mines and
A1 Toms Gully Slope, ungrazed there were seven analogue sites. Nine sites were
A2 Toms Gully Slope, part of
ungrazed and twelve were grazed. General Linear
cattle station
area Model was performed to determine differences
A3 Woolwonga Flat, part of (P < 0.05) between mine rehabilitation and natural
cattle station woodlandfor sapling and seedling density between.
area In the model the factors: Landform (waste rock
A4 Brocks Creek Flat, cattle grazing dump or analogue site), Mine (minesite), and Site
sign is present (Site was nested within Mine) were fixed factors
A5 Union Reefs Flat, ungrazed and Grazing was arandom factor. The same test
A6 Moline Slope, heavy also carried out using the variables tree density,
grazed soil cover and grazing impact whether differences
A7 Maud Creek Flat, grazed, were significant between analogue and waste rock
part of cattle dump sites. Spearman rank correlation test was
station applied to determine whether sapling or seedling
A: analogue site; W: waste rock dump.
densities were significantly correlated with soil or
grass parameters or with the density of established
trees.
2.3 Vegetation
3 RESULTS
Grass cover and biomass was assessed inten quad-
rants that were established randomly along the
3.1 Sapling density across analogue site
30 m transects, five quadrants on each side. Grass
and waste rock dump sites
cover was visually estimated inside 1 1 m quad-
rats and ranked to three categories: low, medium Sapling densities varied across mine rehabilitation
and high based on visual estimation of grass sites but were similar across the natural woodland
biomass. Grass biomass was collected by clipping sites except for site A1 (Fig. 1). Average sapling
up to three quadrats per site from each of the three density per site ranged from 0 to 3,889 saplings ha1

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 Figure 1. All and species groups sapling density across waste rock dumps and analogue sites of Crocodile Gold
Australian Operation.
A = Analogue site. W = Waste rock dump.
in mine rehabilitation sites and generally from 555
to 2,111 sapling ha1 in natural woodland plus one
natural woodland site with 12,278 sapling ha1. If
site A1 was excluded, mean sapling density across
the rehabilitation sites was 1881 355 sapling
ha1 and natural woodland had a mean of 1417
270 sapling ha1. Five of the fourteen rehabilitation
sites had sapling densities exceeding 2500 saplings
ha1, whereas only the A1 natural woodland site
exceeded 2500 saplings ha1. Sapling density in site
A1 was much greater compared to other natural
woodland sites due to a high proportion of one
tree species. GLM showed differences in sapling
density between landforms, mines or grazing were
not significant (P > 0.05). Thus variation in sap-
ling density across mine rehabilitation and natural
woodland was not a result of main effects of land-
form, mines or grazing impacts.
Sapling density analyzed by species groups
varied between mine rehabilitation and natural
woodland. Acacia sapling densities ranged from
0 to 4,333 saplings ha1 in mine rehabilitation
sites and from 0 to 556 saplings ha1 in natural
woodland sites. Eucalyptus/Corymbia sapling
densities ranged from 0 to 6,333 saplings ha1
in mine rehabilitation and 111 to 1,111 saplings
ha1 in natural woodland. The sapling density
of other species ranged from 0 to 2,167 saplings
ha1 in rehabilitation and from 333 to 11,722 sap-
lings ha1 in woodland sites. Mean sapling den-
sity of Acacia, Eucalyptus/Corymbia and other
species across the mine rehabilitation sites was
722 151 saplings ha1, 941 220 saplings ha1
and 218 64 saplings ha1 and in natural woodland
192
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 192
was 143 46 saplings ha1, 450 83 saplings ha1
and 2365 665 saplings ha1.
Acaciat ended to be less abundantin natural
woodland than in mine rehabilitation sites. The
same trend also occurred for the Eucalyptus/
Corymbia species group. However, other species
had a higher density of saplings in natural wood-
land sites compared to mine rehabilitation sites.
The differences in Acacia and other species sapling
density between natural woodland and mine reha-
bilitation sites were significant (GLM P < 0.05).
In contrast Eucalyptus/Corymbia sapling densities
were not significantly different between natural
woodland and mine rehabilitation (P > 0.05).
3.2 Seedling densities across mine rehabilitation
and natural woodland
Total seedling densities varied across mine rehabili-
tation and natural woodland. Total seedling density
per site ranged from 0 to 10,667 seedlings ha1 in
mine rehabilitation and from 1,778 to 7,833 seed-
lings ha1 in natural woodland. Averaged across the
sites, seedling density in natural woodland sites was
5,119 851 seedlings ha1 and the average formine
rehabilitation sites was 2,647 737 seedlings ha1.
However, some of mine rehabilitation sites had
similar or greater seedling densities than the natu-
ral woodland sites and the highest of all sites was
10,667 at rehabilitation site W9. The difference in
seedling density between mine rehabilitation and
analogue sites was significant (GLM P < 0.05).
Seedling density for the species groups var-
ied considerably between sites. Acacia seedling
8/27/2014 5:59:22 PM
 density ranged from 0 to 10,333 seedlings ha1 in
mine rehabilitation and 0 to 722 seedlings ha1 in
natural woodland. Eucalyptus/Corymbia seedling
density ranged from 0 to 1,889 seedlings ha1 in
mine rehabilitation and from 444 to 889 seedlings
ha1 in natural woodland. The density of other spe-
cies ranged from 0 to 2,667 seedlings ha1 in mine
rehabilitation and from 722 to 6,222 seedlings
ha1 in natural woodland. Mean seedling density
of Acacia, Eucalyptus/Corymbia and other spe-
cies across the mine rehabilitation sites was 1643
447 seedlings ha1, 528 113 seedlings ha1, and
1190 164 seedlings ha1and in natural woodland
was 476 191 seedlings ha1 and 183 49 seed-
lings ha1, ha1 and 3460 625 seedlings ha1.
Acacia seedlings were present at 12 of the 14 mine
rehabilitation but were absent at most of natural
woodland sites (Fig. 2). As a result, Acacia seed-
ling densities were much greater in mine rehabili-
tation than natural woodland (GLM P < 0.05).
Eucalyptus/Corymbia seedlings were present across
mine rehabilitation and natural woodland sites,
with 528 131 seedlings ha1 in rehabilitation sites
and significantly higher 1190 339 seedlings ha1
in natural woodland sites (GLM P < 0.05). The
seedling density of other species was much greater
across natural woodland sites than mine rehabilita-
tion sites (GLM P < 0.05).
3.3 Rainfall impact on sapling and seedling
Rainfall may contribute to the variation in sapling
and seedling density in mine rehabilitation and
natural woodland. The Toms Gully mine is close
to Darwin which has an average annual rainfall
of 1737 mm while other mines are near Kathrine
with rainfall 982 mm (Bureau of Meteorology,
Figure 2. All and species groups seedling density across waste rock dumps and analogue sites of Crocodile Gold
Australian Operation.
A = Analogue site. W = Waste rock dump.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 193
2014). The average annual rainfall decreases from
north to south. The sapling density had the same
trend decreasing to the south but it fluctuated con-
siderably across mine rehabilitation and natural
woodland sites (Fig. 3). Rainfall had a positive sig-
nificant correlation with both sapling and seedling
density (Spearman rank test P < 0.05). There was
amoderate correlation between sapling density and
rainfall r2 = 0.49 and a weaker correlation between
seedling r2 = 0.28.
3.4 Micro site conditions
Grass cover and biomass were similar in mine
rehabilitation and natural woodland. Grass cover
ranged from 0.2 to 98% in mine rehabilitation and
from 0.2 to 66% in natural woodland. Average grass
cover in mine rehabilitation was 22 4% and natu-
ral woodland was 18 3%. Grass biomass ranged
from 0 to 505 g m2 in mine rehabilitation and
from 7 to 1703 g m2 in natural woodland. Average
grass biomass in mine rehabilitation and natural
woodland was 154 19 g m2 and 195 55 g m2
respectively. Grass cover and biomass were not sig-
nificant different between mine rehabilitation and
natural woodland (GLM P > 0.05).
Litter cover showed greater variation in mine
rehabilitation although litter thickness was similar.
Litter cover ranged from 0 to 91% in mine rehabilita-
tion and from 5 to 67% in natural woodland. Average
litter cover in mine rehabilitation was 23 4% and
in natural woodland was 35 2%. Litter thickness
ranged from 0.04.6 cm in mine rehabilitation and
0.23.2 cm in natural woodland. Average litter
thickness was 1.4 0.2 cm in mine rehabilitation and
1.0 0.1 cm in natural woodland. Litter cover and
thickness was more variable in mine rehabilitation
193
8/27/2014 5:59:23 PM
 Figure 3. Average annual rainfall, sapling and seedling density across analogue woodland (A1A7) study sites
from north to the south direction and separately for waste rock dump study sites from north to the south direction
(W1W14).

than analogue sites. The litter cover was significant Table 2. Spearman rank correlation between soil cover
different in both landform (P < 0.05). Litter cover in ground vegetation, and grazing with sapling in mine
natural woodland is higher than mine rehabilitation. rehabilitation and natural woodland.
However, there was no significant difference in litter
Waste rock dump Analogue site
thickness in mine rehabilitation and natural wood-
land (P > 0.05). r p N r p N
Soil compaction was similar in mine rehabilita-
tion and natural woodland. It ranged from 200 Soil cover
517 psi in mine rehabilitation and 254 to 366 psi Litter cover (%) 0.506 0.001 42 0.12 0.602 21
in natural woodland. Average soil compaction in Litter thickness 0.255 0.103 42 0.01 0.98 21
mine rehabilitation was 313 11 psi and natural (cm)
woodland was 299 5 psi, the difference was not Ground vegetation
significant (GLM P > 0.05). Grass cover (%) 0.115 0.469 42 0.07 0.761 21
Grass biomass 0.016 0.922 42 0.343 0.128 21
(g m2)
3.5 Sapling density correlation with ground Cattle grazing
vegetation, litter and grazing in mine Compaction (psi) 0.08 0.615 42 0.11 0.63 21
rehabilitation and natural woodland
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
There was a correlation between grass cover and
biomass with sapling density in mine rehabilitation
and natural woodland. Spearman rank correlation
with sapling density (P < 0.01) in mine rehabilitation.
(Table 3) showed grass cover had a weak negative
There was no significant correlation between lit-
correlation with sapling density in mine rehabilita-
ter cover and sapling density in natural woodland
tion (r = 0.115) and natural woodland (r = 0.07).
(P > 0.05). Thus litter cover did not affect sapling
Grass biomass had a negative correlation with
recruitment in natural woodland but it affected sap-
sapling density in mine rehabilitation (r = 0.016)
ling recruitment in mine rehabilitation sites.
but a positive correlation in natural woodland
Compaction was weakly negatively correlated
(r = 0.343). However the correlation of grass cover
with sapling density in natural woodland and reha-
and biomass with sapling density were not signifi-
bilitation sites. The correlation was not significant.
cant for either landforms. It suggested that grass
biomass and cover were not affect sapling density
3.6 Seedling density correlation with ground
in mine rehabilitation and natural woodland.
vegetation, litter cover and grazing
Sapling density was correlated with litter cover and
in analogue sites
thickness. Litter thickness and cover had a positive
correlation with sapling density in mine rehabilita- Litter cover and thickness were correlated with
tion (r = 0.506 and 0.255) but it had a negative cor- seedling density in mine rehabilitation and natural
relation in natural woodland (r = 0.121 and 0.006). woodland. Litter cover had a positive correlation
Litter cover was significantly positively correlated with seedling density in mine rehabilitation but it

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 Table 3. Spearman rank correlation between ground-
vegetation, soil cover and grazing with seeding density in
waste rock dump sites and analogues sites.
Waste rock dump Analogue site
r p N r P N
Soil cover
Litter cover (%) 0.179 0.258 42 0.124 0.591 21
Litter thickness 0.001 0.996 42 0.115 0.621 21
(cm)
Ground vegetation
Grass cover (%) 0.236 0.132 42 0.104 0.653 21
Grass biomass 0.143 0.365 42 0.252 0.27 21
(g/m2)
Cattle grazing
Compaction 0.275 0.228 42 0.275 0.228 21
(psi)
had a negative correlation in natural woodland.
Litter thickness had a positive correlation in the
both landforms. However, the correlation of litter
cover and thickness with seedling density was weak
and not significant in mine rehabilitation (N = 42,
r = 0.179, P = 0.258) as well as in natural woodland
(N = 42, r = 0.001, P = 0.996). It suggested that lit-
ter thickness and litter cover did not have effect on
sapling density in the both landforms.
Grass cover and grass biomass were weakly cor-
related with seedling density. Grass cover has a
weak positive correlation in mine rehabilitation and
natural woodland. It also indicated grass cover had
more effect on seedling density in mine rehabilita-
tion than on natural woodland. Grass biomass had
a weak correlation in the both landforms. However,
negative correlation was existed in mine rehabilita-
tion and positive correlation in natural woodland
(Table 3). The results suggested that neither grass
cover, nor grass biomass strongly affected seedling
recruitment in mine rehabilitation or on natural
woodland.
Soil compaction as a result of grazing may have
a correlation with seedling recruitment. A weak
negative correlation was found in mine rehabilita-
tion and natural woodland between soil compac-
tion and seedling density. However, the correlation
was not significant (P > 0.05). It indicated level
of grazing was not hinders for tree recruitment in
both landforms.
4 DISCUSSION
4.1 Tree recruitment status and its composition
Tree recruitment was occurring both in the natu-
ral woodland and in the rehabilitation areas but
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 195
there were some differences. Levels of sapling
recruitment were similar but levels of tree seedling
emergence in mine rehabilitation were lower than
natural woodland. Total tree recruitment density
per hectare in natural woodland was two times
higher compared to mine rehabilitation. This sug-
gests that the vegetation on mine rehabilitation is
still developing to maturity. As the rehabilitation
matures then it is likely that more seeds would be
produced and establish. However a lower propor-
tion of seedlings developed to saplings in natural
woodland perhaps due to competition with estab-
lished vegetation. In contrast a greater proportion
of seedlings survived to become saplings in mine
rehabilitation. Perhaps this is due to less competi-
tion in rehabilitation sites or it could be affected
by differences in species composition. Other inves-
tigations would be needed to explain these differ-
ences in seedling survival.
The species composition of the tree seedlings
and saplings was a clear difference between reha-
bilitation and natural woodland sites. Acacia
species density was seven times higher in mine
rehabilitation than natural woodland. In contrast
density other species was eight time higher in natu-
ral woodland than mine rehabilitation. Eucalyptus/
Corymbia density was similar in both sites. Acacia,
Corymbia and Eucalyptus were the most abundant
genera used in mining rehabilitation seed mixes
(Langkamp, 1987). The high proportion of Acacia
species might due to its ability to survive and adapt
to a wide range of soil types and annual rainfall,
and tolerance to droughts, water logging, low
nutrient soils and highly saline and alkaline soils
(Al-Mefarrej, 2006).
The tree composition in mine rehabilitation was
not yet converging towards the composition of ana-
logue sites. The composition of mine rehabilitation
may never become similar to natural woodland if
the Acacia species recruitment remains dominant
in the rehabilitation areas. Management that ben-
efits Eucalyptus/Corymbia and particularly genera
other species should be investigated. This could
include adjusting the composition of the seed mix
during initial rehabilitation.
4.2 Rainfall impact on tree recruitment in mine
rehabilitation and natural woodlands
Rainfall affects tree recruitment but the impact
was not really significant compared to the con-
siderable variation across the sites. Tree recruit-
ment decreased from north to south in line with
decreasing rainfall. Rainfall in a particular year
and its variation from year to year likely contrib-
utes to variation in tree recruitment and may be
more important than average annual rainfall. The
impact of rainfall in limiting tree recruitment
195
8/27/2014 5:59:24 PM
 can be substantial as shown for Acacia mellifera
recruitment in an arid Namibiansavanna (Joubert
et al. 2013).
4.3 Tree recruitment and micro site condition
relationships
It was expected that conditions such as grass cover
would substantially affect tree recruitment. How-
ever microsite condition parameters had a minimal
effect on tree recruitment in mine rehabilitation.
None of them had a significant correlation with
tree recruitment in natural woodland. Probably
weak to moderate positive and negative correla-
tion do exist between microsite conditions and tree
recruitment in natural woodland sites. However
these weak effects are likely masked by interactions
between the many variable factors.
Litter cover was significantly correlated to sap-
ling density and this could be due to litter reducing
soil water loss. Litter can negatively affect seedling
emergence but subsequent to emergence it can
benefit growth and survival due to greater water
availability. Whether it is beneficial or detrimental
overall can depend on seed size and the depth of
the litter. Dupuy & Chazdon (2008) found that lit-
ter addition reduced tree seedling recruitment for
species with small seeds. That study also found that
litter increased seedling recruitment in intact can-
opy treatment of tree species with large seeds.
Grass cover was negatively correlated with tree
sapling recruitment but it was positively corre-
lated with tree seedling recruitment in waste rock
dump and natural woodland. With increased grass
cover, saplings would likely suffer greater com-
petition and it is not surprising that their density
decreased. The competition could be for nutrient
resources, water and light. However, tree seedling
recruitment had positive correlation with grass
cover in both landforms. Perhaps some grass
cover benefits tree seedling recruitment. Ground
vegetation can reduce water flow and trap seeds
and other resources (Ludwig et al. 2004, Bailey et
al. 2012) that may increase tree seedling recruit-
ment. However, grass cover and biomass effects
were slight and had relatively little effect on tree
recruitment overall in this study. Schinagl et al.
(2014) also found that grass cover did not impact
on Eucalyptus strzeleckii (Myrtaceae) recruitment
in remnant patches of native vegetation in the
Latrobe Valley and South Gippsland, Victoria. In
the rehabilitation and native woodland sites in the
present study it appears tree density and ground
conditions are such that grass cover is being con-
strained so as to have a minimal effect on tree seed-
ling establishment.
Another question being addressed in this
study was whether cattle were affecting seedling
196
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 196
establishment. One mechanism could be through
cattle impacts on soil compaction. However we
found no impact of grazing on soil compaction.
We also found that compaction varied only slightly
and there was no significant correlation with tree
recruitment on mine rehabilitation and natural
woodland. Cattle grazing did not affect tree recruit-
ment in mine rehabilitation and natural woodland
through any impact on soil compaction. Moxham &
Dorrough (2008) found soil disturbance as a result
of livestock grazing did not limit Eucalyptus
strzeleckiie stablishment in commercial livestock
production farms in South Gippsland, Victoria.
However they found that cattle grazing can affect
understory vegetation with browsing and grazing
that reduced competition and this may affect Euca-
lyptus strzeleckii regeneration. Generally livestock
would reduce tree establishment due to grazing
and trampling. However Khishigjargal et al. (2013)
found livestock increased larch tree (Larixsibirica)
seedling density as a result of reduction in competi-
tion and due to the larch being unpalatable to live-
stock grazingin Mongolian forest-steppe.
4.4 Implication of study on mine rehabilitation
management and ecology
Tree recruitment was occurring on all except one of
the mine rehabilitation areas so trees are continuing
to establish. Thus development of the vegetation
and soil characteristics on the mine rehabilitation
is maintaining favorable microtopographical condi-
tions to favour tree seedling establishment, though
it was not yet to natural woodland. Monitoring
tree recruitment in mine rehabilitation is impor-
tant to assess ecosystem stability and dynamics.
For trees to be sustainable in mine rehabilitation,
recruitment needs to replace dying individuals
and recruitment is substantial at almost all of the
rehabilitation sites. Dispersal of seeds of new spe-
cies may enrich species biodiversity. The true value
of rehabilitation is its usefulness to other natural
community components and the ability of ecologi-
cally rehabilitated areas to recruit and sustain new
life forms is a true measure of their contribution
to biodiversity conservation (Tucker & Murphy,
1997). As microsite conditions had a weak impact
on tree recruitment, further study on other fac-
tors affecting tree emergence is needed. This could
include assessment of soil chemical, nutrient, bio-
logical and physical properties as well as other fac-
tors such as seed and seedling predation.
5 CONCLUSION
Tree recruitment on mine rehabilitation is not yet
converging towards of natural woodland in terms
8/27/2014 5:59:24 PM
 of seedling density or composition. High recruit-
ment of Acacia species on mine rehabilitation
may sustain the Acacia as the dominant species
in the long term and this may continue to cause
less recruitment of other tree species. Low recruit-
ment of other species in mine rehabilitation may
be a result of being out competed the Acacia spe-
cies. Low recruitment of other species could also
be as a result of a low proportion of seeds of other
species in the initial rehabilitation seed mix. Differ-
ences in the initial seed mixes were not investigated
in this study. Unless recruitment of other species
increases with time the mine rehabilitation will
never be similar to natural woodland. However if
the goal of mine rehabilitation is only to revegetate
and stabilize the land post mining, the composi-
tion of the species may not be important. As part
of that goal recruitment of Acacia, Corymbia and
Eucalyptus is needed and is substantial on most of
the rehabilitation areas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Kaitlyn Andrews and
Environmental staff of Crocodile Gold Australian
Operation Environment staff for assistance with
the fieldwork. This research was undertaken with
the support of Charles Darwin University, Direc-
torate of Education of Indonesia and Crocodile
Gold Australian Operation Northern Territory.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Santa Maria River levee ecological restoration program

R.W. Hobbs & R.T. MacAller

RECON Environmental Inc., San Diego, CA, USA

ABSTRACT: The construction of an 11-kilometer levee along the Santa Maria River is to provide
enhanced flood protection. The levee construction required the disturbance of 52 hectares of wildland
habitat. To compensate for unavoidable impacts to sensitive ecosystems, the environmental management
team at RECON designed and implemented a four-year comprehensive ecological revegetation program
for the re-establishment of native riparian and upland habitats. The focus of the project was to develop
a geomorphologically based mitigation approach that would restore functions and values of contiguous
areas of the river system, thereby increasing the habitat value of the associated upland and riparian corri-
dor from conditions prior to impacts. The construction of the levee, excavation of the substrate to a depth
of 15 meters, and extraction of fill material (i.e., sand) caused a substantial disturbance to the land and
associated habitat, requiring rehabilitation via an adaptive revegetation program to regenerate the native
ecosystem and to restore a functional river system.

1 INTRODUCTION Strengthening the levee system in 20092010,

heavily impacted the surrounding environment
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) orig- including 52 hectares of wildland habitat and a
inally constructed the Santa Maria River Levee in 7-hectare sand extraction area (Fig. 2). Excavation
1963. It consisted of a set of earthen levees with of the substrate to a depth of 15 meters and extrac-
riprap revetment (USACE 2009). The levee along tion of fill material (i.e., sand) caused substantial
the south side of the river extends for a distance of
approximately 27 kilometers.
The levee provides flood protection to the
Santa Maria Valley and the city of Santa Maria.
A 1996 analysis of the levee system concluded
that it (and in particular the rock revetment) did
not meet the original design criteria at certain
locations nor did it satisfy the riprap protection
requirements at many others. USACE also iden-
Figure 1. Section view of Santa Maria levee
tified a deficiency in the original levee design,
improvement.
which did not account for the angle of approach
of meandering lower volume flows impinging on
the levee. Based on analysis and review of several
documented failures, the USACE was not able
to certify that the levee system could contain a 1
percent flood and satisfy the legal requirements
set forth in the Code of Federal Regulations,
National Flood Insurance Program (November
2008, Article 44, Section 65.10, Mapping of Areas
Protected by Levee Systems). Accordingly, the
Federal Emergency Management Agency revised
its flood insurance maps with the assumption
that the levee project no longer offered adequate
protection to the city of Santa Maria. Following
this analysis, the USACE chose to strengthen the
existing south levee with a combination of sheet
pile and soil cement revetment to address this Figure 2. Construction of levee; 15-meter excavation
deficiency (Fig. 1). along levee system.

199

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 199 8/27/2014 5:59:25 PM

 Figure 3. Construction of levee extended for 11 kilom-
eters. Santa Maria River in foreground, City of Santa
Maria in background.
disturbance to the land and associated habitat
requiring rehabilitation via an adaptive revegeta-
tion program to regenerate the native ecosystem
and to restore a functional river system (Fig. 3).
Following construction, the USACE developed
an ecological restoration program (Program) to
compensate for unavoidable impacts to sensitive
ecosystems. The Program specified the habitat mit-
igation requirements for native habitat to be reveg-
etated along the 11-kilometer construction zone
(Project Area) of the Santa Maria River in com-
pensation for the USACE levee projects impact to
jurisdictional habitat (see Fig. 3). Furthermore, in
compliance with the USACE Engineering Tech-
nical Letter (ETL) 1110-2-571, Guidelines for
Landscape Planting and Vegetation Management
at Levees, Floodwalls, Embankment Dams, and
Appurtenant Structures, a 5-meter-wide corridor
was established and maintained free of vegetation
to allow access the levee for visual assessments.
The Program seeks to maximize functional value
for native species, while avoiding conflicts with the
flood control functions. Its focus was to develop
a geomorphologically based mitigation approach
that would restore functions and values of con-
tiguous areas of the river system, thereby increas-
ing the habitat value of the associated upland and
riparian corridor from conditions prior to impacts.
Construction of the levee project, maintenance per
the ETL 1110-2-571, and mitigation elements to
minimize impacts to the environmental resources
are addressed in the USACE 2009 Final Environ-
mental Assessment and Mitigated Negative Decla-
ration (EA and MND).
2 PROJECT PURPOSE
The Program is to provide the framework and
methodology for restoring native vegetation
200
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 200
Figure 4. Project area extends for 11 kilometers and
covers approximately 53 hectares.
within the Project Area. In compliance with the
Final EA and MNDs recommended environmen-
tal commitments effects of the levee project on
biological resources are to be minimized through
habitat restoration and/or creation of high-quality
native habitat. The on-site mitigation consists of
soil remediation, installation of native container
plants, applying a native seed mix, and four years
of maintenance and monitoring within the Project
Area footprint (Fig. 4).
2.1 Project location
The project is located on the central coast of
California, 170 miles north of the city of Los Ange-
les and 320 kilometers south of the city of San Jose,
on the boundary of San Luis Obispo and Santa
Barbara counties. The project site is bound by
urban development within the city of Santa Maria
to the southwest and the Santa Maria River to the
northeast. The United States Highway 101 bridge
overpass and Suey Road traverse the project site.
The Santa Maria River flows from its headwaters
in Los Padres National Forest generally in a westward
direction through the County of Santa Barbara, cities
of Santa Maria and Guadalupe, and eventually into
the Pacific Ocean. The project site ranges in width
from 90 to 37 meters extending 11 kilometers.
3 PROGRAM GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
The goal of the Program is to replace and restore
the biological and physical properties that were
impacted from levee construction.
3.1 Biological properties
Riverine ecosystems maintain a variety of micro-
habitats, which support diverse assemblages of
8/27/2014 5:59:26 PM
 biota over many levels of the food web (EPA 2007).
The various habitat types within this ecosystem
provide habitat for the protection, breeding, and
foraging of migratory birds, reptiles, fish, amphib-
ians, and insects. The high primary productivity
(plant growth) also leads to large amounts of detri-
tus, which feeds the detrital food web consisting of
insects and other organisms (Andrews et al. 2011).
The large detritivore community is available as prey
for foraging birds. In addition, the shallow seasonal
water within this riverine ecosystem allows penetra-
tion of light to support algal growth on emergent
vegetation. Algae are an excellent food source for
snails, shrimp, small fish, and other prey of higher
food levels (Richter & Richter 1992). Many species
of wildlife are dependent on riverine ecosystems
during some or all of their lifecycles.
Riparian wetlands within dry regions such as
Santa Barbara County are especially important,
because many species that live in the adjacent
shrub vegetation types seek refuge in the wetland
and riparian vegetation during the dry season
(Andrews et al. 2011). It is anticipated that the
establishment of native riparian and central coast
scrub habitat and the removal of non-native plant
species will increase the available habitat for forag-
ing and breeding wildlife species.
Riparian corridors are often preserved through
the regulations imposed by federal and state agen-
cies (i.e., federal Clean Water Act, Section 404;
State of California Department of Fish and
Game, Streambed Alteration Agreement, Code
Section 1600). These corridors may facilitate wild-
life movement from one area to another. Wetland
systems with habitat connectivity maintain popu-
lations of migratory animals, provide corridors for
gene flow, allow wildlife and plant dispersal to new
areas, and provide movement corridors at both the
local and regional level. Dispersal into connecting
habitats increases diversity of plants and animals
(EPA 2007).
A biological goal of the Program is to restore
biotic conditions that encourage and support lower
tiered animals that provide the basis of the food
web. This goal is anticipated to be met by installa-
tion of native species, remediation of the soil, and
reestablishment of biological corridors.
3.2 Physical properties
Key physical functions of riparian areas include
flood risk reduction, sediment trapping, and
ground water recharge (Potthoff et al. 2005). The
gradual slope of riverine ecosystem terrain and
proliferation of terrestrial vegetation slow water
flow, promoting silt deposition and sediment trap-
ping. The reduction in particulate matter improves
the water quality downstream. As a transition
201
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 201
zone between aquatic and terrestrial environ-
ments, riparian wetlands provide a catchment or
buffer zone for downstream flood control (EPA
2007). The benefits of these physical processes also
include erosion control (Potthoff et al. 2005).
The physical goal of this Program is to provide
geomorphological functions and values within the
Project Area by recontouring the topography and
replacing the existing non-native biotic component
with a broad diversity of herbs, shrubs, and trees
that are native to the region and assist in sustaining
the physical properties of the ecosystem.
3.3 Project objectives
Construction of the levee project and subsequent
implementation of the ETL 1110-2-571 (USACE
2009) resulted in the disturbance of approximately
52 hectares of habitat. To compensate for una-
voidable permanent impacts, this comprehensive
Program is to restore 52 hectares of native plant
communities (Project Area). Its implementa-
tion includes installation of native plant material
and four years of maintenance, monitoring, and
reporting of upland and riparian habitat within
the Project Area. Its main objectives are to:
Develop a geomorphologically based mitiga-
tion approach whereby largely contiguous areas
within the same river system are established,
restored, and enhanced in order to improve the
quality and success of the mitigation program.
Mitigate for all temporary and permanent
impacts related to the proposed construction
activities.
Increase functions and values provided by the
existing drainage and associated riparian and
upland habitats.
Maintain restored/enhanced areas over a mini-
mum of a 4-year monitoring period to ensure
that the target vegetation community becomes
established to meet the success criteria and
trends toward natural regional vegetation.
Maintenance strategies include irrigation, weed-
ing, and replanting as needed, per the results of
the monitoring plan.
3.4 Habitat design
Consistent with the USACE guidance, the terms
creation and restoration as used in this Pro-
gram have the following meanings (USACE
2009):
Creation: The manipulation of the physical,
chemical, or biological characteristics present
to develop riparian habitat, where riparian did
not previously exist. Creation results in a gain in
riparian acres.
8/27/2014 5:59:29 PM
 Restoration: The manipulation of the physical,
chemical, or biological characteristics of a site
with the goal of returning natural or historic
functions to a former or degraded wetland.
Creation and restoration activities focused on
riparian vegetation communities that are appro-
priate for the region in terms of equivalent den-
sity and structure relative to surrounding native
habitats within the active channel and surrounding
floodplain.
The target vegetation types that were created
and restored were similar to those in the surround-
ing undisturbed areas. These community types
include the dynamic and successional assemblages
of plant species typical of riparian communities
that are dependent upon periodic flooding to cycle
back the earlier successional stages. Periodic floods
of large magnitude and migration of the river are
essential to the deposition of fresh alluvium where
seeds and vegetative propagules of Baccharis
sp. and Salix sp. can germinate and take root
(Gregory et al. 1991; Richter and Richter 1992).
Scouring floods may remove mature vegetation,
forming barren sand flats. Over time, these sites
develop into new communities, which may mirror
their previous structure and composition, or may
take on an entirely new composition. The suc-
cessional vegetation will vary, depending on geo-
morphologic and hydrologic changes of the river,
among other variables. In the Santa Maria River,
the broad mosaic of scrub communities represents
this active successional process.
Restoration within these areas has focused on
the introduction of riparian species as they would
occur in early seral stages of this dynamic system,
while also allowing natural processes to take effect.
To meet the objectives of the effort, the habi-
tat required recontouring, soil amending, and
the incorporation of a combination of container
plants, seed, and native volunteer recruitment to
create the desired functional habitat.
The planting plan was developed for the Program
based on the vegetation types defined by reference
Table 1. Habitat communities being restored.
Habitat type being restored Total (hectares)
Salix lasiolepis shrubland alliance 0.3
Salix exigua shrubland alliance 9.6
Baccharis salicifolia shrubland alliance 4.3
Baccharis pilularis shrubland alliance 14.1
Active channel/river wash 5.5
Weed control area (Salix spp.) 10.6
Borrow site (Salix spp.) 7.6
Total 52.0
202
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 202
sites and hydrological conditions at the time of instal-
lation. All areas were evaluated to determine the
appropriate species for restoration purposes prior to
installation. This determination was based on prox-
imity to the water table, topography, soil conditions,
and surrounding plant species, if present. Native
plant species that require more water for growth were
planted in low areas, while more drought-tolerant
species were planted topographically higher areas
or farther away from the water table. Plant materi-
als were installed in a manner that mimicked natural
patterns (i.e., not resulting in discernable unnatural
geometric or linear patterns).
3.5 Vegetation alliances
The vegetation community types that were cre-
ated and restored are classified in Second Edition:
A Manual of California Vegetation (Sawyer et al.
2009), but the composition of these communities
were modified, where appropriate, as they exist
within this portion of the Santa Maria River sys-
tem (Table 1).
4 IMPLEMENTATION
On-site creation/restoration was conducted in
accordance with the Final EA/MND to restore the
sensitive species and habitat functions and values
of the Santa Maria River.
Consistent with the adaptive management strat-
egy detailed in the Program work plan, planting
occurred in a phased approach due to dry site
conditions and lack of access to irrigation water.
Phase I began in spring 2011 and Phase II began
in winter 2012. Prior to installation, all plants were
propagated on-site from site-sourced material
in order to acclimate them to the micro-climatic
conditions. Prior to plant installation the site was
recontoured to previous site conditions.
Figure 5. Hand installation of container plant material.
8/27/2014 5:59:29 PM
 4.1 Container planting
During Phases I and II, a total of 100,782 plants
were installed within a portion of the revegetation
areas. Prior to plant installation, pin flags were
used to mark the locations for each array of plants.
Depending on the locale, approximately 30 to 60
plants were installed in the area of each pin flag to
create a planting design that mimicked the natural
environment. Plants were installed using standard
horticultural practices, including digging a hole at
Table 2. Container plants installed.
Total plants
Habitat type/plant species installed
least twice the diameter of the root ball and leav-
ing the plant crown 12 inches above the grade after
planting. The holes were dug by mini-excavator and
by hand (Fig. 5). The holes were designed to be deep
enough to allow a depression around the base of
each plant to create a sink to minimize surface run-
off. Following the two phases of plant installation,
remedial planting occurred in open/barren areas
throughout the revegetation areas. Remedial plant-
ing occurred to replace container stock lost to biotic
and abiotic conditions including herbivory by local
fauna. Table 2 details the total number of plants
installed within each vegetation alliance and species.
A summary of seed species and total
amount of seed applied is included in Table 3.

Salix lasiolepis shrubland alliance Table 3. Seed application per revegetation location.
Baccharis pilularis 47
Baccharis salicifolia 63 Location/kilograms
Isocoma menziesii 19
Salix exigua 125 Weed
Salix lasiolepis 98 Restoration Borrow control
Scientific name areas site area
Subtotal 352
Salix exigua shrubland alliance Acmispon [Lotus] 111.2 29 13.1
Baccharis salicifolia 13,180 scoparius
Ericameria ericoides 714 Artemisia californica 7.3 1.9 0.8
Lepidospartum squamatum 0* Baccharis pilularis 95.3 24.8 11.3
Lupinus chamissonis 0* Distichlis spicata 142.7 37.2 16.9
Salix exigua 14,436 Ericameria ericoides 111.2 29.0 13.2
Salvia apiana 657 Eriogonum 210 24.9 11.3
Salvia columbariae 0* fasciculatum
Salvia mellifera 546 Hazardia squarrosa 95.3 16.6 7.8
Sambucus nigra ssp. Cerulean 2,219 Heliotropium 15.9 4.1 1.9
Subtotal 31,752 curassavicum
Isocoma menziesii 48.1 12.6 5.7
Baccharis salicifolia shrubland alliance Lupinus chamissonis 31.8 8.3 3.8
Baccharis salicifolia 13,360 Lupinus nanus 15.8 4.1 1.9
Ericameria ericoides 422 Salvia mellifera 79.4 20.7 9.4
Lupinus chamissonis 0* Total 964.0 213.2 97.1
Salix exigua 1,277
Sambucus nigra ssp. cerulea 422
Subtotal 15,481
Baccharis pilularis shrubland alliance
Artemisia californica 531
Baccharis pilularis 4,659
Ericameria ericoides 40,465
Eriogonum fasciculatum 0*
Lepidospartum squamatum 0*
Lupinus chamissonis 708
Opuntia littoralis 5,169
Salvia apiana 173
Salvia mellifera 1,492
Subtotal 53,197
Total 100,782

*Native species requirement met through native seed

germination; therefore, no installation of this species
occurred. Figure 6. Hydroseed application following construction.

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 During hydroseeding activities, the seed was com-
bined with wood fiber mulch and tackifier in the
hydroseed slurry. Approximately 1,274 kilograms
of native seed was applied within the revegeta-
tion area, the borrow site, and a portion of the
weed control area at a rate ranging from 11 to
13 kilograms per acre (Fig. 6).
4.2 Broadcast seeding
Seeding was performed in Year 2 during a period
when weather and soil conditions were favorable.
No seeding was performed in Year 1 in order to
allow time to reduce the weed seed bank through
invasive non-native plant control.
The seed application method used within the
Project area was determined according to the vege-
tative cover at the time of application: open/barren
areas were hydroseeded, and if an area contained
a high vegetative cover, seed was applied by hand.
A majority of the Project Area was hydroseeded
to provide immediate protection from surface ero-
sion and riling and to aid in retention of soil mois-
ture, which improves seed germination success.
Approximately 1,274 kilograms of seed were either
collected or, if needed, acquired from a local com-
mercial source for use during hydroseeding and
hand-seeding activities.
5 MAINTENANCE
The program is currently in Year 3 of a four-year
maintenance program. Maintenance is needed to
create and maintain conditions favorable for the
successful establishment of targeted vegetation
types. The maintenance program has ensured that
non-native plants are being eradicated (not simply
controlled) and the restoration of the vegetation
types is succeeding through the various treatment
methods. Maintenance measures are conducted
throughout all restoration areas. Maintenance
activities include weed control, irrigation system
management, remedial planting, erosion control,
and access control.
plants and assessment of encroachment of non-na-
tive species. Vegetation monitoring is performed to
measure development of vegetation at the restora-
tion areas and to document that each area achieves
the success criteria as defined by the performance
standards (Table 4). Vegetation monitoring began
the second spring following implementation of
revegetation activities; this allowed time for the
new vegetation within the restoration areas to
become established.
Quantitative sampling is carried out during the
late spring or early summer to ensure the best rep-
resentation of species diversity. Botanical moni-
toring follows the California Native Plant Society
(CNPS) Relev Protocol (2009). This method is a
simple quantitative sampling technique applica-
ble to many vegetation types in the southwestern
United States. The relev method allows investiga-
tors to use an ocular estimation technique to clas-
sify and map large areas in a limited amount of
time (CNPS 2009).
The performance standards associated with the
relev vegetation sampling method are based on
an evaluation of percent cover of tree, shrub, and
herbaceous species. Performance requirements for
percent native cover and native species richness
are relative to the native and non-native species
composition within the Project reference sites.
Restoration will be considered successful when the
restoration areas have met all performance stand-
ards in relation to reference site values. These val-
ues are summarized in Table 5.
Table 4. Minimum performance standards.
Native plant Container plant Non-native
Year cover survival coverage*
1 N/A 80% 10%
2 50% 100%** 10%
3 60% 100% 5%
4 80% 100% 5%
*Not to exceed; **Relative percentage of Year 1.

6 MONITORING Table 5. Performance standards as a relative percentage

of reference area values.
The monitoring program includes horticultural
Year
(qualitative) and botanical (quantitative) monitor-
ing. Quantitative monitoring activities from imple- Category 2013 2014 2015
mentation through May 2014 are presented below.
Native vegetative cover (%) (>) 50 60 80
6.1 Performance standards Non-native cover (%) (<)* 10 5 5
Native species richness (%) (>) 50 60 70
Botanical monitoring includes quantitative meas-
urements of the growth and establishment of *Based on absolute cover.

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 6.2 Quantitative monitoring: Relev method
The project biologist made quantitative observa-
tions of plant survival, establishment, and growth
using the CNPS relev protocol (CNPS 2009).
One relev sampling point was established for
every 2 hectares being restored, a total of 16 sam-
pling points, each sampling point encompassing a
minimum of 0.2 hectare or 10 percent of all sites
being restored. Sampling locations were randomly
selected.
During quantitative monitoring, species occur-
ring within each vegetation alliance were recorded,
and vegetative cover and container plant survival
were estimated. These estimates provide some
level of reliable values that are within defined
acceptable bounds of accuracy and allow useful Figure 7. One year after installation, the plants
and repeatable analysis of vegetation. The CNPS are healthy and vigorous and establishing within the
environment.
relev sampling method is used to quickly classify
the range of diversity of plant cover over large
units of land. This method is typically considered
to acclimatizing container stock to on-site condi-
a semi-quantitative method, as it relies on ocular
tions, year-round hand watering, and effective
estimates of plant cover rather than hits of a par-
control of non-native plant species.
ticular species along a transect line. In this method,
The restoration areas in all vegetation commu-
a stand is selected by the observer and a plot size
nities continue to progress. Natural recruitment of
is determined.
native shrub and herbaceous species is increasing
Vegetative cover estimates are entered as cover
throughout the Project area. Vegetative communi-
class percentages (CNPS 2009). Species richness
ties are dominated by species typical of the region.
is an estimate of the number of species present
The native species canopy continues to grow taller
in an area, determined by direct species counts.
and fuller, and non-native species are minimal
The information derived from relev sampling is
in cover and diversity. Table 6 (at the end of this
used to determine the estimated percent vegeta-
paper) displays the restoration site Year 2 survey
tive cover within chosen locations, which included
data in relation to the performance standard. Data
plots within project boundaries and off-site refer-
collected in 2014 (Year 3) are being analyzed at the
ence sites. Due to the linear shape of the project,
time of publication.
40 meters wide and 11 kilometers long, multiple
Based on the annual quantitative assessment,
samples were taken for each vegetation type and
the project has met or exceeded nearly all of
averaged to give a more accurate depiction of the
its success criteria for 2013. On average, native
restoration across the entire project. Analyzed data
vegetation accounted for over 117 percent rela-
sampling took place in April 2013.
tive cover, absolute non-native cover was less
than two percent, 11 native species were found
6.3 Results
on-site, and container stock survival was nearly
The vegetation communities are well-established 100 percent.
and riverine conditions have been re-established. All of the restoration areas exceeded their suc-
By satisfying the performance criteria, the eco- cess criteria for container plant survival, native
logical restoration areas indicate that they are species richness, and met or exceeded native cover
establishing themselves as self-sustaining habitats for all vegetation communities except for Baccharis
that are equivalent in form, function, and value to salicifolia shrubland, which was measured at
the natural, relatively undisturbed reference sites 20 percent of the reference site value (RECON
(Fig. 7). 2013). Non-native cover was measured at an aver-
Overall, all alliances are performing at or above age of 1.85 percent; this value is excellent and is
the performance standards for percent native well below the final project goal of less than 5 per-
vegetative cover, total non-native cover, and spe- cent non-native cover.
cies diversity (except for native cover in Baccharis The combination of native species richness and
salicifolia shrubland alliance). The restoration high native/low non-native cover will encourage
areas are surpassing the undisturbed reference hab- the establishment of the desired perennial native
itat in terms of species diversity and reduced weed tree and shrub layer species without long-term
abundance. These results can in part be attributed maintenance.

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 Table 6. Summary of restoration site survey data (April 2013).
2013 Final
performance performance
Category standards standards
Total native cover >50% >80%
Total non-native cover** <10% <5%
Total diversity (count) >50% >70%
*Meets or exceeds Year 2 success criteria; **Absolute cover value.
7 DISCUSSION
The Program presented a number of challenges,
including the linear shape of the project area, soil
compaction, intermixing of habitat types, and
reduced water level in the river system. These chal-
lenges were effectively overcome through an adap-
tive management approach, which enabled the
project to meet Program objectives.
7.1 Adaptive management approach
Adaptive management is a systematic process for
continuously improving management policies
and practices by learning from the outcomes of
operational procedures. If operational procedures
are not meeting management goals, methods are
adjusted until they are achieved (DeSimone 2013;
RECON 2011). Adaptive management for this
Program consisted of the following key elements:
1. Establish Management Goals. It was imperative
to establish clear and measurable goals before
embarking on the restoration program. Careful
consideration was given to which vegetation
type or plant species should be selected based
on hydrologic, hydraulic, and topographical
data. The ultimate goal of the Program was
to further the preservation of a species assem-
blage, vegetative type, or functioning ecosystem.
This required establishing a vegetation complex
that would be able to successfully adapt to the
hydrologic conditions present at a particular
location.
2. Identify and Prioritize Tasks that Interfere with
Management Goals. The areas surrounding the
Project Area were surveyed as part of the prepa-
ration for this Program. In many cases, it was
immediately clear which non-native plant species
posed the biggest threat to native plant habitats
within the river system. For other species, the
threat was not immediately obvious, and obser-
vation over an extended period helped identify
the species that would pose a threat to the native
206
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 206
Vegetation community
Salix Baccharis Baccharis Salix
Active lasiolepis pilularis salicifolia exigua
channel shrubland shrubland shrubland shrubland
383.0%* 51.7%* 81.1%* 20.1% 53.2%*
1.25%* 2%* 1.6%* 1.7%* 2.7%*
300.0% 375.0%* 126.0* 91.3% 195.0%
plant communities being restored. As part of
an adaptive management approach, an effective
treatment method was developed to address con-
cerns of invasive species encroachment. In addi-
tion, soil decompaction was imperative prior to
plant installation to provide the root systems
access to the water table.
3. Assess Techniques. Each method chosen for
installation, irrigation, and long-term mainte-
nance had advantages and disadvantages, and
often the best approach was using a combina-
tion of management strategies. Furthermore, it
was important to remain current on methods,
as new methodologies are constantly being
developed, especially in the field of ecological
restoration.
4. Develop and Implement a Management Plan.
The Program work plan supplied a framework
and background necessary for implement-
ing management programs for vegetation and
habitat type restoration throughout the Project
Area. It was continuously adapted to the con-
ditions present on-site. This was particularly
needed when dealing with the extensive 3-year
drought that resulted in no water flowing within
the river channel.
5. Review Management Goals, Restoration Meth-
ods, and Control Techniques. Another crucial
step in adaptive management is to examine and
appraise the restoration methods that are cur-
rently in use. If portions of the mitigation areas
were not responsive to planting one particular
plant species or if natural recruitment into an
area was not progressing at the expected rate,
planting alternate appropriate native plant spe-
cies was considered. Based on careful attention
to each aspect of the maintenance process, the
managers verified whether the techniques were
working toward the Program goals and deter-
mined whether alternate methods should be
applied.
The elements of the adaptive approach were
utilized to overcome the challenges that arose
8/27/2014 5:59:33 PM
 during the implementation and maintenance of
this Program. The management directives were
ever-changing, based on assessments of the con-
ditions on the ground and continuous adaptation
to the natural processes that affected the site, both
negatively and positively. This allowed for a seam-
less process that did not move in a linear pattern or
according to a set plan; nonetheless, it sufficed
to bring this large-scale project to success in meet-
ing its annual goals.
REFERENCES
Andrews, D.M., Barton, C.D., Kolka, R.K., Rhoades, C.C.,
Dattilo, A.J. 2011. Soil and water characteristics in
restored canebrake and forest riparian zones. Journal
of the American Water Resources Association. 47(4):
772784.
California Native Plant Society (CNPS). 2009. California
Native Plant Society/Department of Fish and Game
protocol for combined vegetation rapid assessment
and relev sampling protocol. Available online: http://
www.cnps.org/cnps/vegetation/protocol.php.
DeSimone, S.A. 2013. Restoration and science: a practi-
tioners/scientists view from rare habitat restoration at
a southern California preserve. Restoration Ecology,
vol. 21, pp. 149152.
EPA. 2007. See United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
Gregory, S.V., Swanson F.J., McKee, W.A. & Cummins,
K.W. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian
zones. Bioscience 41: 540551.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 207
Potthoff, M., Jackson, L.E., Steenwerth, K.L.,
Ramirez, I., Stromberg, M.R. & Rolston, D.E. 2005.
Soil biological and chemical properties in restored
perennial grassland in California. Restoration Ecology,
vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 6173.
RECON Environmental, Inc. (RECON). 2011. Plan of
action for riverine vegetation types mitigation res-
toration, Santa Maria River Levee Repair Project,
Reaches I, II, and III, Santa Maria, Santa Barbara
County, California. Editor R. W. Hobbs. February 16,
2011.
RECON Environmental, Inc. (RECON). 201. Santa
Maria River Levee Repair Project for Reaches I, II,
and IIImitigation, habitat restoration 2013 annual
report. Santa Barbara County, California. Editor R.
W. Hobbs. December 11, 2013.
Richter, B.D. & Richter, H. E. 1992. Development of
groundwater and ecological models for protecting a
southwestern riparian system. In Proceedings of the
First International Symposium on Groundwater Ecol-
ogy, Tampa, FL.
Sawyer, J., Keeler-Wolf, T. & Evens, T. 2009. Manual
of California vegetation, second edition. California
Native Plant Society, Sacramento.
United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). 2009.
Santa Maria River Levee improvement project, final
environmental assessment and mitigated negative
declaration. Prepared by Aspen Environmental
Group. August 2009.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
2007. Principles for the ecological restoration of
aquatic Resources. Available online: http://www.epa.
gov/owow/wetlands/restore/principles.html.
8/27/2014 5:59:33 PM
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

VegCover: A green coverage measure software for vegetation

restoration monitoring

J.B. Hu & C.B. Liu

Laboratory of Environmental Protection in Water Transport Engineering, Tianjin Research Institute for
Water Transport Engineering, Ministry of Communications, Tianjin, China

ABSTRACT: Mine land reclamation and ecological restoration promote sustainability of mineral
regions from financial and environmental point of view. Lack of post-restoration monitoring and research
limited improvement in the theory and practice of acceptance criteria. Digital Image Analysis (DIA) is
a cost-effective ground-based remote sensing technique developed for green coverage measure in many
application fields, such as precision agriculture, turfgrass management, and natural environment survey
like rangeland. However, most DIA methods need human intervention (semi-automatic) to cope with
various images acquired under different conditions (illumination, height, ground composition), using
different cameras (resolution, focal length, and etc.) with different settings (shutter speed, aperture, ISO,
and etc.). This paper introduces a newly developed full-automatic green coverage measurement software
VegCover for mine land vegetation restoration monitoring.

1 INTRODUCTION helps extract some vegetation information, espe-

Ecological restoration and mine reclamation have
become important parts of the sustainable devel-
opment strategy in many countries. Vegetation res-
toration (also revegetation) constitutes the most
widely accepted and useful way of reclamation
of mine spoils to reduce erosion and protect soils
against degradation, by recreating the plant com-
munity of the site prior to disturbance or of a com-
parable less disturbed reference site (Sheoran et al.
2010). Accurate and objective monitoring data on
vegetation community is desirable for the planning
and evaluation of vegetation restoration projects
(Koch & Hobbs 2007). While it is impractical to take
a complete census of even a relatively small site; veg-
etation community monitoring is currently under-
taken by ecologists using plot survey (also quadrat
survey) method in the field that can be found in
massive literature. However, traditional plot survey
may be too labor intensive and time consuming to
provide accurate information over large areas.
Benefiting from development of digital photog-
raphy, some work of plot survey could be done
on computer indoor based on the digital images
acquired in the field at various platforms (Booth &
Cox 2011). Image based plot survey indoor does not
save time if factors of vegetation community are
extracted by manual, but only save time in the field.
To improve the efficiency of image based plot sur-
vey, Digital Image Analysis (DIA) technique which
utilizes automatic image processing algorithms
cially green coverage (GV) (also foliar cover1).
Until now, DIA has been widely used and proved
to be cost-effective in many application areas for
GV measurement, such as precision agriculture
(Lukina et al. 1999, Meyer 2011), turfgrass man-
agement (Richardson et al. 2001), and natural envi-
ronment survey like rangeland (Booth & Tueller
2003, Booth et al. 2005). Vegetation is identified
in a digital photo taken vertically downward, and
percentage of vegetation pixels is calculated as GV.
However, most DIA methods need human interven-
tion (semi-automatic) to cope with various images
acquired under different conditions (illumination,
height, ground composition) using different cam-
eras (resolution, focal length, and etc.) with differ-
ent settings (shutter speed, aperture, ISO, and etc.).
Once a DIA method is not full-automatic, the meas-
ured GV may be not objective, reliable, or feasible
for batch processing. You cant manage what you
cant measure (Booth & Cox 2011). In this paper,
we introduce a newly developed full-automatic
GV measurement software VegCover based on a
self-adaptive segmentation algorithm developed
two years ago (Hu et al. 2011), hoping useful for
mine land vegetation restoration monitoring.
1
Foliar cover = a vertical projection of exposed leaf area,
different from basal cover, canopy cover, and ground
cover. The cover would equal the shadow cast if the sun
was directly overhead.

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 2 INTRODUCTION OF VEGCOVER
VegCover is a full-automatic GV measurement
software (Fig. 1), developed based on the self-
adaptive algorithm that finds the optimal thresh-
old to segment Excess Green index (2 G-R-B,
abbreviated as EXG) of a photo taken vertically
downwards (towards the ground) into a binary
image (vegetation and background) (Hu et al.
2011). GV is considered as the percentage of veg-
etation pixels in the photo. Mostly, you only need
to do one thing in VegCover that is to select the
images stored in your computer. Afterwards, Veg-
Cover produces a binary image and a GV value for
each digital image. So Requirements of VegCover
are almost set in image acquisition step before
using VegCover.
1. Do not take photos when there is no vegetation
covering the ground which can be easily judged
visually. VegCover gives wrong result if the true
GV is lower than 0.5%.
2. Non-green vegetation is not preferred, since
VegCover uses a segmentation algorithm based
on Excess Green index (2 G-R-B). In addi-
tion, do not take photos in cold season when
leaf is not green yet.
3. When shooting grass, its better to keep the
flashlight on to reduce shadow effect in the
canopy of vegetation. The reason is that shaded
leaf has low EXG value and would be identified
as background in VegCover, causing underesti-
mate problem.
4. Correct exposure is a must. Underexposure
and overexposure both cause underestimate
problem.
5. GV should be measured on a truly vertical
photo, which is impossible. To reduce the per-
spective effect of a photo taken vertically down-
ward, Narrow FOV camera is preferred.
Figure 1. VegCover interface: colorful original image,
binary result image, and the key curve used in the self-
adaptive algorithm behind VegCover.
210
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 210
Figure 2. Hand, pole, and UAV photography platforms
for grass, tall grass/shrub/tree seedling, and sparse shrub/
tree plot survey respectively.
6. Sufficient ground resolution is a must, depend-
ing on plant size2. For a certain digital camera,
size of CCD/CMOS is known and fixed, ground
resolution is determined by height (propor-
tional to plant height) and FOV (narrow FOV
preferred). We recommend three photography
platforms (hand, pole, and UAV) for three vege-
tation types (grass, shrub, and tree) respectively;
naturally it is not absolute and unconditional,
pole is preferred for tall grass and tree seed-
ling while UAV is preferred for sparse shrub in
rangeland or sand land (Fig. 2).
3 CASES
We bring three typical cases (Fig. 3). The grass
image is natural grassland, acquired at 1.5 meters
height at noon on a sunny day in summer; shadow
effect is neglectable so that flashlight is not neces-
sary to be turned on. The seeding image is a green-
ing project at early stage, acquired at 5 meters
height on a cloudy day in summer. The tree image
is Cathay Poplar plantation, was acquired at
150 meters height on a cloudy day in summer. GVs
calculated by VegCover are 62.6%, 16.5%, 38.4% in
sequence. Before that, visual estimated GVs from
several non-professionals are 7080%, 2035%,
and 4055% respectively. GVs calculated by Veg-
Cover are smaller than those by visual estimation.
We analyze the overall bias phenomenon based
on the existing theories on the difference between
human eye and digital camera, while find that vis-
ual estimation inherently unreliable. Visual ability
of human eye decreases dramatically away from
center, so that visual estimation is averaged from
2
Leaf size for grass, while canopy size for shrub and tree.
8/27/2014 5:59:34 PM
 Figure 3. Grass, seeding, and tree plot survey cases
from hand, pole, and UAV platforms respectively.

several glances focused on several regions in a plot

survey. Furthermore, our mind doesnt actually
remember images pixel by pixel in each glance; it Figure 4. Non-green grass and shrub plot survey cases
records memorable textures, color and contrast, from hand and UAV platforms respectively.
but do large error measurement. To assess the
reliability of VegCover, users could overlay and
compare any original colorful image and its cor-
responding binary image.
We also bring two exceptive cases (Fig. 4)
acquired on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The non-green
grass image is an alpine rangeland, acquired at
1.5 meters height in the morning on a cloudy day
in summer. Three types of grass are in different
color (green, grayish-green, and yellow), and only
the green one is accurately identified by VegCover,
with apparently underestimated GV 7.8%. Other
two types of grass are added by manual, and then
we obtain an acceptable GV 11.2%. The non-green
shrub image is a sandy land, acquired at 25 meters
height in the afternoon on a sunny day in spring.
All shrubs are manually outlined, with GV 7.7%.
In the previous section, we emphasize the neces-
sity of flashlight to reduce shadow effect when
shooting grass. We also bring a case to illustrate
(Fig. 5). The turfgrass images were acquired at Figure 5. A narrow-leaved turfgrass case acquired on
1 meter height in the afternoon on a sunny day in a sunny day under three illumination conditions (sunlit,
spring. The upper is normal shooting (GV = 17.3%) shaded, and flashlight-on).
whose light sources are direct sunlight and scat-
tered sunlight. The middle is shooting with ground
shaded by an umbrella (GV = 34.0%) whose light and flashlight. Shading equipment blocks direct
source is scattered sunlight. The lower is shoot- sunlight, while flashlight adds extra light; both of
ing with flashlight-on (GV = 33.4%) whose light these two illumination conditions mitigate contrast
sources are direct sunlight, scattered sunlight, between shaded leaves and sunlit leaves, reducing

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 shadow effect. However, Through visual inspec-
tion, neither shading nor flashing solves shadow
effect, underestimate problem still exists but quite
acceptable.
It is common sense that direct sunlight,
scattered sunlight, and flashlight cause severe,
slight, and little shadow effect respectively. We
recommend flashlight-on when taking photos, and
also shading in sunny days. Shading and flashing
joint case image is not presented here, since we are
not sure how the ratio of scattered sunlight and
flashlight effects yet. In future, we will research on
it to test whether images acquired at different time
(morning, noon, afternoon, evening) in a day get
different results.
4 CONCLUSION
In this paper, we introduce a newly developed
full-automatic Green Coverage (GV) measure-
ment software VegCover and illustrate using some
typical and exceptive cases, especially the non-green
vegetation and shadow effect problems. VegCover
belongs to Digital Image Analysis (DIA) technique
widely used in precision agriculture, turfgrass
management, and natural environment survey like
rangeland.
Mine land vegetation restoration is the revegeta-
tion progress on non-vegetated mine spoils, similar
to cultivation on farmland and greening on bared
lands. So it is reasonable that VegCover is also
useful to achieve accurate and objective vegeta-
tion plot survey for mine land vegetation restora-
tion monitoring. Regrettably, we do not have such
212
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 212
case images in this paper, which is in a plan in near
future.
REFERENCES
Booth, D.T. & Tueller, P.T. 2003. Rangeland monitoring
using remote sensing. Arid Land Research and
Management 17(4): 455467.
Booth, D.T., Cox, S.E., Fifield, C., Phillips, M.,
Williamson, N. 2005. Image analysis compared with
other methods for measuring ground cover. Arid Land
Research and Management 19(2): 91100.
Booth, D.T. & Cox, S.E. 2011. Art to science: Tools for
greater objectivity in resource monitoring. Rangelands
33(4): 2734.
Hu, J., Huang, W., Lu, T., Chen, W., He, X. 2011. Auto-
mate green coverage measure using a novel DIA
method: UIP-MGMEP. 19th International Conference
on Geoinformatics, Beijing, 2426 June 2011.
Koch, J.M. & Hobbs, R.J. 2007. Synthesis: is Alcoa
successfully restoring a jarrah forest ecosystem after
bauxite mining in Western Australia? Restoration
ecology 15(s4): S137S144.
Lukina, E.V., Stone, M.L., Rann, W.R. 1999. Estimating
vegetation coverage in wheat using digital images.
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Meyer, G.E. 2011. Machine Vision Identification of
Plants. In Dora Krezhova (eds), Recent Trends for
Enhancing the Diversity and Quality of Soybean
Products: 401402. InTech.
Richardson, M.D., Karcher, D.E., Purcell, L.C. 2001.
Quantifying turfgrass cover using digital image
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Sheoran, V., Sheoran, A.S., Poonia, P. 2010. Soil
reclamation of abandoned mine land by revegetation:
a review. International Journal of Soil, Sediment and
Water 3(2): Article 13.
8/27/2014 5:59:39 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Effect of different machinery and rolling times on the physical property

of reclamation soil in coal area

X.Y. Min, X.J. Li & X.N. Huang

College of Resourses and Environment, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, China

ABSTRACT: This experiment sets up the simulation experimental area based on the national natural
science fund, in which we simulate the main types of reclamation in coal mine area. After two years natu-
ral aging, collecting the surface soil samples (020 cm) used for experimental analysis, in order to explore
the change rule of soil bulk density, porosity, temperature, conductivity and moisture content under dif-
ferent construction machinery and rolling times, so we could find the optimal processing conditions. This
topic of the text has a significant role for land reclamation in coal mining area, and will provide reference
during construction work to a certain extent. The result shows that change rules of soil environment fac-
tors are different when using different construction machineries, and soil physical properties are closest to
the normal soil when adopting the combination of crawler dozer 5 rolling times, which expresses that
the process result is the best under this condition.

1 INTRODUCTION and scholars at home and abroad have done a lot of

At present, coal is the primary energy of China,
accounting for 74% of disposable energy consump-
tion, and China is also the worlds largest coal pro-
ducer and consumer (Hu & Wei 2003). However,
coal mining has caused a lot of land destruction.
According to the data concerned show that,
Chinas destructive land cumulatively of industry
and mining is about 4 million hectares, of which
the largest number is the coal mining subsidence
land, and it is still increasing at a rate of 40000 hec-
tares annually (Wang et al. 2009).
The process of subsidence land reclamation is
the process of soil reconstruction in essence, in this
process, due to the impact of mechanical compac-
tion, disturbance, etc, the soil physical property
will be changed, which causing the decline of soil
quality (Chen & Deng 2001). In the process of
soil reconstruction, the soil bulk density, porosity,
moisture content, conductivity, temperature and
other environment factors are affected by mechani-
cal compaction and disturbance directly, restricting
soil biological activity and inhibiting crop growth.
Therefore, the level of soil environmental factor is
a important measure of the level of soil quality,
only the soil, which wons a suitable temperature,
salt concentration condition and a proper soil tex-
ture, has a better arability.
Using different mechanical compacting different
times, due to the different degrees of compaction,
the impact on the soil physical property will be dif-
ferent inevitable. In the past ten years, many experts
research work for the change of soil physical prop-
erties of subsidence land, such as Li Wei (Li et al.
2011) takes the reclaimed soil of Zhanji mining area
in Huainan as the research object, revealing that the
change law of its bulk density, aggregate composition
and water content is variational with the increase of
the vertical depth, but the trend recovers in general;
He Jinjun (He et al. 2007) studies the subsidence soil
in loessial hilly-gully region, showing that the impact,
which caused by mining, on soil physical factors
are variable; Schmalz. B (Schmalz et al. 2002) relies
GPR radar technology to detect moisture and salin-
ity indicators of the reclaimed soil and their change
laws; M. Pagliai (Pagliai & Marsi 2003) studies the
impact of soil porosity, permeability, water permea-
bility under different compaction degrees. However,
the exploration on the change law of soil environ-
mental factors under different construction machin-
eries and compaction degrees is not very deep. This
research builds experimental area in the field envi-
ronment, studies the level of environmental factors
under different setting conditions, explores change
laws and find out the optimum treatment condition
that makes the reconstructed soil quality highest.
2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND
SAMPLE PROCESSING
2.1 Experimental area natural conditions
The experimental area is located in the south
campus of Shandong agricultural university

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 Figure 1. The experiment design figure.

experimental field, the geographical position is

36.20 degrees north latitude, 117.08 degrees east
longitude. This local belongs to warm temper-
ate semi-humid continental monsoon climate, the
annual average rainfall is 803.6 mm, and the annual
average temperature is 13.3C.

2.2 The experimental design

This experiment sets up the simulation experimen-
tal area based on the Natural Science Founda-
tion of China, in July 2011, simulating the main
types of reclamation in coal mine area. Regard-
ing construction waste, fly ash and coal gangue as
filler mat 5 times rolling (1,3,5,7,9 times), filling
soil water setting natural as a contrast, 31 pieces
of sample area totally, the experimental design is
shown in Figure 1.
Every piece of sample area is a cube of 1 m
long 1 m wide 1 m high, filling 40 cm filler
at the bottom and covering 60 cm silty loam in
the upper, the experiment construction is shown Figure 2. The experiment construction figure.
in Figure 2. After two years of natural aging,
collecting the surface soil samples (020 cm)
of experimental area on July 18, 2013, which order to avoid the effects of marginal effect, col-
are used for experimental analysis, and using lecting the range of 0.5 m 0.5 m in the middle
W.E.T Sensor Kit three parameter instrument of the sample area.
for measuring soil water, conductivity and tem-
perature before sampling firstly. In order to avoid
2.3 The sample processing
the effects of marginal effect, collecting the range
of 0.5 m 0.5 m in the middle of the sample The measurement of soil bulk density: adopt-
area. ing the cutting-ring method, firstly collecting soil
Every piece of sample area is a cube of 1 m samples in a soil profile with a cutting ring, and
long 1 m wide 1 m high, filling 40 cm filler at drying the whole soil samples in the cutting ring,
the bottom and covering 60 cm silty loam in the after that dividing the mass of stoving soil by the
upper, the experiment construction is shown in volume of the cutting ring and determining the
Figure 2. After two years of natural aging, collect- soil bulk density in the end (Nanjing Soil Research
ing the surface soil samples (020 cm) of experi- Institute, 1978). The measurement of soil poros-
mental area on July 18, 2013, which are used for ity: measuring the soil proportion by pycnometer
experimental analysis, and using W.E.T Sensor method firstly, and then getting the soil porosity
Kit three parameter. based on a formula of
Instrument for measuring soil water, conduc-
tivity and temperature before sampling firstly. In P% = (1D/d ) 100 (1)

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 Table 1. Soil bulk density of different construction machinery and rolling times.

Construction machinery Rolling times Construction waste Ash Coal gangue Average value

Dump truck 1 1.544 1.494 1.397 1.478

3 1.534 1.459 1.488 1.493
5 1.524 1.501 1.544 1.523
7 1.604 1.502 1.572 1.560
9 1.611 1.757 1.548 1.639
Crawler dozer 1 1.412 1.396 1.406 1.405
3 1.393 1.448 1.416 1.419
5 1.438 1.438 1.418 1.431
7 1.481 1.426 1.442 1.450
9 1.474 1.497 1.559 1.510
CK Natural sinking 1.420

where P = soil porosity; D = f soil bulk density; and

d = soil proportion (Nanjing Soil Research Insti-
tute, 1978).
The measurement of soil water, conductivity
and temperature: inserting the probe into the soil
profile, then the three indexes of soil water, conduc-
tivity and temperature can be read simultaneously.
In order to get a more precise reaction of the
change of soil physical properties, using the aver-
age of the measured data as the processing data. Figure 3. The variation trend of soil bulk density under
different construction machinery and rolling times.

3 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Using NT855-B280 crawler bulldozer and dongfeng
EQ3060 dump truck respectively compacting dif-
ferent times in the simulation experimental area,
because of the difference of mechanical loads
themselves and rolling times, the degree of com-
paction from compaction plots will be diverse,
and then affecting the soil bulk density, porosity,
moisture content, temperature and other physical
properties.
3.1 The variation of soil bulk density
Soil bulk density is one of fundamental physi-
cal properties in the soil and one of soil fertility
indexes, it has a great influence for the soil perme-
ability, infiltration capacity, water holding capacity
and anti-erosion ability, besides, it can also reflect
the quality status inside the soil comprehensively
and affect the fixation and release of internal ele-
ments (Chen, 2004). The numerical size of soil
bulk density determines the mineral composition,
humus content, soil texture, structure, elastic sta-
tus and other factors from a certain extent (Zuo,
1990), the lower number indicates a better soil
structure and a higher soil quality, and otherwise,
the higher number indicates a worse soil structure
and a lower soil quality (Zhuo, 2010).
It can be seen from Table 1, on condition that
compacting blocks by the dump truck, the soil bulk
density, which is 1.478 g/cm3, is the lowest when
compacting 1 times, and it is rolling 9 times that the
soil bulk is the highest, which reaches 1.639 g/cm3;
the soil bulk density of the control is 1.420 g/cm3,
and compared with that, the soil density of processes
that compacted by the dump truck are above 0.058 g/
cm3, 0.073 g/cm3, 0.103 g/cm3, 0.140 g/cm3, 0.219 g/
cm3 respectively. It shows that the reconstructed soil
structure is destroyed in the use of the dump truck,
that is to say, the soil quantity and maturity are poor
compared with natural sinking soil.
Similarly, on the condition that in the use of the
crawler dozer, the soil bulk density is lowest, which
is 1.405 g/cm3, when compacting 1 time, and it is
highest, which reaches 1.510 g/cm3, when compact-
ing 9 times; the soil bulk density are lower than that
of the control when compacting 1 and 3 times, and
it shows that the soil structure is fine, the soil tex-
ture, permeability and other properties are higher
relatively, the soil bulk density starts to get bigger
than that of the control when continuing to com-
pact the block, which shows the soil structure is
destructed and the soil quality declines at this time.
We can visualize the trend that the soil bulk
density change over the increase of rolling times
intuitively from Figure 3, the soil bulk density

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 Table 2. Soil porosity of different construction machinery and rolling times.

Construction machinery Rolling times Construction waste Ash Coal gangue Average value

Dump truck 1 43.972 45.089 48.650 45.903

3 43.612 46.378 45.306 45.099
5 43.229 44.828 43.228 43.762
7 41.026 44.763 42.194 42.661
9 40.764 35.387 43.073 39.741
Crawler dozer 1 48.088 48.690 47.958 48.246
3 48.788 47.592 48.323 48.234
5 47.120 47.143 47.852 47.372
7 45.545 46.777 46.987 46.436
9 45.816 44.977 42.689 44.494
CK Natural sinking 50.519

increases successively with the increase of roll-

ing times, which is characterized by linear type,
when using the dump truck and the crawler dozer
compacting blocks respectively; in addition, the
size comparison of soil bulk densities in the use
of two construction machineries is: dump truck >
crawler dozer, this indicates that the soil structure
of blocks that compacted by the crawler dozer suf-
fers a less destruction, and the soil quality is bet-
ter when compared with those compacted by the Figure 4. The variation trend of soil porosity density
dump truck. under different construction machinery and rolling times.

3.2 The variation of soil porosity

The soil porosity is a reaction for the tightness of
soil, its size has a direct effect on the soil water
permeability, air permeability and the difficulty
of rooting, and itself plays different regulatory
functions on the soil water, fertilizer, gas, heat and
microbial activity (Lv et al. 2008). It is general
acknowledged that the soil water permeability, air
permeability and water-holding capacity are more
coordinated relatively when the soil porosity is
about 50% (He et al. 2007).
As shown in Table 2, the soil porosity is 45.903%
when compacting 1 time by the dump truck, the
soil porosity decreases with the increase of the time
of compaction gradually, and it reaches the mini-
mum, which is 39.741%, when compacting 9 times;
similarly, the soil porosity is the maximum, which is
48.246% when using the crawler dozer compacting
1 time, and it reaches the minimum when compact-
ing 9 times, it is 44.494% at this moment. This is
because that the soil texture gets tighter and tighter
with the increase of the rolling times, causing the
soil bulk density bigger and bigger, and then the
soil porosity becomes smaller and smaller.
The soil porosity of the control is 50.519%,
it is higher than the process that compacted by
machineries, showing that compared with the
natural sinking soil, the water permeability and the
air permeability of the soil that compacted by the
machinery are poor, and it goes against soil plants
rooting. The soil porosity of blocks that using
crawler dozer compacting 1 and 3 times are close
to the control, showing that comparing to other
processes, the destruction for the soil are less at
these two conditions.
As shown in Figure 4, the soil porosity decreases
successively with the increase of rolling times,
which is characterized by linear type, when using
the dump truck and the crawler dozer compacting
blocks respectively. In addition, the size compari-
son of soil porosities in the use of two construc-
tion machineries is: crawler dozer > dump truck,
indicating that compared with processes that com-
pacted by the crawler dozer, the destruction for the
reconstructed soil are larger when compacted by
the dump truck.
3.3 The variation of soil moisture content,
conductivity and temperature
The soil water is one of soil main components, it
has a significant influence on the soil fertility, the
variation of the soil water movement, affects not
only air and heat conditions of the soil, but also
many substances conversion inside the soil deeply
(Xiong, 2001); the soil conductivity is a index that

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 Figure 5. The variation trend of soil moisture content, conductivity and temperature under different construction
machinery and rolling times.

Table 3. Soil moisture content, conductivity and tem- when compacting 5 or 7 times. The most suitable
perature of different construction machinery and rolling soil moisture content for plant growth is 14%19%
times. generally, namely 60%80% of the field capacity
(Zhou, 1987). The soil moisture content is 14.1%
Rollin W K
Machinery times (%) (mS/cm) T (C)
at 3 rolling times and it is 15.4 at 5 rolling times
when using the crawler dozer, lying in the optimum
Dump 1 11.1 3.57 35.2 range of the soil moisture content, however, the
truck 3 12.1 3.77 35.3 soil moisture content of remaining processes are
5 10.5 4.05 35.4 smaller, it indicates that the soil water will decrease
7 13.8 3.74 35.2 due to the compaction and hardening.
9 11.8 3.61 35.2 The soil conductivity can calculate the total
Crawler 1 11.6 3.09 34.9 concentration of soil soluble salts indirectly,
dozer 3 14.1 3.12 35 ignoring other effect factors, there is a positive
5 15.4 3.65 35.3 correlation relationship between the soil conduc-
7 10.1 3.34 35.3 tivity and the soil salinity (Guo, 2006), generally
9 11.2 3.37 35.2 speaking, the greater the soil conductivity it is,
CK Natural 16.5 3.03 34.7 the higher the soil salinity it is, and then that
sinking causes the soil environment of the plant growth
worse and worse. It is seen from Table 3, the size
*where W = moisture content; K = conductivity; and of soil conductivity of each process is all over
T = temperature.
3 mS/cm, which belong to the severe salt pollu-
tion (Hu et al. 2006), that is to say, the soil salt
concentration is too high, which is not suitable
determining water soluble salts of the soil, it is one for plant growth, so the soil should be desalted
of significant physical properties of the soil, whose and modified, soil conductivity of the natural
size is influenced by the soil moisture, eluviation, sinking soil is 3.03 mS/cm, and the soil conduc-
temperature and other factors (Liu et al. 2007); tivity is close to it when using the crawler dozer
the soil temperature affect the soil biological and compacting 1 and 3 times.
chemical process and microbial activity, besides The soil surface temperature mainly affected by
it has also an evident effect on the soil moisture solar radiation and air temperature (Wang, 2010),
status and the soil conductivity. As shown in the soil temperature of each process is similar, the
Figure 5, the variation of the soil moisture con- variational range is between 0.1C0.5C, this is
tent, conductivity and temperature show a similar because each block lies the same natural condi-
trend, increasing first and then decreasing with tion, soil temperature of the natural sinking soil
the increase of the rolling times, which are char- is 34.7C, and the soil temperature is close to it
acterized by a inverted V type, as using differ- when using the crawler dozer compacting 1 and
ent machineries compacting, and there are spikes 3 times.

217

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 4 CONCLUSIONS
The research shows that:
1. In the process of reclamation, the impact on
physical properties rolling in crawler is less than
the dump truck.
2. With the increase of rolling times, the soil
bulk density increases and the moister content
reduces gradually which is characterized by lin-
ear type.
3. With the increase of rolling times, the soil tem-
perature, the salinity and the moisture content
have characterized by a inverted V change
approximately (the change of the soil moisture
content under crawler dozer is an exception),
increasing first and decreasing afterwards, and
there are spikes when compacting 5 or 7 times.
4. Adopting the combination of crawler
dozer rolling 5 times, the soil physical prop-
erties is closest to the normal earth, at the
moment, the soil bulk density is 1.419 g/cm, the
soil porosity is 48.234%, the moister content is
14.1%, the soil conductivity is 3.12 mS/cm, the
soil temperature is 35C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was funded by Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (D011004):ecological restoration
and its environmental effects.
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ica Sinica, 38(2): 277313.
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8/27/2014 5:59:41 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Effect of rocky slopes gradient on root growth and pull-out

resistance of Lespedeza bicolor Turcz. plants

H.Y. Xu, S. Gao, G.L. Song & L.B. Han

Institute of Turfgrass Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, P.R. China

ABSTRACT: This research was carried out to investigate root system distribution characteristics
and pull-out resistance of L. bicolor on 40 and 50 and 60 rocky slopes along Jing-cheng Highway
(the third phase of the project) in northern China, using dig-out method and hydraulic tension meter.
Based on the roots cutting off in the up-slope or down-slope direction, three treatments (T1, T2, and T3)
were included in the roots pull-out resistance experiment. The results of this study showed as follows.
First, roots branch orders increased gradually, and root length and dry weight declined gradually as
slope gradient increased. Second, roots grown in up-slope and on down-slope direction distributed uni-
formly on 40 and 50 slopes, and the angle of first order roots and the slope were 010. On 60 slope,
however, the roots grown in up-slope and down-slope direction did not distribute uniformly, and the
angle of first order roots grown in up-slope direction and the slope increased to 3040. Third, for the
same treatment, there was no significant difference in roots pull-out resistance between the three slopes
(P > 0.05). On 40 and 50 slope, there was no significant difference in roots pull-out resistance between
that three experiment treatments; however, significant differences in the root pull-out resistance were
found between T1 and T3, and between T2 and T3 (P < 0.05) on 60 slope. Finally, the Lespedeza bicolor
Turcz. roots pull-out resistance was positively correlated with root length and dry weight, though not
statistically significant.

Keywords: highway; rocky slope; gradient; plant root; pulling-out resistance

1 INTRODUCTION
In the late 90 s, the technology of ecological res-
toration for slope vegetation was introduced into
our country. During the process of ecological res-
toration for slope vegetation, the site conditions
influence both the growth of plants and the soil-
reinforcement of roots, such as the aspect and gra-
dient of slope (Pei J., Ai Y.W., Liu H., et al. 2009;
Xue W.P., Zhao Z., Li P., et al. 2003). Some stud-
ies indicated that as for the same species of shrubs
which have similar height of plants or stems, when
the weathered degree of bedrocks increased, the
depth dig by roots into the rock increased, the
amount of roots declined and the pull-out resist-
ance of roots were increased (Li S.C., Sun H.L.,
Yang Z.R., et al. 2006).
Besides, as a major feature of site conditions,
slope gradient is also an important factor to affect
the restoration of slope plants. Gradient of slope
has a huge impact on plant growth (Zhang X &
Guo Q.X., 2007; Chen Y., Xu X., Zhang D.R.,
et al. 2006). Slopes with small gradient will bene-
fits development of target plant populations, while
ones with large gradient go against the development
(Liu J.G & Xue J.H., 2010). Slope gradient affects
not only the growth of over-ground part of plants,
but also the growth of roots (Sun H.L., Li S.C.,
Xiong W.L., et al. 2008). Researches showed that
slopes with small gradient were beneficial to the
growth of plants, and the dry weight and density
of roots of plants were relatively high (Wang Y.Y.,
Song G.L., Meng Q., et al. 2010). Yet there are some
other studies indicated that as the slope gradient
increased, the root layer of herbal plants became
thinner, their roots performed a tend of extending
down-slope, and root morphology changed from
three-dimension to flat; as for woody plants, their
roots extended to the lateral sides of slopes when
the slopes became steep.
The protection from roots to slope includes the
reinforcing effect of shallow roots and the anchor-
age effect of deep roots (Jiang Z.Q., 2007; Zhou
D.P., & Zhang J.Y., 2005). However, the infor-
mation about the effect of slope protection with
roots is very limited under a condition of slope,
especially rocky slope (Sun H.L., Li S.C., Xiong
W.L., et al. 2008). The soil conservation effect
of roots can be represented by pull-out resist-
ance, and it has a significant correlation with the

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 architecture, diameter, amount and distribution of
roots (Zhang X.L., Hu. X.S., Li G.R., et al. 2012;
Li S.C., Sun H.L., Yang Z.R., et al. 2005). Gradi-
ent of slope affects not only the growth of roots
but also the soil conservation effect of roots. Previ-
ous researches showed that, under a condition of
abundant rainfall, slopes with relatively large gra-
dient were prone to happening landslip (Xu H.Y.,
Wang Y.Y. & Song G.L., 2012); gradient of slope
had an effect on the quantity of roots growing in
rock cracks and thereby influenced the pull-out
resistance of roots (Sun H.L., Li S.C., Xiong W.L.,
et al. 2008; Long F., Sun H.L., & Li S.C., 2011).
According to the principle of plant diversity
of ecosystem, the target of restoration of slope
vegetation are usually located on a combinative
plant community of arbors and branches (which
can be called arbor-branch grass) in restoration
projects of slope vegetation. Due to the special
condition, it is difficult to build a woody plant
community on steep rocky slope, usually ending up
with low woody plants and unsatisfactory effects.
Experts suggested to change the target to herbal
plant community. Whereas, from the perspective
of soil conservation effects with roots, there are
no reports published systematically discussing the
issue whether the woody plant community should
be completely abandoned, especially on steep rocky
slopes. The research on the effect of slope gradient
on the plant roots growth and soil conservation
effect can provide theoretical guidance for the allo-
cation of target plant community and plant species
on rocky slopes of different gradients.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 General situation of research area
Test site is on the Jingcheng Highway (the third phase
of the project), located in the northern mountainous
area of Beijing Miyun County, starting in the Yingy-
ugou, Mujiayu Town of Miyun County and ends at
Simatai, the junction of Beijing and Hebei, 62.7 km
in length. Jingcheng Highway is an important part
of Da-Guang Highway (DaqingGuangzhou) that
Table 1. Site conditions of tested slopes.
No. Stone no. Direction ()
1 K121+100-K121+200 340
2 K122+000-K122+100 350
3 K123+500-K123+700 330
Note: Data in the table are stated as mean value standard deviation. Number of samples is 12.
220
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 220
belongs to a total length of 209.1 km national high-
way network plan, 132.4 km of Beijing section. The
main types of Jingcheng Highway (the third phase)
slope is rock slope, mostly composed of weathered
tuff and granite and its vegetation restoration used
mainly soil dressed spray-seeding method. Before
the test proceeding, vegetation restoration had been
about 3 years.
Miyun County, where the test site was located,
116 3933117 3025E, 40 13740 4757N,
is a remote suburban county of Beijing. It has a
temperate continental monsoon climate, with four
distinct seasons and rapid changing of tempera-
ture and humidity. The annual average temperature
is between 810C, frost-free period 176d, annual
rainfall 600700 mm.
The study selected three test slopes with the
same direction and texture but different gradients.
Three slopes were moderately weathered tuff rock
with many cracks, where were easy to peel off the
stones. Slope direction judgments were based on
Song Guilongs (Song G.L., Pei D.W., & Meng Q.,
2010) slope classification system. Three slopes were
shady slopes. According to the range of the test site
slope angle, 10 gradient used as intervals, test sites
were selected at approximately 40, 50 and of 60.
Because the slope vegetation restoration project
placed net on the slope, the test site conditions sur-
vey conducted from two aspects. One was the base
material thickness above protective net and other
was the total thickness of base material. Site condi-
tions of tested slopes are shown in Table 1.
2.2 Content and method
2.2.1 Selection of vegetation
As dominant species on the slopes, lespedeza
(L. bicolor Turcz.) were selected for the study.
The community characteristics of slope vegeta-
tion were Investigated by using general ecological
methods[18]. According to the average height of
plant lespedeza community, we determined stand-
ard strains (Liang T.J. 2010) and selected strains
with similar specifications as the standard for the
tested plants. Table 2 shows the characteristics
of over-ground part of tested plants. Number of
Base material thickness/cm
Gradient () Above net Total
40 4.0 0.5 10.8 1.2
50 4.2 0.8 10.7 1.3
60 4.4 0.6 11.0 1.5
8/27/2014 5:59:42 PM
 Table 2. Over-ground characteristics of tested L. bicolor Turcz. Plants.

Slope Year Height Canopy Base Mass above

(grad.) (a) (cm) width (cm) diameter (cm) ground (g)

40 3 250.5 10.3 109.5 13.4 2.4 0.17 361.9 34.1

50 3 137.7 9.0 66.4 10.3 1.8 0.24 110.9 27.0
60 3 126.7 7.6 56.0 8.0 1.7 0.18 91.2 22.2

Note: Data in the table are stated as mean value standard deviation.

samples is 12. Three are for the survey on root dis-
tribution characteristics, and nine are for the root
pull-out test.
2.2.2 Survey on root distribution
Three lespedezas were selected from each slope.
Watering the roots to the surrounding matrix
saturation and then excavating roots of the
Up-slope and Down-slope after 24 h (Zhao Z.M.,
Wu G., & Wang X.H., 2006; Xiao S.X., Zhou H.
& Ling T.Q., 2006). The lespedezas were carried in
experimental pots with soil back to the lab. After
rinse, we measured related indicators indoor. Excel
and SPSS 18.0 software were used to analyze the
average value of indicators of three lespedezas.
Outdoor observations: roots branching, dis-
tribution and growth angles. Outdoor test tools
included shovel, vernier calipers, tape measure,
protractor and brush, etc.
Indoor measuring indicators: different diameter
root length and root dry weight. Root length meas-
urement used Epson Twain Pro (32 bit) scanners
and analysis applications WINRhizo. Roots were
classified according to the diameter during the
scan, 0 mm < d < 2 mm roots as fine roots, 2 mm
< d < 5 mm roots as medium roots, d > 5 mm roots
as thick roots. Roots were dried to constant weight
under the conditions of 105C before the measure-
ments of dry weight.
2.2.3 Pull-out test of root
Pull-out resistance of lespedeza roots was measured
by hydraulic dynamometer (10t). The test devices
were selected according to Shaocai Lis (Li S.C.,
Sun H.L., Yang Z.R., et al. 2006) measurements of
several shrub roots pull-out resistance. 9 lespede-
zas were selected from each slope and then divided
into three different treatments with three repeats.
T1 treatment was to measure pull-out resistance of
the whole root. T2 treatment was to measure pull-
out resistance of residual roots in Down-slope
direction after cutting those in Up-slope direction.
T3 treatment was to measure pull-out resistance of
remained root in Up-slope direction after cutting
those in Down-slope direction. Test processing
was according to Sun Hailongs (Sun H.L., Li S.C.,
Table 3. Growth media moisture content in the plant
roots pull-out experiment starting.
Slope grad T1 T2 T3
40 25.04 1.65 27.86 3.12 26.77 1.97
50 27.32 2.11 25.22 0.69 23.83 1.48
60 28.21 2.66 23.61 0.82 23.38 1.17
Xiong W.L., et al. 2008) measurements of Yunnan
pine roots anchoring force. 24 h before pull-out
tests conducted, the surrounding matrix test plants
were watered to saturation. We tried to maintain
the uniformity of water content in matrix during
the pull-out test, in order to reduce experimental
error. Table 3 shows the results of the survey on
water content. Blank pull-out tests were conducted
on each slope, to correct the data of root pull-out
resistance. After pull-out test, all the roots were dig
out to measure root length and root dry weight in
the laboratory. Statistical analysis conducted on
the mean values of repeated experimental data by
Excel and SPSS 18.0 software.
3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Gradient effect on root growth
3.1.1 Root branching
As shown in Figure 1, the root branching of
L. bicolor Turcz. was bifurcated, without obvious
taproots. Class I roots grew around horizontally,
with smaller growth range in the vertical direc-
tion. The role of the resistance under a rock, the
root branching changed on the rock surface roots
branching formed clusters.
The root branching progression of L. bicolor
Turcz. reached class V on 50 and 60 slope,
class IV on 40 slope. The maximum diameter of
L. bicolor Turcz.s class II and class I roots decreased
gradually, with the increase of slope angle. In the
three different gradient slopes above, the maximum
diameters of class I roots were, in order, 1.602 cm,
1.540 cm and 1.464 cm, while those of class ii roots
were 1.060 cm, 0.880 cm and 0.360 cm respectively.

221

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 221 8/27/2014 5:59:42 PM


Figure 1. Root branches of L. bicolor Turcz.
Figure 2. Distribution characteristics of L. bicolor
Turcz. roots. Data are means calculated from the direct
measurements.
3.1.2 Root growth range
Root distribution range affects the ability of the
solid earth in roots. The greater/larger the root
distribution range is, the more slope substrates are
preserved; the deeper the roots vertical distribution
is, the stronger the anchor portions become (Zhao
Z.M., Wu G. & Wang X.H. 2006).
As can be seen from Figure 2, on 50 and 40
slope, the lespedeza roots were distributed hori-
zontally within a circle of radius approximately
50 cm around the stem base, showing a compara-
tive uniformity in the Up-slope and Down-slope
direction. On the 60 slope, lespedeza root dis-
tribution was not uniform in the Up-slope and
Down-slope direction. Roots distributed within
a semicircle of a radius about 30 cm around the
stem in the Up-slope direction, while those in the
Down-slope direction distributed within a semicir-
cle of a radius 70 cm around the stem. From the
perspective of the horizontal distribution of root,
as the slope angle increased, the root distribution
had two major changes. First, the uniformity of
root distribution changed. Second, the distribu-
tion range in the Up-slope direction decreased,
while that in the Down-slope direction increased.
The slope matrix was so thin, that lespedeza roots
would grow underground, and force their way into
rock cracks after they reached the rocks in the ver-
tical direction, therefore, the vertical distribution
range of lespedeza root system cant be accurately
measured underground.
222
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 222
3.1.3 Root growth angle
Root distribution angle is an important indicator
of description of root architecture in a two-dimen-
sional plane. Lespedeza class I roots are the skeleton
of root system, with relatively large diameter and
excellent anti-bend performance. Figure 2 shows
the growth angle of lespedeza class I roots.
On 40 and 50 slope, class I roots grew at a
angle of 010 in the direction of Up-slope and
Down-slope. After reaching rock surface, roots
would force their way into the cracks and continue
to grow if there were fractures in rocks, or grew
towards the direction of Up-slope or Down-slope
along the rock surface, if the rocks were seamless.
On 60 slope, class I roots in the Up-slope direc-
tion extended downward at a 010 angle to the
slope, forcing their way into the rock crevices or
growing along the rocky surface after reaching the
rocks. With a 3040 angle to the slope, class I
roots in the Down-slope direction would force
their way into the rocky cracks if there was one,
after reaching rock surface. However, if the rocks
were seamless, roots would turn to the down-
slope direction rather than along the surface (refer
to the root in Fig. 2-b marked in red), mainly due
to the steep slope.
3.1.4 Root length
According to Table 4, total root length of lespe-
deza on three slopes were respectively 9278.62 cm,
6151.46 cm and 4156.85 cm. As the gradient increas-
ing, total length of lespedeza roots decreased. The
differences were significant among the three slopes
(a = 0.01). In the Up-slope direction, root length
varied significantly among three slopes, respec-
tively 6070.07 cm, 3030.21 cm, and 1612.03 cm.
There was also a remarkable difference in the
proportion value of total root length (a = 0.01),
65.42%, 49.26%, 38.78% in order. However, in the
Down-slope direction, the variants in root length
were less significant, 3208.55 cm, 3121.25 cm and
2544.82 cm respectively, though there was still a
remarkable difference in the proportion value of
Table 4. Root length and the ratio of L. bicolor Turcz.
on three slopes.
Up-slope Down-slope Total
Slope Length Length Length
grad (cm) % (cm) % (cm)
40 6070.07A 65.42A 3208.55A 34.58A 9278.62A
50 3030.21B 49.26B 3121.25A 50.74B 6151.46B
60 1612.03C 38.78C 2544.82B 61.22C 4156.85C
Note: The capital letters represent the significant differ-
ence at 0.01 level. Number of samples is three.
8/27/2014 5:59:42 PM
 total root length (a = 0.01), 34.58%, 50.74% and
61.22% in turn.
Both root length and proportion of the total
root length varied considerably in the Up-slope
direction. As in the Down-slope direction, the
variation of root length was relatively small, while
that of the proportion of the total root length was
large. Therefore, with the changing of slope gradi-
ent, the variation of root length in the Up-slope
direction was the main cause of the variations of
total root length and the proportion of total root
length in Up-slope and Down-slope direction.
As can be seen from Table 5, whether among
the roots on the Up-slope and Down-slope direc-
tion, or the root system as a whole, the proportion
of fine roots (0 mm < d 2 mm) was significantly
higher than that of medium roots (2 mm < d
5 mm) and thick roots (d > 5 mm) on each slope.
The proportion of thick roots was the smallest.
With the changing of slope gradient, the percent-
age of different diameter root length in total root
length did not change significantly among slopes,
with 85%90% fine roots, 8%12% medium roots,
and 2%3% thick roots.
3.1.5 Root dry weight
As can be seen from Table 6, as the gradient
increasing, root dry weight decreased. The root dry
weight on three slopes were 86.38 g, 73.93 g and
62.40 g respectively, the difference was significant
(a = 0.05). As slope gradient increasing, the root
dry weight change significantly in the Up-slope
direction, 55.08 g, 36.19 g and 24.83 g respectively.
There were notable differences among the three
slopes (a = 0.01). However, the variation of root
dry weight in the Down-slope direction was rela-
tively small, 31.30 g, 37.75 g and 37.57 g in order,
though the root dry weight on 40 slope was sig-
nificantly different from that on 50 and 60 slopes
(a = 0.05).
From the perspective of proportion of root
dry weight to total root dry weight in Up-slope
Table 5. Ratio of length of roots at various diameters to total length of L. bicolor Turcz. on rocky
slopes (%).
Slope grad. Root location 0 mm < d 2 mm
40 Up-slope 57.76
Down-slope 32.26
Total 90.0
50 Up-slope 41.19
Down-slope 45.30
Total 86.49
60 Up-slope 32.98
Down-slope 52.97
Total 85.95
223
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 223
and Down-slope direction, the proportion in the
Up-slope decreased gradually as the gradient
increased, 63.76%48.95%39.79% respectively.
There was a remarkable difference among three
slopes (a = 0.01). While the proportion in Down-
slope direction increased gradually as the gradient
increased, 36.24%, 51.06% and 60.21% respectively.
The difference was also remarkable among three
slopes (a = 0.01).
3.2 Effect of slope on root pull-out force
As can be seen from Figure 3, there was no obvi-
ous difference in the pull-out resistance of roots on
different gradient slopes under the same treatments
(P > 0.05), which means gradient had no significant
impact on the pull-out resistance of roots. According
to Figure 4, the pull-out resistances of roots with
T1 treatment were greater than those with T2 and
T3 treatment, all above 1.70 KN, mainly due to the
cutting processing. On 60 slope, the pull-out resist-
ance of roots with T1 treatment was significantly
different (P < 0.05) from that of root with T2 and T3
treatment. However, on 40 and 50 slope, there was
no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the pull-out
resistance of roots with different treatments.
Figure 5 (3 treatments, 27 plants) illustrates
how Li Bicolor root pull-out resistance changed
in accordance with root length and dry weight. As
can be seen from the figure, as root length and dry
weight changed, the varying of its pull-out resist-
ance showed no significant regularity. Through
correlation analysis, we found the root pull-out
resistance had positive correlation with root length
and dry weight, though the correlation was non-
significant (P > 0.05).
Studies have shown that root pull-out resist-
ance had significant positive correlation with root
length, root biomass, etc. It is probably the interac-
tion between Li Bicolor horizontal class I roots and
the slope protective nets that affect the magnitude
of pull-out resistance in the pull-out test.
2 mm < d 5 mm d > 5 mm Total
6.64 1.02 65.42
1.51 0.81 34.58
8.15 1.83 100
7.05 1.02 49.26
4.30 1.14 50.74
11.35 2.16 100
4.24 1.56 38.78
7.17 1.08 61.22
11.41 2.64 100
8/27/2014 5:59:43 PM
 Table 6. Root biomass and percentage of L. bicolor 4 DISCUSSION
Turcz. in three slopes.
There is a close correlation between the number
Up-slope Down-slope and pull-out resistance of plant roots. The more
Slope Dry Dry the number of roots, the greater the pull-out resist-
grad weight/g % weight/g % Total/g ance of roots. When subjected to the pulling force,
each root will rub soil and rock and decompose
40 55.08 Aa
63.84 Aa
31.30Aa
36.16Aa
86.38Aa the pulling force. Pullout resistance of the entire
50 36.19Bb 48.94Bb 37.75Ab 51.06Bb 73.93ABb root system is a comprehensive reflection of sin-
60 24.83Cc 39.74Cc 37.57Ab 60.26Cb 62.40Bc gle roots. The more the number of roots, the less
pulling force will be decomposed into each root,
Note: The capital letters represent the significant differ- therefore the pull-out resistance of the whole root
ence at 0.01 level, and the lower-case letters represent the system will be greater. So far, most studies on cor-
significant difference at 0.05 level.
relation between the number of roots and whole
root system have been indoor, mainly because
the roots buried in the opaque medium increased
the difficulty of field tests. In addition, it is limited
by the root investigation method. Although there
are lots of methods to do the research, mining
method and the cutting ring are the classic ones
currently used.
Because of the frequent weathering phenomenon,
there are hard stones, rock crevice and roots growing
in the cracks in the slope rock mass. Theoretically,
Figure 3. Pull-out resistance comparison of L. bicolor compared with those in soil, pull-out resistance of
Turcz. between different slopes. roots would be significantly improved under com-
pression of rock. However, in fact, roots growing
in cracks would be damaged because of rock com-
pression, making roots less viable, fragile and easily
broken. Whether roots growing in the rock cracks
would strengthen their effect of slope protection
depends on the specific circumstances, consistent
with previous research conclusions.
In the lespedeza roots pull-out test, root pull-
out resistance was not significantly correlated with
its length and dry weight. Protective net is another
main factor affecting root pull-out resistance in
Figure 4. Pull-out resistance comparison of L. bicolor
between different treatments.
vegetation restoration projects on slopes. However,
there has been no report about the interaction
between protective nets and roots in previous stud-
ies. During pullout test, it was found that there
was interactions between roots and protective nets
as showed in Figure 6. When subjected to pulling

Figure 5. Correlation index of pull-out resistance with Figure 6. The interaction of L. bicolor Turcz. roots and
root length and dry weight of L. bicolor Turcz. wire mess.

224

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 224 8/27/2014 5:59:44 PM

 force, the horizontal roots were hindered by protec-
tive nets, and the strength of hindrance was related
with diameter and anti-bend performance and the
strength of the protective nets. To better under-
stand the slope protection effect of roots, further
researches should be carried out on the interaction
between plant roots and the protective nets.
In this study, on 40 and 50 slope, there was
no obvious difference in the pull-out resistance of
roots with different cutting treatments, while on 60
slope, the difference was quite obvious. The angle
between class I roots and slope might be responsi-
ble for this result. On 40 and 50 slopes, the angle
(010) between class I roots and slope was rather
small on both Up-slope and Down-slope directions.
In the pull-out test experiment, there was no obvi-
ous difference in the pull-out resistance of roots
with different cutting treatments, because of the
interaction between class I roots and protective nets
(Fig. 6), as well as excellent anti-bent properties of
roots. On 60 slope, the angle between class I roots
and slope was 010 in Up-slope direction, 3040 tection mechanism of roots.
in the Down-slope direction. In the experiment, as
the angle between class I roots and slope increased,
the interaction of class I roots and protective nets
decreased. Therefore, the difference in the pull-out
resistance of roots with different cutting treatments
turned out to be rather obvious.
During the process of slope planting construc-
tion, the selection and configuration of plants are
based on many foundations, such as the site con-
ditions of slope. The ability of different plants
to adapt to different site conditions are different.
Considering slope protection of roots, selection
of plants will affect the stability of the root-soil
complex and the stability of the slope. In order to
make roots break into the weathered rocks to pro-
tect the slope and to adapt to the shortage of water
on steep slopes, shrubs should be planted on steep
slopes (Shan S.X.C., An B.Z., Ji T.K., et al. 1997;
Yu E.P.C., Wang Y.Z., Ou Y.F., et al. 2007).
5 CONCLUSION
Slope gradient affect the growth of over-ground
and underground parts of plants. As the slope
gradient increased, root branching orders and
horizontal distribution range increased slightly. On
40 and 50 slopes, the angle between class I roots
and slope was 010 in Up-slope and Down-slope
direction. On 60 slope, the angle between class I
roots and slope was 010 in Down-slope direc-
tion, 3040 in the Up-slope direction. It turned
into Down-slope direction when reached barriers.
The root length and dry weight declined gradu-
ally as slope gradient increased. The change in
Up-slope direction was significant, while that in
225
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 225
Down-slope direction was rather small. The ratio
of root length and dry weight in total decreased
in Up-slope direction, while the same ratio in
Down-slope direction increased gradually. With
the change in slope gradient, the change of length
in Up-slope direction was the main contributor to
the change in biomass of the roots.
With the change of slope gradient, there was no
significant difference in pull-out resistance among
roots with identical treatments, which means that
slope gradient does not have significant impact on
pull-out resistance of roots. On 40 and 50 slope,
the cutting treatments had little effect on roots
pull-out resistance. Only on 60 slope, did the cut-
ting treatments showed remarkable effect.
The L. bicolor roots pull-out resistance was
positively correlated with root length and dry
weight, though not statistically significant. Further
research should be carried out on the influence of
protective nets on root pull-out resistance, which is
of great significance to understand the slope pro-
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Research on mechanism and ecological effects of mycorrhizal

inoculation in different density soil

K. Zhu
Coal Mining and Designing Department, Tiandi Science and Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
National Energy Filling Mining Technology Key Laboratory, Beijing, China

Y.L. Bi
China University of Mining and Technology of Beijing, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The soil in mine reclamation area, which degree of compaction was significantly higher
than normal soil as a result of the layering cover and laminate engineering method, was not conducive
to the growth of plants. Under laboratory conditions, three kinds of soil compaction density levels were
simulated and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi was selected to research the effect and mechanism of action
of mycorrhizal fungi inoculation to the growth of plants in different soil compaction. The results indicate
that, by the Glomus mosseae mycorrhizal inoculation, the affinity degree between mycorrhizal and plants
was high, and the length of hyphae was increased significantly, and the activities space and scope of plant
roots was expanded and the resistance and growth condition of plants was improved. The ability of the
absorption N, P, K from the soil of plants and the growth of plants was raised significantly; The desirabil-
ity of the plant to grow in the 1.65 g/cm3 density levels soil was enhanced to 1.35 g/cm3 density levels.

1 INTRODUCTION of action of mycorrhizal fungi inoculation to the

growth of plants in different soil compaction and
As a result of coal mining, the surface subsidence the ecological effects of land reclamation.
and ground fissures were occured, and a lot of land
resources were occupied by the waste dump which
formed from coal gangue. In mine area land recla- 2 EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS AND
mation work, the layered covering, layered rolling METHODS
engineering technique method has been used when
covering soil on the subsidence land and waste 2.1 Experimental materials
dump. This method caused the density of soil after
reclamation significantly higher than original soil. 2.1.1 Experiment medium
It was not conducive to the growth of plants and The experiment medium was soil which covered
reduced the effects of land reclamation. the waste dump and the physical and chemical
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is a ubiquitous soil properties of it were determined in laboratory.
microorganizm in nature and more then 90% land The soil was sterilized by the autoclave and air-
flowering plants can form a symbiotic system with dried before the experiment. The physical and
it. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can improve the chemical properties of the soil were shown in
mineral nutrients and water absorption of plants, Table 1.
the plants resistance and disease resistance, the soil
structure, the soil fertility, the survival rate of seed-
lings transplanted and the vegetation restoration. Table 1. Soil physical and chemical properties.
These characteristics make mycorrhizal technology
has potential which can overcome the harsh soil Project Data
conditions in waste dump ecological reconstruc-
pH 7.45
tion include low N, P, K and organic matter con- 55.9
Conductivity (s/cm)
tent, bad structure, poor ability to retain water and
Maximum moisture capacity (%) 23.4
nutrients, extreme pH, drought and physiological Available N (mg/kg) 31.3
drought caused by high salt. Available P (mg/kg) 7.2
This project simulated different soil compaction Available K (mg/kg) 41.6
density, and researched the effect and mechanism

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 2.1.2 Experiment mycorrhizal 3 EXPERIMENT RESULT ANALYSIS
The Glomus mosseae was chosen to be the experi-
ment mycorrhizal and it was cultivated and 3.1 Mycorrhizal colonization in different
provided by Microbiological and reclamation lab- treatment
oratory in China University of Mining and Tech-
Mycorrhizal colonization can reflect the symbiotic
nology Beijing.
between mycorrhizal and host plant to a certain
extent. Mycorrhizal colonization of different treat-
2.1.3 Experiment crop
ment in the experiment was shown in Figure 1. In
Maize seeds were chosen to be the ecperiment crop.
three soil compaction density levels, mycorrhizal
Before sowing, the seeds were soaked with 10%
colonization of plants decreased with increasing soil
H2O2 for 10 minutes to disinfect, and then washed
density, and reached over 60%. This illustrated that
with deionized water, drained and set aside.
mycorrhizal fungi inoculation was able to establish
a good symbiotic relationship with the host plant,
2.1.4 Experiment device
and promote the growth of plants effectively.
Plastic pots were used in the experiment. Before
using, the inside and outside surfaces were cleaned
with tap water and drained, and then disinfected 3.2 Hyphal density in different treatment
with 75% alcohol.
Hyphal density can reflect the ability of mycor-
rhizal fungi in promoting plant growth, nutrient
2.2 Experimental design and method absorption and the resistance, and was an impor-
tant index of mycorrhizal infection ability to the
The experiment designed two treatment which inocu-
host plant.
lated with Glomus mosseae or not (+M and M, and
As shown in Figure 2, the hyphal density of the
three density levels (1.35 g/cm3, 1.65 g/cm3, 1.95 g/cm3)
soil which compaction density was 1.35, 1.65 and
in each treatment, and three pots in each level. There
1.95 g/cm3 was 874.24, 786.24 and 609.19 mm/g.
were six different treatments and 18 pots total.
Experiment was conducted in the greenhouse.
Each pot was filled with 5 kg soil which was steri-
lized and dried. Throughout the growth period,
in order to prevent other mixed bacterium which
can pollute the experiment, the distilled water was
used for plant growth, and maintain the soil mois-
ture content at 70% to 85% of the maximum water
holding capacity by weiguing method. Experiment
was beginning on June 22, 2013, five corn seeds
were sowing in each pot, and after germination,
three seedlings were reserved depending on their
growth. After three months growth, corn seedlings
were harvested on September 23, 2013.

2.3 Determination project Figure 1. Mycorrhizal colonization in different treatment.

When the plants were harvesting, the aboveground

and underground parts were harvested separate
and the roots were washed. The mycorrhizal colo-
nization, hyphal density, dry weight and N, P, K
content of the aboveground and underground
parts were determined.
The symbiotic between mycorrhizal and host
plant was characterized through the determi-
nation of mycorrhizal colonization and hyphal
density. The promotion of plant growth by myc-
orrhizal inoculation was characterized through the
determination of dry weight of aboveground and
underground parts of plant. The improving effect
of the ability of plants to absorb mineral nutrients
was characterized through the determination of N,
P, K content in plants. Figure 2. Hyphal density in different treatment.

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 This illustrated that mycorrhizal fungi can increase 3.3 The growth of aboveground and underground
the absorption range and function space of plant parts of plant in different treatment
root in a certain extent, and promote plant root to
The growth of aboveground and underground
absorb nutrients in soil. Hyphal density decreased
parts of plant in different treatment was shown
significantly with the increase of soil compaction
in Table 2. In the inoculation treatment, the dif-
density. This illustrated that under the condition
ference of dry weight of plant aboveground part
of higher density soil, the hyphal and root were
between 1.35 and 1.65 g/cm3 soil density was
inhibited.

Table 2. The growth of aboveground and underground parts of plant in different treatment.

Dry weight Standard Dry weight Standard

Treatment (aboveground parts) deviation (underground parts) deviation

1.35+M 7.552 0.190 5.561 0.012

1.35M 6.736 0.077 5.074 0.010
1.65+M 7.622 0.171 5.410 0.045
1.65M 6.208 0.092 4.985 0.005
1.95+M 7.125 0.087 5.183 0.075
1.95M 5.553 0.193 4.708 0.085

Figure 3. N element content of aboveground and Figure 4. P element content of aboveground and under-
underground parts of plant in different treatment. ground parts of plant in different treatment.

229

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 229 8/27/2014 5:59:46 PM

 little and not significant, but significantly higher
than the 1.95 g/cm3 soil density. The similar rules
of dry weight of was shown by the underground
part. In the not inoculation treatment, the dry
weight of the aboveground and underground
parts of the plant decreased with the increase
of the soil, and the differences were significant.
This illustrated that 1.35 g/cm3 compaction den-
sity level of soil is most suitable for plant growth,
by the inoculation of G.m fungi, the growth of
plant in 1.65 g/cm3 compaction density soil was
increased to the 1.35 g/cm3 compaction density
soil.
The aboveground dry weight of inoculation
treatment plant were higher than noninoculated
treatment, and increased 12.11%, 22.78% and
28.31% respectively in 1.35, 1.65 and 1.95 g/cm3
compaction density. The trend of underground
dry weight of inoculation treatment plant was the
same with the aboveground dry weight of inocu-
lation treatment plant, and increased 9.6%, 8.53%
and 10.09% respectively. Those differences were all
significant. This illustrated that G.m fungi inocu-
lation could significantly promote the growth of
aboveground and underground parts of plant.
This promotion increased with the increase of
soil compaction density, and was most significant
in the 1.95 g/cm3 compaction density soil. This
illustrated that the inoculation with mycorrhizal
fungi can effectively alleviate the inhibitory effect
of soil compaction on the growth of plants. In
the conditions of the layered covering, layered
rolling engineering technique method was used
commonly in mine area land reclamation work,
the inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi can effec- Figure 5. K element content of aboveground and
tively promote the land reclamation work in min- underground parts of plant in different treatment.
ing area.

treatment. N element content of aboveground

3.4 N, P, K content of plants in different
treatment
N, P, K were important material basis for plant
growth and development, and there was a signifi-
cant positive correlation between the absorption
of N, P, K elements in crop and the crop yield. N,
P, K elements undersupply was one of the most
important factors which limited the agricultural
production.
The N, P, K element content of aboveground
and underground parts of plant in different treat-
ment can reflect the nutrient absorption ability
of plant in different soil compaction density and
inoculation or not. The N, P, K contents of above-
ground and underground parts of plant in differ-
ent treatment was shown in Figures 35.
The trend of N, P, K element content in above-
ground and underground parts of plant was con-
sistent in the inoculation and non-inoculation
part of plant in inoculation treatment was 1.635,
1.629 and 1.507 ppm respectively in 1.35, 1.65 and
1.95 g/cm3 compaction density soil, and in the
non-inoculation treatment was 1.392, 1.387 and
1.298 ppm respectively in 1.35, 1.65 and 1.95 g/cm3
compaction density soil. By the inoculation of G.m
fungi, the N element content in aboveground part
of plant was increased 17.41%, 17.44% and 16.11%
in 1.35, 1.65 and 1.95 g/cm3 compaction density
soil, and the difference was significant. This illus-
trated that the G.m fungi inoculation can signifi-
cantly improve the capacity of plants to absorb N,
P, K elements in soil, can effectively promote plant
growth, and was conducive to the vegetation resto-
ration in mining area.
In inoculation treatment, the differences of
N, P, K element content in aboveground and
underground parts of plant between 1.35 and
1.65 g/cm3 compaction density soil was not

230

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 230 8/27/2014 5:59:47 PM

 significant. But both of them were significant 3.5 N, P, K content of soil in different treatment
higher than the 1.95 g/cm3 compaction density
The N, P, K element content of soil in different
soil. This illustrated that the G.m fungi inoculation
treatment can reflect the nutrient absorption ability
can improve the growth of plant in higher com-
of plant from soil. The N, P, K element content of
paction density soil and plant adaptability to soil
plant from soil in different treatment was shown
compaction, and was beneficial to the ecological
in Figure 6.
environment of mining area.
The trend of N, P, K element content in soil
was consistent in the inoculation and non-inocu-
lation treatment. In the 1.35, 1.65 and 1.95 g/cm3
compaction density soil, N element content was
24.948, 30.492 and 44.352 ppm in the inoculation
soil and 43.092, 45.360 and 56.700ppm in the non-
inoculation soil. By the inoculation of G.m fungi,
N element content in soil were decreased 42.11%,
32.78% and 21.78% respectively in 1.35, 1.65 and
1.95 g/cm3 compaction density soil, and the dif-
ference was significant. This illustrated that the
G.m fungi inoculation can significantly improve
the capacity of plants to absorb N, P, K elements
in soil, can effectively promote plant growth, and
was conducive to the vegetation restoration in
mining area.
In inoculation treatment, the differences of P
and K element content in soil between 1.35 and
1.65 g/cm3 compaction density soil was not signifi-
cant. But both of them were significant higher than
the 1.95 g/cm3 compaction density soil. This illus-
trated that the G.m fungi inoculation can improve
the growth of plant in higher compaction density
soil and plant adaptability to soil compaction, and
was beneficial to the ecological environment of
mining area.

4 CONCLUSION

The G.m fungi inoculation can form symbiosis

with host plants. The infection ability of mycor-
rhizal was high. The hyphal density was increased
significantly, and expanded the plant root system
activity space and scope. The resistance of the
plant and growth were improved.
The G.m fungi inoculation can improve the
growth of plants, and promote plant to absorb N,
P, K and other nutrients from soil.
By G.m fungi inoculation, the suitable degree of
plant growth in the 1.65 g/cm3 compaction density
soil was increased to the 1.35 g/cm3 compaction
density soil. The adaptation of plants to the soil
compaction was increased.

REFERENCES

Bi Yin-li, Hu Yu, Su Gao-hua. 2008. Desulphurization

effects of microoganisms on gangue in coal mine
Figure 6. The N, P, K element content of soil in differ- areas. Chinese Journal of Environmental Engineering.
ent treatment. Jan. 9296.

231

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 231 8/27/2014 5:59:48 PM

 Hu Zhen-qi, Xiao Wu, Wang Pei-jun. Concurrent min-
ing and reclamation for underground coal min-
ing. Journal of China Coal Society. Feb. 2013,
301307.
Hu Zhen-qi, Wei Zhong-yi, Qin Ping. 2005. The concept
and method of soil reconstruction in mined land rec-
lamation. Soils, 37(1):812.
232
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 232
Wang Shu-he, Wang Xiao-juan, Wang Qian. 2007.
Response of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and host
plants on rhizosphere microbial action. Acta Pratac-
ulturae Sinica. 6:108113.
Zhang Cui-qing, Bi Yin-li, Yu Miao. 2010. The Modi-
fied Effect of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on the
Fe Tailings Substrate. Metalmine: 171174.
8/27/2014 5:59:49 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Using site appropriate pioneer species to initiate pedogenic processes

which promote recovery to stable and complex forested ecosystems

W.K. Chapman
British Columbia Ministry of Forests Lands and Natural Resource Operations Research Section,
Williams Lake, British Columbia, Canada

R. Bravi
Terraforama Environmental Ltd., Williams Lake, British Columbia, Canada

ABSTRACT: Often when working in forest environments the goal of reclamation is to reestablish a
stable ecosystem with characteristics similar to the pre-disturbance forest. In northern forests, Pinus
species are widely recognized as early seral species but are seldom the species of choice for reclama-
tion. Recent work with lodgepole pine has demonstrated that with the correct symbionts, this spe-
cies is capable of fixing nitrogen which partially explains why it is the predominant pioneer species in
highly disturbed environments within its range. A variety of other physiological characteristics and
microbial symbionts facilitate adaptation to highly disturbed environments. In accordance with pri-
mary pedogenic principles, biota and environment work together to evolve the soil conditions necessary
to support increasingly complex later seral communities. Human intervention to speed up pedogenesis
can inadvertently drive soil development towards conditions that are not stable and require continued
intervention. Recognizing and using pioneer species such as lodgepole pine, which are adapted to forest
environments, allows reestablishment of complex and resilient forest ecosystems with minimal human
intervention.
We describe characteristics of lodgepole pine which allow it to function as a pioneer species and dis-
cuss early uses of direct seeding of lodgepole in reclamation. Pine established from seed develops better
root geometry than transplants and is free of nursery adapted microflora. Due to lodgepole pines high
internal cycling of nitrogen, over time soil nutrient capital will build up as long-lived high C/N ratio
litter which discourages invasion by weedy species and reduces the likelihood of nitrate assisted cation
leaching. A location appropriate vegetative cover can be established from the outset without the diffi-
cult changeover in vegetative community that is required when agronomic species are used to establish
cover.

1 INTRODUCTION and then adding those components directly to cir-

The five factors of soil formation were proposed
by Dokuchaev in 1886 and these factors were later
adopted by Jenny and were widely accepted as the
factors which drive ecosystem development, Flor-
insky (2012). The five factors of soil formation are
typically stated now as parent material, topogra-
phy, climate, biota and time. In reclamation it is
usually desirable to reduce the time required for
ecosystem development to a complex and stable
community that is compatible with surrounding
uses or communities and of the remaining factors,
biota is most easily manipulated.
Biota changes soil by contributing such fac-
tors as soil organic matter, nitrogen, soil structure
and others. Time can be shortened by observing
the evolved components of a mature ecosystem
cumvent the long slow pedogenic processes that
normally progress from a highly disturbed site.
So, for example, nitrogen capital is typically low
after severe disturbance while later seral temper-
ate forest communities have much greater nutrient
capital in the soil and the forest floor. The obvious
short cut to speeding up ecosystem maturation is
to artificially increase nitrogen capital to the site.
This can be done in the form of fertilizer, relatively
high nitrogen organic substrates such as biosolids
or with easily established nitrogen fixing species.
Adding biosolids or other readily available
sources of nitrogen creates a low C/N ration nitro-
gen pool which is not the normal condition for
most temperate forests. Many of the nitrogen fixing
species used in reclamation are adapted to grass-
land environments and they also result in lower

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 C/N ratio nitrogen pools. In contrast, lodgepole
pine is one of the most common pioneering spe-
cies in British Columbia, Chapman et al. (2012).
Lodgepole pine creates a nitrogen pool in highly
disturbed environments that has several specific
characteristics, most obviously the C/N ratio tends
to be high and decomposition is relatively slow.
High C/N ratio and slow decomposition rate do
not seem to describe an ideal nitrogen source to the
agriculturist but those characteristics are impor-
tant in shaping the type of community that the
site will support. As Read & Perez-Moreno (2002)
describe, the biomes of the world can generally be
described by their dominant mycorrhizal symbi-
oses and the way in which those symbionts access
nutrients. A simplification of their concept is that
as biomes increase in elevation or moisture, more
nitrogen and phosphorus is sequestered in organic
form and the changing communities of mycor-
rhizae play critical roles in accessing those nutrients.
One extreme of environment is a highly disturbed
environment with low C/N ratio and high levels of
nutrients. This is an environment conducive to the
growth of weeds, many of which, such as many
of the Brassicaceae, or non-mycorrhizal. There-
fore the addition of low C/N ratio, high nutrient
organic amendments to highly disturbed sites can
be predicted to be most conducive to the growth of
weeds which will compete with the establishment
of later seral species whose competitive advantages
may include the ability to directly access organi-
cally bound nutrient.
Our work has shown that lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta var. latifolia) is capable of establishing
and growing well on the most inhospitable parent
material environments that are commonly encoun-
tered in British Columbia. Many of the forests of
BC have extended lodgepole pine seres promoted
by repeated fire disturbance or logging practices.
Therefore, any pine forest established on mining
disturbance has the advantage of being immedi-
ately compatible with surrounding forests in the
province.
The root symbionts of lodgepole play a criti-
cal role in adaptation to nutrient poor systems
(Paul et al. 2013). Commercial seedlings are typi-
cal produced in high moisture, high nutrient envi-
ronments with root symbionts adapted to those
conditions (Cram et al. 2012). One way to avoid
having to transition from nursery symbionts when
the tree is introduced to field conditions is to seed
directly into the highly disturbed environment.
Ample empirical evidence shows that lodgepole
pine is able to establish itself in highly disturbed
environments including abandoned gravel roads
and gravel mines.
This work describes initial attempts to establish
lodgepole pine in highly disturbed environments
234
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 234
by direct seeding and is the beginning of the proc-
ess of determining whether or not direct seeded
lodgepole pine can be used to initiate ecosystems
compatible with forested ecosystems. Three sepa-
rate trials are described: seeding after a severe high
intensity burn, seeding into a gravel mine with
mycorrhizal inoculation and direct seeding onto
mine tailings.
2 METHODS
2.1 Gravel mine inoculations
Two broad categories of mycorrhizae have been
described on lodgepole pine which are particularly
relevant to survival in pioneer environments. The
first is tuberculate mycorrhizae which have been
shown by Paul et al. 2006 to be the locus of nitro-
gen fixation at rates comparable to those found in
other nitrogen fixing symbioses. The second myc-
orrhizal structure is a short root of indeterminate
length which forms on pines growing on rapidly
drained coarse textured soils.
In the fall of 2012 lodgepole pine was broadcast
seeded over 0.5 ha of mine tailings to test the abil-
ity of the species to germinate and establish on that
material. In June 2013, stratified lodgepole pine seed
was applied to an additional 0.5 ha of mixed mine
tailings and overburden to compare the efficacy of
the two seeding dates. The spring seeded area was
treated with glyphosate to reduce grass competition.
The seeding rate was 50,000 seeds/ha in the fall and
30,000 seeds/ha of locally collected seed.
These structures were described by Bravi (2009)
in her masters thesis.
2.2 Burned area study
In 2009 and 2010, a large number of fires burned
hundreds of thousands of hectares of forest in
British Columbia. Some of the fires were so severe
that the forest floor was entirely consumed over
many thousands of hectares which removed much
of the nutrient capital of the volatile nutrients and
eliminated virtually all tree seed on the sites. Two
study sites were established and seeded by hand
placement of seed into the burned surface or by
mechanically blowing the seed onto a cultivated
soil surface directly behind a forestry cultivation
implement called a disc trencher. Approximately
60 hectares at each site were treated with three rep-
licates of each treatment.
2.3 Gravel mine studies
In 2013, seeds were planted into gravelly parent
material in two gravel mines. The mines were devoid
of vegetation and could be considered among the
8/27/2014 5:59:49 PM
 most challenging types of environments to estab-
lish a vegetative cover. Various replicated tech-
niques were used to inoculate mycorrhizal fungi
onto lodgepole pine germinants to test the poten-
tial to establish mycorrhizal symbionts adapted to
the local conditions and climate.
3 RESULTS
Lodgepole pine produces tuberculate mycorrhizae
which are mycorrhizae where a much bifurcated
feeder root forms a tight cluster that is surrounded
by extrametrical hyphae and then by a peridium of
dense hyphae (Fig. 1).
The gravel pit inoculation resulted in successful
inoculation of the target fungi as determined by
mycorrhizal and hyphal morphology. The simplest
treatment which was a spore drench, was one of
the more successful treatments. The gravel pits
were exposed to abundant mycorrhizal inoculum
Figure 1. Wild Suillus tomentosus and Pinus contorta
tuberculate mycorrhiza showing the main features of this
structure.
Figure 2. Indeterminately elongating mycorrhizae
formed in slurry inoculated germinants.
235
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 235
from the adjacent forest and the untreated germi-
nants also became mycorrhizal but at a lower rate
than the inoculated treatments.
One fungal species which causes indeterminate
elongation of short roots is Tricholoma zelleri.
Inoculation with spores of this fungus resulted
in the expected indeterminately elongated feeder
roots of this mycorrhizal symbiosis.
3.1 Burned areas
On one site the average germinant density 1.25
years after seeding was approximately 1700 seed-
lings/ha for seeding into cultivated ground and
70 seedlings/ha for seeding onto burned ground.
At the other site the average seedling density in
the cultivated ground was 4600 seedling/ha and
800 seedlings/ ha for hand seeding onto burned
ground. On the first site 20% to 30% of the ger-
minants died in the first winter when conditions
were unusually severe. On the second site and in
years subsequent to the first winter on the first site,
germinant mortality has been < 1%.
3.2 Mine tailing study
By the beginning of July in 2013, approximately
8 months after seeding, there were 9000 germi-
nants/ha. July was an extraordinarily dry month
with only about 1 mm precipitation. Approximately
1/3 of the germinants died leaving 6000 germi-
nants/ha by the end of the growing season 2013. As
of spring 2014 there was almost complete survival
of the remaining germinants. The spring seeding
did not germinate due to the dry conditions in the
summer of 2013 and the site has been reseeded.
4 CONCLUSION
Lodgepole pine has been seeded into very severely
disturbed environments including materials that
could be considered parent material, that is, with
no soil pedogenesis. Some treatments have given
very promising results with regard to the possi-
bility of establishing a forest cover from seed. We
have also proven the possibility of inoculating root
symbionts onto germinants in these environments
and are currently testing inoculation on a larger
scale.
Once germinants transition into seedlings at
about 1 year of age, they appear to be very hardy
with mortalities falling very close to zero. Based on
our experience observing naturally regenerated dis-
turbed areas, we expect our seeded areas will tran-
sition rapidly into early seral forests with complex
plant and animal communities. This may happen
naturally or with assistance. We are continuing
8/27/2014 5:59:49 PM
 experimentation with symbionts inoculation on Florinsky, I.V., 2012. The Dokuchaev hypothesis as a
mine spoils and with diversifying plant communi- basis for predictive digital soil mapping (On the 125th
ties in areas with established pioneer species. anniversary of its publication). Eurasian Soil Science,
45: 445451.
Paul, L.R., W.K. Chapman and C.P. Chanway 2013.
Diazotrophic bacteria reside inside Suillus tomentosus/
REFERENCES Pinus contorta tuberculata ectomycorrhizal Botany 91:
4852.
Chapman, W.K. Paul, L.R. 2012. Evidence that north-
ern pioneering pines with tuberculate mycorrhizae are
unaffected by varying soil nitrogen levels. Microbial
Ecology 64: Open Access.
Cram, Michelle M., Dumroese, R. Kasten. 2012. Mycor-
rhizae in forest tree nurseries. In: Cram, Michelle M.;
Frank, Michelle S.; Mallams, Katy M., tech. coords.
Forest nursery pests. Agriculture Handbook 680 rev.
2012. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Forest Service. p. 2023.

236

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 236 8/27/2014 5:59:51 PM

 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Effect of environmental materials on plant growth

and immobilization of heavy metal lead and cadmium

Z.B. Huang, P.C. Sun, J. Chen & J. Zhong

School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing),
Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Immobilization of heavy metal is an important way for restoration of the contaminated
soil in situ so as to reduce the absorption amount of heavy metal by props. The pot method was used to
explore the effect of environmental materials (humus material HA, polymer absorbent materials SAP,
coal-derived composite material FM and salty mineral materials FS) on the plant (maize, soybean) growth
and absorption to heavy metal of lead (Pb 150 mg/kg) and cadmium (Cd 10 mg/kg). The results
showed that different environmental materials and their composites can markedly reduce the absorption
amount of Pb, Cd by maize and soybean, and also promote growth of crops. Except a few treatments,
the Pb, Cd content in maize shoot in most treatments decreases by 51%71% and 66%84% compared
with that of control, in soybean shoot in all treatments decreases by 54%76% and 33%58% compared
with that of control. Comparatively, SAP and the composites can reduce the absorption amount of heavy
metal Pb, Cd in the soil of over 80% and 50%. Respectively, F2 (FS+HA+SAP) can be used as the renova-
tion agent for restoration of heavy metal contaminated soil.

1 INTRODUCTION transporting capability and bioavailability (Bolan

Soil is an important part of plant ecological envi-
ronment, also an important source of water and
nutrient resource for crop growth. With the increas-
ing urban and industrial pollution, agricultural fer-
tilizing, sewage irrigating, sludge application and
other aspects, the soil heavy metal pollution become
seriously, the plant growth and quality appeals for
more and more attention (Sun T H et al. 2005).
At present, the area of heavy metal contaminated
farming land in China is about 2.5 107 hm2, more
than 7 105 hm2 of which is seriously polluted.
Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) are more common
(Chen 2001).
The restoration of heavy metal contaminated
soil commonly includes chemical, biological,
agricultural engineering methods, physical and
chemical disposal methods and others. Biologi-
cal restoration technology and chemical immobi-
lization technology developed faster than other
methods (Zhou et al. 2004). Heavy metals were
removed from soil or transformed into innocu-
ous matter mainly through botany enrichment or
microbial transformation, many people have stud-
ied this technology and summarized it (Guo et al.
2006). Chemical immobilization technology is an
economical and acceptable method, heavy metal
passivating agents are applied into soil to change
the physical and chemical quality and to lower the
et al. 2003, Zhou et al. 2009 & Wang et al. 2011).
With the development of the sustainable devel-
opment theory and application, the environment
friendly heavy metal passivating materials are
more and more pay attention. Yamamoto Ryoichi
brought the concept of environmental material
in early 1990s, who contended that environmental
material should be a kind of material with maxi-
mum performance and minimum environmental
load. At present, heavy metal passivating agents
mainly include clay mineral, phosphates, zeolite,
inorganic mineral, organic composts and microor-
ganism and other environmental materials.
Coal-based materials and organic materials
have a better stable effect on heavy metal. A study
showed that organic substances have the function
to immobilization or transforming heavy metal
statue from high toxicity Cr6+ to lower toxicity
Cr3+ (Yu 1998). Yu (2002) found that applica-
tion of fly ash to passivate sludge can significantly
reduce the content of Zn, Cu, Mn and Pb in cocks-
bomb and tall fescue plants. Hu Zhenqi et al. (2006)
evaluated how to remediate heavy metal contami-
nated soil by using clay mineral and mycorrhizal.
Ou et al. (2010) studied the impact on cabbage
of soil improved by sludge, coal-based composite
materials and lime.
Zoelite, apatite, iron minerals and phosphate
materials, owing to their low price, high efficiency

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 and wide variety of sources, were used as the min-
eral materials to remediate heavy metal contami-
nated soil, the research on which appeals more
and more attention (Gao et al. 2010). Zhang et al.
(1998) proved that the unique pore structures and
large amounts of exchangeable positive particles
in zeolite molecular making the adsorption value
of heavy metal Pb and Cd particularly significant.
Zhou (2007) summarized the progress on using
phosphate to remedy the heavy metal contami-
nated soil from research methods and the mecha-
nism, risk assessment and other aspects.
Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) is a newly dis-
covered environmental material that can immobi-
lize heavy metal. Huang et al. (2005) found that
SAP can directly supply water for plant, las improve
soil structure and converse nutrient. Meanwhile, it
brought a good effect in reducing the influence of
heavy metal absorbed by plants.
Presently there are more environmental mate-
rials for improving heavy metal polluted soil, but
most materials are concentrated on single ele-
ment, and studied on the soil restoration of more
heavy metal pollution are fewer (Cao X D, 2011).
Therefore, this study was to test the effect of SAP,
humus material and mineral materials and their
composite on crop growth to the soil polluted by
Pb and Cd. The purpose is to provide a scientific
basis and technology reference for improving
heavy metal pollution soil, promoting crop growth
and product safety.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Materials for test
The soil is from the farmland top soil (020 cm)
of Tongzhou District, Beijing. Clay: 16.23%, par-
ticle: 59.27%, sand: 24.5%, total carbon: 1.01%,
soil bulk density: 1.39 g cm3, field water capacity
is 19.3%, pH 7.50, EC 0.28 ms cm1, organic mat-
ter 5.7 g kg1, background Pb 19.115 mg kg1,
Cd 0.063 mg kg1. The samples are naturally
dried, broken and excluded of debris, then fil-
tered through the nylon sieve with bore diameter
2 mm, 7 kg soil is loaded within 25 cm 20 cm
plastic pots. The samples are mixed with urea 5.
Pb and Cd, whose concentration are respectively
500 mg kg1, 10 mg kg1, are uniformly added in
the form of Pb (NO3)2, CdCl2 2.5H2O metal salt
solution, the test is to be laid out after aging for
two weeks.
The environmental materials selected include
humus material (HA), polymer absorbent materi-
als (SAP), coal-derived composite material (FM)
and mineral materials (FS). HA is offered by Inner
Mongolia Huolin River Coal Industry Group Co.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 238
Ltd. SAP is offered by Tangshan Boya Technology
Group Ltd. FM is made up of 91% powder sand
and 9% clay, whose surface color is gray, pH value
is 8.36, is offered by Shanxi Datong Coal Mine
Group Co. Ltd. FS is offered by Henan Xinyang
Huaiye Coal Industry Ltd.
The crops for test include maize (Era. 1) and
soybean (Taiwan, NO. 292) are all provided by
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science.
2.2 Experiment design and treatment
A control treatment without environmental mate-
rials is set up, there are a single treatment and the
combined treatments, the total is 8 treatments,
repeating 3 times, 48 pots for two kind of crops
altogether (Table 1).
The usage amount of environmental materi-
als is according to a literature (Peng 2011), FM is
5% weight of dry soil, HA 0.005%, SAP 0.1%, FS
1%. The environmental materials are mixed with
soil samples according to the design. The single
material amount is combined treatment is same to
single treatment. When soil water is approximately
50% of the field capacity, tap-water is irrigated to
100% of the field capacity. The aerial part of crops
are taken to measure the content of heavy metal
Pb and Cd. Maize and soybean seeds are selected
and planted at early April, three holes per pot, two
seeds per hole. The pots are watered one time in
2 days.
2.3 Determination of the plants dry
weight and Pb, Cd content
The dry weight is determined using Oven Gravi-
metric Method, the plants are digested using Dry
ashing methods and the content of lead and cad-
mium in plants are determined by Mass Spectrom-
etry ICP-MS (ppb) Plant height and leaf area are
mainly selected as the plant growth index. The
plant height is determined using the ruler method,
the leaf area using length and width coefficient
method, area = length*width*coefficient, soy-
bean coefficient is 0.8, maize coefficient is 0.75.
The soil field water capacity is determined by core
cutter method. According to the requirements of
GB7859-87.
Table 1. Pot experiment design.
T FI F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
M FM FS FM HA SAP FM FS CK
SAP HA SAP
HAFS SAP HA
*The T is short for treatment, M for material.
238
8/27/2014 5:59:51 PM
 3 EXPERIMENT RESULTS
AND ANALYSIS
3.1 The effect of environmental materials
on soybean and maize growth
According to the Figure 1, Figure 2, all treatments
can make maize and soybean grow significantly
better than that of the CK (F8). The F3 effect on
maize and soybean is the most obviously. F3 can rise
the plant height of maize and soybean by 107.1%
and 60.7%, and the leaf area by 125% and 83.3%
compared with that of CK. F7 is the most effective
among single materials, it can increase 30.8% and
33.3% plant height growth of maize and soybean
is, respectively,, followed by F5 and F4. The height
and dry weight of maize, under the single and com-
posite treatment of Pb and Cd, were lower than
THAT OF ck compared with the previous results
(Li Yong et al., 2009), indicating that the inhibition
of heavy metal on the crop growth was removed.
3.2 The effect of different materials
on the absorption of heavy metal lead
and cadmium by maize and soybean
3.2.1 The effect of different materials
on the absorption of heavy metal lead
and cadmium by maize
Table 2 showed that effect of diverse environmen-
tal materials and their composite on the absorption
of Pb and Cd for maize is different. Compound
materials F1 and F2 make the Pb absorbing
amount of maize decrease by 69.5% and 66.9%,
while F3 decreases by 50.8%, compared with CK.
The solidifying effect of single materials F5 and
F6 is significant, the Pb content in aerial parts of
maize decreases by 70.5% and 65.5% compared
with CK. The effect of F4 and F7 is relatively not
so obvious, decreases by 8.43% and 5.13% respec-
tively compared with CK.
Compound materials F1, F2 and F3 are obvi-
ously effective on reducing Cd absorption by maize,
the absorption amount reduces by 81.8%, 79.6%
and 75.8%, respectively, compared with CK. Sin-
gle material F5 decreases by 84.1%, other materials
and their composite decreases by 57.8% to 65.6%,
compared with CK. Consequently, all treatments
make the Pb and Cd absorption amount by maize
decrease, F5 is the most effective in single materials.
Environmental materials all have a certain effect
on solidifying Pb and Cd, polymer materials F5
(SAP) and their composite F1 (SAP+FS+HA+FM),
F2 (SAP+FS+HA) and F3 (SAP+HA+FM), are all
significantly effective.
3.2.2 The effect of environmental materials on the
absorption of lead and cadmium by soybean
The effect of environmental materials on Pb, Cd
absorption by soybean (Table 3) is similar to that of
maize. Compound materials F1, F2 and F3 make
the absorption amount of soil heavy metal lead
for soybean decreases by 76.3%, 69.3% and 68.8%,
compared with that of F8. Single materials F5
and F7 decrease by 69.2% and 71.3%, F4 and F6
decrease by 53.4% to 53.5%, compared with that
of the control group F8.
Compound material treatment F3 is significantly
effective in Cd solidifying of soil, the Cd content
in aerial parts of soybean decreases by 54.5%
compared with that of CK (F8). The Cd content
in aerial parts of maize in F2 and F3 treatments
decreases by 32.7% to 47% compared with that of

Table 2. The effect of different environmental materials

Figure 1. The height of maize and soybean grow- on Pb and Cd absorption by maize.
ing in heavy metal Pb, Cd soil to using environ-
mental materials. Disposal Plant dry Pb content Cd content
pattern weight (g) (ug/g) (ug/g)

MF1 0.5071 3.577 0.323 17.107 1.490

MF2 0.5600 3.887 0.262 14.438 1.211
MF3 0.4457 5.766 0.518 12.834 0.589
MF4 0.3108 10.755 0.886 24.332 1.388
MF5 1.1280 3.466 0.133 11.268 0.472
MF6 0.8801 4.054 0.219 20.472 0.635
MF7 0.2735 11.143 0.973 29.863 1.069
CK 0.4063 11.746 0.691 70.699 0.546
Figure 2. The leaf area of maize and soybean
growing in heavy metal Pb, Cd soil to using envi- *The M before the processing number indicates maize
ronmental materials. treatment.

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 Table 3. The effect of different environmental materials of heavy metal lead and cadmium, the absorption
on the absorption of lead and cadmium by soybean. amount of heavy metal lead and cadmium of cereal
crops (Maize) and leguminous crops (soybean) is
Disposal Plant dry Pb content Cd content different. Environmental materials can reduce 50%
pattern weight (g) (ug/g) (ug/g)
to 80% heavy metal lead absorption by maize and
SF1 0.4485 3.158 0.260 11.511 0.617 soybean, respectively, but to cadmium absorp-
SF2 0.3289 4.089 0.367 14.617 1.005 tion by maize and soybean is different, maize can
SF3 0.2935 4.153 0.343 9.872 0.797 reduce the Cd absorbent in 60%80%, the soybean
SF4 0.3825 6.137 0.261 14.556 0.516 30%60%, which is related to the high content of
SF5 0.2607 4.103 0.630 9.158 0.825
protein in leguminous crops. Therefore, the absorp-
SF6 0.2065 6.206 0.557 13.075 1.235
tion amount of Pb and Cd by soybean is large. It
SF7 0.3074 3.815 0.539 14.159 0.925
can be seen from the analysis that polymer mate-
rials (SAP) and their composite can significantly
CK 0.2779 13.305 0.343 21.698 0.831
reduce the absorption amount of heavy metal lead
*The S before the processing number indicates soybean and cadmium by over 80% and 50% respectively.
treatment. F2 (SAP+HA+FS) can be used as the improver
agent for restoring the soil contaminated by heavy
metal lead and cadmium.
CK. The effect of single material treatment F5 is
the most obvious, the Cd content in aerial parts ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of soybean decrease by 57.8% compared with that
of CK, the Cd content in aerial parts of F4, F6 The authors thank the financial support by National
and F7 decrease by 32.7% to 39.6% compared with Twelfth-Five Plan 863 Project (2011AA100503),
CK, it indicated that these material treatments and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Cen-
have some inhibitory action in the absorption of tral Universities (2010YH04).
soil heavy metal for soybean.

4 CONCLUSIONS
Adding special environmental materials into soil
can solidify heavy metals, relieve the inhibition of
heavy metals on crop growth, significantly reduce
the absorption amount of soil heavy metals by
maize and soybean and the influence of heavy met-
als on the quality of crops.
The solidifying effect of environmental material
on soil heavy metals and the promotion of crops
growth are relevant with its properties and effect.
The environmental materials applied in the experi-
ment can promote the crops growth and relieve the
inhibition of heavy metal lead and cadmium on
crops height and dry weight (Li Yong et al., 2009).
Humus material is a kind of organic material that
can improve the soil structure and increase the soil
fertility (Yu Guifen et al., 2002). Polymer mate-
rial (SAP) has a stronger ability of binding soil
ion and an obvious effect on solidifying soil heavy
metal lead and cadmium (Huang Z B et al., 2005).
Mineral material (FS) is a kind of porous objective
with extraordinary specific surface area, which can
effectively adsorb lead and cadmium in soil (Zhang
Y Q, 1998; Shi W Y, 2009; M. N. Kuznetsov, 2009).
Compound F2 (SAP+HA+FS) is most effective in
solidifying soil ion.
Environmental materials and their composite
can significantly reduce the absorption amount
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Is there any possible way of the use of industrial wastes

in crop production?

B. Tth, L.G. Nagy, L. Nagy, Sz. Veres & L. Lvai

Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop Physiology, Institute of Crop Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and
Food Science and Environmental Management, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

ABSTRACT: The effect of applied wastes and by-products (flue gas powder, grinding sludge, and met-
allurgy lime sludge) was examined in nutrient solution and soil experiments. The experimental plant was
Zea mays. The relative chlorophyll contents were measured in the second and third leaves of maize. The
dry weight of roots and shoots significantly decreased at the flue-gas treatments in the nutrient solution
and in soil experiments, too.
We would like to find solutions on how to use wastes and by-products in the agricultural crop pro-
duction practice in our work. In the different industrial procedures and probably during the everyday
use some by-products and wastes are generated which have high micro- and macro element content and
these do not endanger the environment. They should not be handled as wastes but rather as nutrient
amendments.

1 INTRODUCTION found in a huge amount. Some of these by-prod-

The production of fertilizers is not only expensive
but it is a procedure which needs enormous energy.
One of the reasons for that is during other indus-
trial activities such as by-products are produced in
high quantity in which the necessary nutrients for
plants can be found in a big amount. Besides the
high price of fertilizer the use of produced wastes
is economically reasonable. Finally, the other rea-
son for the reduction of fertilizer use is that the
inappropriate use of the fertilizers may cause envi-
ronmental pollution.
An adequate supply of nutrients is essential to
crop growth. However, fertilizers are sometimes
overapplied (National Research Council, 1989). In
intensive cropping, continuous use of high levels
of chemicals fertilizers often leads to nutritional
imbalance in soil and decline in crop productivity
(Nambiar, 1994). Growing of crops with chemical
ferilizers alone cannot mitigate to loss the C, N and
P while combined application of organic manure
and chemical fertilizer was effective in this respect
(Agbenin and Goladi, 1997).
Agricultural crops reduce the green-house effect
because they bind CO2 which contributes to the
causing of green-house effect by about 50%. The
reduction of fertilizers portion has become essen-
tial in the crop production by now. One of the rea-
sons for that is during other industrial activities
such as by-products are produced in high quantity
in which the necessary nutrients for plants can be
ucts have high organic content. This is a funda-
mental essential condition for the microorganisms
appearing in the soil without which the sustainable
crop production cannot be achieved.
Besides the high fertilizer prices the use of pro-
duced wastes is economically reasonable. Finally,
the other reason for the reduction of fertilizer use
is that the inappropriate use of the fertilizers may
cause environmental pollution.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Nutrient solution experiment
The experimental plant was maize (Zea mays L.
cvs. Norma). The seeds were soaked in 10 mM
CaSO4 for 4 hours after sterilization and then ger-
minated on moistened filter paper at 22oC. The
seedlings were transferred to continuously aerated
nutrient solution of the following composition:
2.0 mM Ca(NO3)2, 0.7 mM K2SO4, 0.5 mM MgSO4,
0.1 mM KH2PO4, 0.1 mM KCl, 1 M H3BO3, 1 M
MnSO4, 10 M ZnSO4, 0.25 M CuSO4, 0.01 M
(NH4)6Mo7O24. Iron was added to the nutrient
solution as Fe(III)-EDTA at a concentration of
100 M. The native materials were used in the
quantity of 2 g dm3 in the nutrient solution and
5 g dm3 in soil experiment.
The lime sludge is coming from metallurgy waste
transformer plant. The grinding sludge originated
from metal factory work.

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 2.2 Soil experiment like heavy metals. The tolerant plants exclude the
harmful elements from their metabolism, through
The experimental plant was maize (Zea mays L.
the excretion of the elements to the vacuole. The
cvs. DKC5170). The seeds were soaked in 10 mM
sensitive plants are not able to transfer these ele-
CaSO4 for 4 hours.
ments from the roots, therefore these accumulate,
Calcareous chermozem soil was used in the
causing changing inmembrane functions, and also
experiment. The soil was collected from 030 cm
in effect on osmotic potential. The concentrations
deep. 5 g from the investigated materials (com-
of examined elements in the examined by-products
post, sewage sludge, lime sludge) were added to
can be seen in Table 1.
1 dm3 soil. The soil was mixed with sand (3:1,
The investigated element (especially toxic
v/v). The soil was moistened until the 50% of field
elements) can influence the growth if they are
capacity. The number of repetitions was four per
treatments.
The applied soil characteristic parameters were Table 1. Elements content in the different by-products
the pHKCl 5.71, pHH2O 6.58. The content of CaCO3 (flue gas, grinding sludge, lime sludge) mg kg1.
was 0.202%, the humus content was 3.54%.
By-products

2.2 Measuring Grinding Lime

Elements Flue-gas sludge sludge
The seedlings were grown under controlled envi-
ronmental conditions (light/dark regime 10/14 h at Al 1090 304 3440
24/20oC, relative humidity of 6570% and a photo- Cr 3.57 9000 169
synthetic photon flux of 300 mol m2 s1). Fe 2362 683000 118500
The relative chlorophyll content was meas- K 349 235 1010
ured on the second and third leaves. The relative Mg 2550 582 5055
chlorophyll content was measured with a SPAD- Mn 112 4078 1983
502 (MINOLTA, Japan) Chlorophyll Meter. The Ni 6.02 709 68
results are shown as SPAD-units in the tables. P 84,8 ND 162
The dry weight of shoots and roots were meas- Pb ND 33,3 80,7
ured with thermal gravimetric analysis. The plant S 650 585 767
samples were dried at 85C for weight permanence Zn 7,83 136 106
and were measured with analytical scale (OHAUS)
after cooling back them to room temperature. The
number of repetition was 9. Table 2. Effect of examined by-products (flue gas,
To measure the total elements concentration, compost, grinding sludge, lime sludge) on the dry
whole roots and shoots were blotted with filter weight of maize (g plant1) growing on nutrient solution.
paper, dried at 85C and then digested. Ten ml n = 9 S.E. Significant differences compared to the
HNO3 (65 v/v%) was added to each gram of the control: ***p < 0.001.
samples for overnight incubation. Then, the sam-
Treatments DW of shoot DW of root
ples were pre-digested for 30 min at 60C. Finally,
3 ml H2O2 (30 m/m%) was added for 90 min. boil- Control 0.199 0.03 0.064 0.01
ing at 120C. The solution were filled up to 50 ml, Flue-gas powder 0.128 0.02*** 0.023 0.00***
homogenised and filtered through MN 640 W Grinding sludge 0.282 0.03*** 0.066 0.01
filter paper. The elements contents were meas- Lime sludge 0.285 0.03*** 0.072 0.01
ures with the use of OPTIMA 3300 DV ICP-OA
Spectrophotometer.
All of the data were analyzed statistically using
Microsoft Office Excel 2003 (Microsoft) for calcu- Table 3. Effect of filtrates of examined by-products
(flue gas, compost, grinding sludge, lime sludge) on the
lating mean and SE and Sigma Plot 8.0 version for dry weight of maize (DW) (g plant1) growing on soil.
t-test. n = 9 S.E. Significant differences compared to the
control: ***p < 0.001.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Treatments DW of shoot DW of root
The effect of any nutrients can be considered Control 0.192 0.03 0.167 0.02
directly, when the plants take it up, and the element Flue-gas powder 0.129 0.05*** 0.113 0.04***
gets into the living cell. Then the elements will be Grinding sludge 0.257 0.05*** 0.281 0.05***
transferred to the different part of plant. Among Lime sludge 0.253 0.20*** 0.172 0.04
the elements there are plenty of harmful ones,

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 Table 4. Effect of flue gas, grinding sludge and lime sludge treatments on the relative
chlorophyll contents of 2nd and 3rd leaves of maize grown on nutrient solution (Spad
Units) Significant differences comparison to the control: ***p < 0.001.

Treatments 6th day 9th day 11th day

Rel. chlorophyll content in the 2nd leaf of maize

Control 36.77 3.35 37.27 3.92 38.38 2.31
Flue-gas powder 34.70 3.82 33.34 4.45*** 30.36 2.73***
Grinding sludge 43.10 3.09*** 48.63 2.85* 46.35 2.09***
Lime sludge 38.02 1.39 42.81 3.12*** 43.92 1.58***
Rel. chlorophyll content in the 3rd leaf of maize
Control 29.74 3.46 28.61 4.99 24.94 2.20
Flue-gas powder 31.42 2.47 37.19 3.68*** 41.20 2.13***
Grinding sludge 35.39 3.99*** 43.85 3.07*** 45.63 2.01***
Lime sludge 25.40 2.83* 26.01 3.36 25.99 2.89

Table 5. Effect of flue gas, grinding sludge and lime
sludge treatments on the relative chlorophyll contents
of 2nd and 3rd leaves of maize grown on soil conditions
(Spad Units) Significant differences comparison to the
control: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
Treatments 2nd leaf 3rd leaf
Control 42.56 2.41 41.56 2.41
Flue-gas powder 40.73 3.03 39.60 0.98
Grinding sludge 39.63 1.07 38.26 0.97
Lime sludge 38.75 4.95 38.96 2.58
accumulated in larger or smaller quantities in
plants, so we measured the dry matter accumula-
tion of shoots and roots of maize during the nutri-
ents solution and soil experiments. Table 2 shows
the results of dry matter accumulation.
The dry weight of roots and shoots significantly
decreased when flue-gas powder was added to the
nutrient solution. The dry weight of shoots signifi-
cantly increased with the grinding sludge and lime
sludge treatment. This increase was not significant
in case of roots. Lime sludge treatment had more
positive effect on dry weight of maize than grind-
ing sludge in nutrient solution.
The dry weight of shoot and root of maize
decreased when flue-gas powder was added to the
soil.
These values were increased at the grinding
sludge and lime sludge treatments.
The decreasing dry matter accumulation can
be explained by the lower level of the chloro-
phyll contents. With respect to this latter sugges-
tion, we measured the relative chlorophyll content
on the 2nd and 3rd leaves of maize. Table 4 and
Table 5 show the relative chlorophyll contents.
The relative chlorophyll content in the second
leave of maize decreased when flue-gas powder
was added to the nutrient solution. This value sig-
nificantly increased in the third leaf of maize on
the 9th and 11th days of measuring compared to
the control value.
The SPAD Units significantly increased in the
second and third leaf at the grinding sludge treat-
ments. The relative chlorophyll increased with 6,
11 and 8 SPAD Units in the second leaf and with
5.5, 15 and 21 SPAD Units in the third leaf. The
increasing of relative chlorophyll content was
higher in the second leaf than in the third leaf.
The relative chlorophyll content decreased at all
treatments compared to the control in soil experi-
ment. This difference shows that the growing cul-
ture has an effect on measured plant physiological
parameters.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The use of these by-products in agriculture offers
us the possibility to moderate the quantities of min-
eral fertilizers to be used in agriculture. As a side
effect, the total CO2 emission could be decreased,
as well. The criteria of their application include
that they should not exercise any toxic effect on
plants or pollute the environment, but can be used
in replacement of the expensively manufactured
chemicals.
All of the by-products involved into the experi-
ments are generated in huge volumes; therefore,
they can be suitable for solving nutrient deficiency
problems in large agricultural fields.
On the base of experiments, we have come to the
conclusion that all of the examined by-products
can be used in the nutrition supply of plants, but
it is essential to determine the concentrations of
application accurately for field use. This statement
is particularly true for grinding sludge and flue-gas
powder. Lime sludgewhich in terms of origin is

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 245 8/27/2014 5:59:52 PM

 not identical to the lime sludge coming from sugar
(beet) factorymay be suitable for maintaining
the soil pH, while the by-products featuring large
organic matter contents are good for the improve-
ment of general conditions of soils.
In summary, we came to the conclusion that the
by-products that were involved to our experiments
can be applied for full or partial replacement of the
costly made chemicals as the case may be, though
as the composition of the by-products, e.g. sewage
sludge, may change, it is necessary the continuous
monitoring of the by-products offered for agricul-
tural use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by the European
Union and the State of Hungary, co-financed
246
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 246
by the European Social Fund in the framework
of TMOP 4.2.4.A/2-11-1-2012-0001 National
Excellence Program.
REFERENCES
Agbenin, J. O. & Goladi, J. T. 1997. Carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus dynamics under continuous cultivation as
influenced by farmyard manure and inorganic fertiliz-
ers in the savanna. Agr Ecosyst Environ 63, 1724.
Nambiar, K. K.M. 1994. Soil fertility and crop produc-
tivity under long-term fertilizer use in India. ICAR
Publication. New Delhi.
National Research Council. 1989. Alternative Agricul-
ture. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
8/27/2014 5:59:53 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Effect of reclamation on diversity of soil bacterial community

in mining subsidence area

Y.Y. Li, L.Q. Chen, T. Zhang & T.J. Zhou

School of Environment Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China

ABSTRACT: Soil microbial diversity is critical for the maintenance of soil health and ecological bal-
ance. Here, composition and diversity of soil bacterial community in reclaimed soils and coal-excavated
subsided soils were measured using 454 pyrosequencing methods. The dataset comprised a total of 13,369
sequences, which were affiliated with the Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi,
Bacteroidetes, Gemmatimonadetes, Planctomycetes, Nitrospirae, Firmicutes, and Verrucomicrobia. Results
showed that reclaimed soils had more community abundance and diversity of bacteria than subsided
soils. Differences in abundances of dominant taxonomic groups at different taxonomic levels between
reclaimed and subsided soils were visible, suggesting that long-term land reclamation has considerably
changed the edaphic environment of microflora, with significant influence on soil bacteria. Correlation
analysis indicated that soil organic matter and total nitrogen might be important factors shaping the
underlying microbial community. Application of organic amendments and mixture mode of leguminosae
and gramineae herbage proved to be effective to improve soil fertility and restore soil microbial com-
munity diversity. It demonstrates that fertilizer treatment and re-vegetation have excellent effects on soil
bacterial communities, with soil characteristics controlling or mediating biogeochemical processes and
microbial community structure. This study provides a comprehensive understanding on the response
of bacterial community to long-term soil reclamation of abandoned mine land and provides important
implications for restoration of mine eco-environment in China.

In recent years, interest has been generated in the
succession of soil microbes during reclamation
and ecosystem restoration. Land reclamation
includes the management of all types of physi-
cal, chemical and biological disturbances of soils
affected by mining activities, with the purpose to
make the degraded land productive (Islam et al.
2009). Significant alterations in soil microbial
community potentially occur following drastic
disturbance during soil reclamation (ONeill et al.
2013). Changes in microbial activities, structure,
and functions can precede detectable changes in
soil physicochemical status, thereby providing
early signs of environmental degradation and
indicators for evaluation of soil restoration in
mining area (Grant et al. 2007; Anderson et al.
2008; Shen et al. 2008; Zhan & Sun 2014). Most
of the earlier studies were focused on effects of
reclamation on soil erosion or physicochemi-
cal properties, and so far, very few studies have
reported in-depth characterization of soil micro-
bial diversity associated with abandoned mine
land (Cai & Qin 2006; Mallarino & Borges 2006;
Lewis et al. 2012).
To date, some researchers have examined the
changes in microbial populations, microbial bio-
mass, and microbial activity during reclamation
processes (Dimitriu et al. 2010; Fan et al. 2011;
Hahn & Quideau 2013). Little is known, however,
about the effect of land reclamation or fertilizer
treatment on soil bacterial community diversity
and structure. There is still lack of information
about changes in the composition, abundance, and
diversity of bacterial communities after long-term
reclamation of abandoned mine land.
The objective of the present work was to assess
the response of soil bacterial community diversity to
land reclamation and fertilization treatment using
a pyrosequencing-based analysis of the V2-V3 16S
rRNA gene region in Chinese coal mining areas.
The current study explored how bacterial com-
munity structure and diversity changed after rec-
lamation and identified possible relationships with
soil properties. We hypothesized that (i) long-term
land reclamation would have significant influences
on soil microorganisms, and that (ii) variations in
abundance, composition, and diversity of bacteria
might be associated with soil abiotic factors.

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 1 MATERIALS AND METHODS
1.1 Study area and experimental design
The research was conducted at the Liuxin mine
area in the north of Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province,
China. In this mine area, eleven reclaimed
mine sites surface mined in the early 1980s and
reclaimed >15 year ago were selected for soil
sampling, and are termed as reclaimed sites or
TXD7. Soils in reclaimed sites (TXD7) have
received fertilization treatment and vegetation res-
toration since the land reclamation started. The
inputs of organic mixed manure varied between
three and five Mg ha1 before planting the crop.
Most of the organic amendments applied were
fresh vegetable residues with high carbon/nitrogen
ratio, composted vegetables, and animal waste.
Mix-planting experiment on legume with grami-
neous forage grass was also conducted at sites
TXD7. The mixture patterns consist of three kinds
of forage, alfalfa (Medic ago sativa), white clover
(Trifolium repens), ryegrass (Lolium perenne),
which were designed at the mixed sowing ratio of
3:3:2. The untreated, coal-excavated subsidence
land adjacent to reclaimed sites was also selected
for reference. Eleven subsided sites were cho-
sen from the unreclaimed post-mining land, and
called subsided sites or ZH7. The coal-mining
subsidence land affected by >20-yr underground
coal mining activities, was spontaneously colo-
nized by vegetation including Salix babylonica L.
and Populus tremula (1520 years old).
1.2 Sampling and selected soil properties
Soil samples were collected from the reclaimed
and subsided sites representing two soil treat-
ments: the reclaimed (TXD7) and subsided soil
(ZH7). Three soil cores (2.5 cm diameter) from
0 to 20 cm in depth were randomly collected and
mixed for each sampling site. A total of twenty-
two soil samples were collected, including eleven
from TXD7 and eleven from ZH7. All samples
were stored on ice upon collection and trans-
ported to the laboratory for DNA extraction.
After the soil was sieved through a 2 mm mesh
and manually homogenized, one portion was
stored at 4C prior to microbial analyses and the
other was dried at 40C for the determination of
soil chemical properties.
Soil Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus
(TP) were measured by the Kjeldahl method
(Bremmer 1965) and the Ammonium Molybdate
Spectrophotometry (Pan et al. 2003), respectively.
Soil Organic Matter (SOM) was determined as
reported by Wilson and Sanders (1996). Contents
of Available Potassium (AK) and Phosphorus
248
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 248
(AP) were measured by 1 mol L1 neutral NH4OAC
method and Olsen method, respectively (Bao 2008).
Soil pH was measured using a Hach pH meter
(Hach Company, Loveland, CO, USA) (1:5 soil/
water).
1.3 DNA extraction, PCR amplification,
and pyrosequencing
Total DNA was extracted from the samples using
the E.Z.N.A. Soil DNA Kit (OMEGA, Biotek,
Inc., Norcross, GA USA) according to the man-
ufacturers protocol. The concentration and
purification of the extracted DNA (2 l) were deter-
mined by using agarose gel electrophoresis (1%)
and microspectrophotometry (NanoDropND-
2000, NanDrop Technologies, Wilmington, DE,
USA). Extracted DNA was diluted to 2.1 ng l1
for samples from TXD7 and 2.4 ng l1 for ZH7
before PCR amplification. At least 0.5 ng l1
DNA was used in a PCR reaction with primers
targeting 16S rRNA.
The primer used for pyrosequencing was
a modified primer set of forward primer 27F
(5-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3) and
reverse 533R (5-TTACCGCGGCTGCTGGC
AC-3) (Cabrera-Rubio et al. 2012), amplifying the
500-bp DNA fragment of the 16S rRNA gene. The
products were confirmed by subjecting 2 l of each
sample to electrophoresis on 2% agarose gel. The
PCRs were carried out in triplicate 20 l reactions
with 4 l of 5-fold FastPfu Buffer, 2 l of 2.5 mM
dNTPs, 5 M of each primer, 0.4 l of diluted
DNA sample, 0.4 l of TransStart FastPfu DNA
Polymerase and approximately 10 ng of DNA tem-
plate by using the PCR Gene Amp 9700 (Applied
Biosystems, California, Foster City, USA). The
amplification program consisted of an initial
denaturation step of at 95C for 2 min, followed by
25 cycles of denaturation at 95C for 30 s, anneal-
ing at 55C for 30 s, and elongation at 72C for 30 s,
with a final extension step at 72C for 5 min.
Prior to sequencing, the DNA concentration
of each PCR product was determined using a
PicoGreen dsDNA Quantitation Reagent and
was quality controlled on a QuantiFluor-ST
Real-time PCR System (Promega, Madison, WI,
USA). Following quantitation, the amplicons
from each reaction mixture were pooled in equi-
molar ratios based on concentration and sub-
jected to emulsion PCR to generate amplicon
libraries, as recommended by 454 Life Sciences.
Amplicon pyrosequencing was performed from
the A-end using a 454 Roche GS FLX+Sequencing
Method Manual_XLR70 kit on a Roche Genome
Sequencer GS FLX Titanium platform at Major-
bio Bio-pharm Technology Co., Ltd, Shanghai,
China.
8/27/2014 5:59:53 PM
 1.4 Statistical analysis
The data sets generated from pyrosequencing were
analyzed with a comprehensive bioinformatics soft-
ware package, MOTHUR (http://schloss.micro.
umass.edu/mothur/Main_Page), for pre-process-
ing, identification of Operational Taxonomic
Units (OTUs), taxonomic assignment, commu-
nity comparison, and statistical analysis (Schloss
et al. 2009). The detection and removal of chime-
ras were processed using a new program/algorithm,
UCHIME (http://drive5.com/uchime) (Edgar et al.
2011). For the determination of OTUs, sequences
were assigned to phylotype clusters at cutoff levels
of 3%, 5%, and 10%, and the sequences from each
OTU were taxonomically assigned to a bacterial
16S rRNA Silva reference alignment using a nave
Bayesian classifier. Community richness and diver-
sity indices and rarefaction curves were obtained
by employing the MOTHUR program. The taxo-
nomic identities of the sequences were assigned
by using the Classifier program of the RDP-II at
confidence level of 80%. The sequences obtained
from pyrosequencing have been deposited in the
NCBI short-read archive under Accession Number
SRA091276.
Experimental data for statistics and correlations
analysis were conducted by one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) followed by DunnettsT3 post-
hoc test and Spearman rank correlation testing.
Graphing and data analysis were performed with
SPSS BASE ver.11.5 statistical software (SPSS,
Chicago, IL, USA) and OriginLab Origin Pro
software (version 9.0) (OriginLab, Northampton,
MA, USA).
2 RESULTS
2.1 Characteristics of soil properties
and 454 pyrosequencing data
The two analyzed soil systems showed significant
differences (P<0.05) with respect to edaphic prop-
erties such as SOM content, TN content, and AK
content (Table 1). In general, most of the soil prop-
erties, listed in Table 1, were higher in reclaimed
mine soils compared with the subsided soils. In
comparison with subsided soils (ZH7), reclamation
led to a significant increase of soil organic matter
content in reclaimed soils (TXD7) due to the appli-
cation of organic manure and vegetation planting
of legume and gramineous forage grass (Table 1).
The content of Total Nitrogen (TN) and Avail-
able Potassium (AK) in TXD7 increased markedly
after long-term land remediation. However, no
significant differences were found in the soil pH,
Total Phosphorus (TP) and available phosphorus
(AP) between two systems.
249
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 249
Table 1. Mean values of soil parameters under two soil
treatments. TXD7, the reclaimed soil; ZH7, the subsided
soil.
Soil SOM/ TN/ TP/ AP/ AK/
sites pH (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
TXD7 7.9a 1.9a 1.7a 0.9a 11.1a 106.6a
ZH7 7.8a 1.1b 1.2b 0.8a 10.9a 87.2b
SOM soil organic matter, TN total nitrogen, TP total
phosphorus, AP available phosphorus, AK available
potassium.
*Values in a column with the same letter mean no signif-
icant difference between ZH7 and TXD7 at P<0.05 level.
We presented the application of the 454 high-
throughput 16S rRNA sequencing method to
compare the bacterial community diversity and
structure present in two soil treatments: (1) TXD7,
soils reclaimed after surface subsidence; (2) ZH7,
subsided soils untreated (prior to reclamation).
A total of 13,369 reads positioned within 22 phyla
were captured through the 454 pyrosequenc-
ing technology. These 22 phyla contained diverse
taxonomic lineages encompassing 40 classes, 145
families and 330 genera. After applying quality
control and trimming, a total of 5646 and 6164
bacterial 16S rRNA gene high-quality sequences
were obtained from samples of sites TXD7 and
ZH7, respectively, accounting for 83.34% of the
total reads. The dataset comprised a total of 11,810
sequences that were affiliated to the domain bacte-
ria, with an average length of 500 bp.
The 22 total phylotypes were dominated by
the following ten phyla common to the whole
libraries: Proteobacteria (37.19%), Acidobacte-
ria (12.56%), Actinobacteria (9.53%), Chloroflexi
(8.46%), Bacteroidetes (6.68%), Planctomycetes
(5.48%), Gemmatimonadetes (4.46%), Nitrospirae
(4.08%), Firmicutes (2.64%), and Verrucomicrobia
(1.34%) (Fig. 1a). Phyla that were less abundant
but found in most samples included: Elusimicrobia
(0.78%), Cyanobacteria (0.67%), Chlorobi (0.55%),
and Deferribacteres (0.29%) (Fig. 1b). Proteobac-
teria was the most abundant division, comprising
approximately 42.63% (2382) reads in TXD7 and
32.20% (1960) reads in ZH7, respectively.
2.2 Comparative analysis of bacterial diversity
and community composition
Rarefaction curves were generated at 3% cut-
off to make a comparison of bacterial diversity
between the two soil systems (TXD7 and ZH7). As
is shown in Figure 2a, the shapes of the rarefac-
tion curves indicated that bacterial communities
of reclaimed soils (TXD7) are more diverse than
8/27/2014 5:59:53 PM
 Figure 1. Relative abundances of bacterial phyla for each soil treatment. (a) Represents the relative abundance greater
than 1%; (b) Represents the relative abundance smaller than 1%. TXD7, the reclaimed soil; ZH7, the subsided soil.
that of subsided soils (ZH7). The non-parametric
analysis also indicated that there was a somewhat
higher diversity level of bacteria in reclaimed soils.
Both the Chao1 and Abundance-based Coverage
Estimator (ACE) indices revealed similar trends
(Fig. 2b), with higher values observed for sam-
ples from TXD7, when compared with those from
ZH7, confirming the higher microbial richness and
biodiversity level in the reclaimed soil.
The composition of bacterial taxa also differed
between reclaimed (TXD7) and unreclaimed sub-
sided soil (ZH7). The composition of dominant
taxonomic groups differed between reclaimed and
subsided soils (Fig. 1). TXD7 was numerically
dominated by Proteobacteria (42.63%), Acidobac-
teria (8.18%), Chloroflexi (7.11%), Gemmatimona-
detes (6.66%), Nitrospirae (6.39%), Bacteroidetes
(6.16%), and Actinobacteria (4.76%). ZH7 mostly
comprised Proteobacteria (32.2%), Acidobacteria
(16.58%), Actinobacteria (13.91%), Chloroflexi
(9.71%), Bacteroidetes (7.16%), and Planctomyc-
etes (6%). Overall, Proteobacteria group was more
250
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 250
abundant in reclaimed soils (TXD7) than in sub-
sided soils (ZH7); while Acidobacteria and Actino-
bacteria were more abundant in subsided soils. The
abundances of sub-phyla of Proteobacteria also
varied greatly between two treatments (Fig. 3a).
Gammaproteobacteria was the most dominant sub-
phyla of Proteobacteria in TXD7, accounting for
13.14% of the total sequences. And in ZH7, Del-
taproteobacteria was predominant, accounting for
10.48% of the total sequences.
At the class and genus level of taxonomic clas-
sifications, the abundance and composition of
bacterial community differed as well (Fig. 3). As is
shown in Figure 3c, differences in the distribution
of 19 preponderant bacteria genera between the
TXD7 and ZH7 were evident. The majority of the
sequences affiliated with Acidiferrobacter, Lacto-
coccus, Nitrosococcus, Nitrospira, Planctomyces.,
Pseudomonas, and Sphingomonas were derived
from TXD7, whereas those related to Arthro-
bacter, Bacillus, Flexibacter, Gaiella, Haliangium,
Lactococcus, Lysobacter, Ramlibacter, Roseiflexus,
8/27/2014 5:59:53 PM

Figure 2. Bacterial diversity and richness of two soil
treatments, as indicated by rarefaction curves and bac-
terial richness estimates at a genetic distance of 3%.
(a) Rarefaction curves indicating the observed number of
Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) in the reclaimed
(TXD) and subsided soil (ZH7); (b) Bacterial richness
estimates of reclaimed and subsided soils, expressed as
the number of observed unique OTUs, the abundance-
based coverage estimator ACE and the richness estima-
tor Chao1.
and Streptomyces were obtained from ZH7. A
striking feature was the distribution of the genera
Nitrosococcus and Roseiflexus which occurred
almost exclusively in TXD7 or ZH7, respectively.
2.3 Relationships between physicochemical
and microbiological parameters
There were positive correlations between micro-
bial diversity parameters and soil properties
(r = 0.5620. 716, P<0.05 or P<0.01) (Table 2).
Correlation analysis indicated highly signifi-
cant positive correlations between SOM and
Chao 1, Shannon index, and ACE (P<0.01). Similar
251
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 251
correlations were obtained between soil TN and
these bacterial diversity parameters (Chao 1, Shan-
non index, and ACE) (P<0.01). Bacterial diversity
parameters were also in significant correlation
with the content of TP, AK and pH (P<0.05), but
were not significantly related to AP.
3 DISCUSSION
This study presents the first implementation of
the 454 high-throughput sequencing technology
for the investigation of soil microbiota present
in Chinese coal-mining reclamation area. The
use of pyrosequencing provides a comprehensive
understanding on the long-term influences of land
reclamation to soil microflora. Pyrosequencing
analysis of environmental samples can obtain more
sequence information on soil bacterial communi-
ties due to its capacity to identify greater number
of bacteria than conventional molecular biology
techniques (Acosta-Martinez et al. 2010; Dimitriu
et al. 2010; Rastogi et al. 2010). In this study, we
were able to classify 11,674 (98.85%) of the 11,810
quality sequences below the domain level. The
total number of analyzed sequences and the per-
centage of classified 16S rRNA gene sequences
exceeded those of other pyrosequencing-based
studies of soil bacterial community composition in
restoration and mining sites (Bastida et al. 2013;
Chen et al. 2013). Furthermore, at 3% distance
(species level), the OTUs identified in TXD7 and
ZH7 (2263 for TXD7 and 2206 for ZH7, respec-
tively) were greater than those reported in other
16S rRNA clone library-based studies (Diaby et al.
2007; Rastogi et al. 2010; Huang et al. 2011). Thus,
the immense number of sequences and OTUs in
soils above confirmed that this technology is suit-
able for quick and comprehensive evaluations of
soil microflora. The high coverage rate (77%81%)
demonstrated the technology advance of pyrose-
quencing analysis in observing high soil bacterial
diversity.
Among the 22 total phylotypes, the Proteobacte-
ria contributed to the majority of the bacterial com-
munity composition of all sampling sites, indicating
that sequences affiliated with the Proteobacteria
contributed to a higher percentage of the commu-
nity DNA. This finding is in accordance with other
studies on bacterial communities in soils (Janssen
2006; Roesch et al. 2007; Kolton et al. 2011; Bastida
et al. 2013; Poncelet et al. 2014), in which the most
dominant community was noted to be Proteobac-
teria. These authors concluded that Proteobacte-
ria can represent 25%40% of total sequences by
clone library studies or 42%50% abundance from
shorter fragments (100 bp) obtained by pyrose-
quencing. Liebner et al. (2008) summarized that,
8/27/2014 5:59:54 PM
 Figure 3. Relative abundances of phylogenetic groups in soils derived from the two systems. (a) Comparison of the
proportional distribution of the most abundant phyla and proteobacterial classes; (b) Comparison of the percentage
of sequences affiliated with different classes; (c) Comparison of the proportional distribution of the 19 predominant
genera. ZH7, subsided soil; TXD7, reclaimed soil.

Table 2. Mean values of soil parameters under two soil treatments. TXD7, the reclaimed soil; ZH7, the subsided soil.

Shannon SOM/ TN/ TP/ AP/ AK/

OTUs Chao1 ACE index (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) pH

SOM/(g/kg) 0.781** 0.611** 0.753** 0.799** 1

TN/(g/kg) 0.801* 0.829** 0.775** 0.785** 0.772* 1
TP/(g/kg) 0.827* 0.641* 0.809* 1
AP/(g/kg) 1
AK/(g/kg) 0.765* 0.687* 0.619* 0.788* 1
pH 0.693* 0.696* 0.719* 0.613* 1

ACE, abundancebased coverage estimator; OTUs, operational taxonomic units.

**Significant at P<0.01; *Significant at P<0.05; Insignificant correlations were omitted.

252

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 252 8/27/2014 5:59:54 PM

 based on more than 30 clone libraries and other
studies (Janssen 2006; Dinamarca et al. 2007), -,
- and -Proteobacteria, Actinobacte Ria, Acido-
bacteria, and to a lesser extent Firmicutes, Bacter-
oidetes, and Plantcomycetes have been identified as
major soil phyla, although recognizing that their
relative abundances vary with the study site. Thus,
based on their abundance and their presence in
various soil types, the Proteobacteria appear to
play an important role in the ecosystem function
of soils. Of the 4 sub-groups of Proteobacteria
phyla, -Proteobacteria was the most abundance
and prevalent, which is different from other studies
(Roesch et al. 2007; Yang et al. 2012; Zhang et al.
2011; Bastida et al. 2013; Poncelet et al. 2014).
Results showed that the bacterial communities
abundance, diversity, and composition differed
between the two soil systems: the reclaimed soil
(TXD7) and the subsided soil (ZH7). The possible
explanation for the differences in bacterial diver-
sity and community may be that fertilization and
mix-planting experiment changed the microbial
substrate in reclaimed soils, and thus significantly
influenced the structure of total bacteria (Ganzert
et al. 2011; Pepper et al. 2012).
The abundance and diversity of bacteria in the
reclaimed soil largely elevated relative to the sub-
sided soil, which is likely due to the long-term
application of organic manure in reclaimed soil.
Long-term organic amendment addition is more
conducive to build-up of soil fertility and growth
of soil microbes, with the process accompanied by
changes in abundance and functional diversity of
microorganism (Larney & Angers 2012). Similarly,
Chu et al. (2007) found that the use of organic sup-
plements could cause significant increases in spe-
cies richness and Shannon-Weaver indexes over
untreated plots. The higher bacterial diversity indi-
ces observed in reclaimed soils indicate that the
amendment could be efficient to improve the qual-
ity and nutrient cycling of mine soils. This further
demonstrates the positive impacts of land rehabili-
tation work with fertilizers and organic materials
on the soil bacterial biodiversity.
Likewise, re-vegetation plays a central role in
the establishment of stable nutrient cycles, which
will help in preserving eco-diversity and microbial
community stability. Re-vegetation constitutes the
most widely accepted and useful way to reduce ero-
sion and protect soils against degradation during
reclamation (Sheoran et al. 2010). Restoration of
vegetation cover on the affected land can fulfill
the objectives of stabilization, pollution control,
visual improvement and removal of threats to
human beings (Xu et al. 2010). Thus, the species
richness index, evenness index and diversity index
were higher for reclaimed soils most likely due to
the restoration of vegetation cover. The mixture
253
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 253
sowing mode of gramineae and leguminosae
herbage could also be responsible for the stimu-
lation of microbial community size and diversity
in reclaimed soils. Medicago sativa and Trifolium
repens have been widely planted in the East China
Plain due to their strong tolerance to drought
and barren soil and their outstanding heat and
cold resistance (Wu et al. 2009). The community
coexistence mechanisms of deep legume roots
and shallow grass roots can give full play to the
ability of nitrogen fixation and transportation in
legumes, ensure adequate mineral element in grass
and increase soil organic matter content (Xu et al.
2010). The two particular functional groups play
complementary and coordinate roles in coordinat-
ing nutrient supply, reducing water loss and soil
erosion, enhancing soil fertility, and consequently
enriching soil microbial groups.
Differences observed in bacterial community
structure and composition are related to both re-
vegetation and fertilizer treatment, likely through
the effects of soil characteristics (Quideau et al.
2013). Changes in the soil physicochemical prop-
erties as affected by reclamation practices, were
important factors affecting the bacterial rich-
ness and abundance. As shown in Table 1, long-
term applications of organic manure significantly
increased soil TN, SOM, and AP contents. This is
due to the fact that organic amendment treatments
have been found to help modify soil physicochemi-
cal and biochemical properties (Zhong et al. 2010),
and legumes are effective in improving soil qual-
ity through the significant effect of nitrogen fixa-
tion by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Han et al. 2007).
Correlation analysis indicated that the community
diversity indexes showed positive correlation to
the contents of SOM, TN, TP and AK (Table 2),
illustrating that the bacterial diversity was strongly
related to the soil nutrient status. SOM and total
N appeared to be the most important factors
influencing soil microbial diversity, and soil rap-
idly available K was potentially important for soil
microbial composition (Suleiman et al. 2013). So,
it is likely that the high soil microorganism diver-
sity observed in TXD7 might be attributed to the
effect of organic manure applications and vegeta-
tion restoration on restoring soil fertility and mod-
ifying soil physicochemical properties. This further
suggests that the restoration of soil attributes is
closely associated with bacterial diversity and may
therefore be an important aspect of the biological
functionality restoration in reclaimed soils.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Studies using 454 pyrosequencing methods for
reclaimed mine soils are rare. This study confirms
8/27/2014 5:59:57 PM
 the effectiveness of 454 pyrosequencing technol-
ogy for the evaluation of microbial community
and provides recommendations for future rehabili-
tation of post-mined soils.
Long-term reclamation affected the bacterial
diversity and induced the variation of micro-
bial community structure in disturbed mine soils.
The higher bacterial diversity indices observed in
reclaimed soils indicate that the organic amendment
treatment could be efficient to improve the quality
and nutrient cycling of mine soils after 13 years of
application. Likewise, re-vegetation plays a central
role in the establishment of stable nutrient cycles
and regulation of microbial ecological processes,
which will help in preserving eco-diversity and
microbial community stability. Soil organic matter
and total nitrogen appeared to be the most impor-
tant factors influencing soil microbial diversity,
and soil rapidly available K was potentially impor-
tant for soil microbial composition.
The future focus of ecological restoration of
mining subsidence area is to set up a standard
evaluation index system for monitoring the evolu-
tion of soil properties to guarantee long-term reha-
bilitation of disturbed mine soils in East China.
Additionally, deeper understanding of microbial
community structure reorganization after severe
disturbance will also require analysis of reclama-
tion sites of different ages, therefore analysis at a
multitude of temporal scales remains to be investi-
gated further.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the National Natu-
ral Science Foundation of China (51174207) and
the Priority Academic Program Development
(PAPD) of Jiangsu Higher Education Institu-
tions (SZBF2011-6-B35). The authors would like
to thank Majorbio Biotech Co., Ltd (Shanghai,
China) for their help in sample sequencing and
analysis.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Disturbance of mining activities to ecological land measured

by ecological connectivity

Y.H. Rao & J.J. Zhang

School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Ecological land is the key factor to maintain ecological stability; however ecological land
is always damaged by mining. In order to get the disturbing influence from mines to the ecological land,
2 different time-point land, using maps of Wuan city, in 2005, 2009 respectively, are used to extract the
distribution of ecological land in the study area for a calculation of ecological connectivity index of the
whole area. Meanwhile, the paper indicates the fragmentation trend with the important values of patches.
Its necessary to take the affected distance from mines to ecological land into consideration, therefore the
area is divided into 2 gradients with 3 km as a gradient and the distribution and metastasis of important
patch in each gradient are analyzed. The conclusion of this method concentrates on two aspects. Firstly,
the ecological connectivity index of whole area shows a downward trend. Secondly, there is a relationship
between time, location and mining influence on environment.

Keywords: mining activities; ecological disturbance; landscape connectivity

1 INTRODUCTION (Taylor, 1993). Overall, the landscape connectivity

As a special land use patterns, mining can bring
tremendous benefits, but may also bring a negli-
gible impact on the ecology and environment of
land. The mine ecosystem balance has been heav-
ily destroyed, such as surface mining subsidence
caused by underground mineral, cover changing,
soil pollution and groundwater destruction (Xu
et al., 2012). The qualitative and quantitative study
of mining damage to the ecological environment
has become an important part of the land ecology.
Currently, the methods of mine ecological envi-
ronment evaluation mainly include index method
(Yang, 2004), AHP and fuzzy comprehensive
evaluation method (Ma, 2013). All these methods
often require different evaluation index and sys-
tems for different mining conditions. As a quan-
titative indicator using in the evaluation of mining
disturbance ecology, landscape connectivity can
effectively solve this problem.
Domestic and foreign scholars have different
definitions of landscape connectivity. Merriam
think connectivity is a parameter of landscape fea-
tures, which measures the process that a landscape
population linked to other landscape features in
the same landscape (Merriam, 1984). Forman
believes that connectivity is the measure of conti-
nuity in the space of the corridor (Forman, 1990).
It is defined by Taylor as the degree of landscape
to facilitate or hinder the movement plaques extent
is used to evaluate the degree of fluency of mate-
rial and energy flow, species propagation in the
same landscape. It will help to analyze the stability
and sustainability of ecological functions mining
region and promote ecological protection work by
using the landscape connectivity to quantitative
assess the effect of surrounding land ecological
disturbance intensity change conditions caused by
the mining.
2 STUDY AREA
Wuan is located at longitude 113 45114 22,
latitude 36 2837 01. The total area is 1819 km2.
It is surrounded by mountains, 30 km away from
Handan City, next to Handan City and Yongnian
county on the east, Ci County and Fengfeng min-
ing area on the south, She Couny and Zuoquan
County on the west, Shahe City on the north.
Because of the reduction of the mountains in the
central, there is a small plain, called Wuan basin.
Wuan is rich in mineral resources such as coal,
iron, cobalt, aluminum, etc. It is an important
energy base in Hebei province, and it is one of the
58 national major coal-producing counties (cities)
and one of the four rich iron ore base. Wuans
mineral resources are centered on the urban. The
iron ore resources are distributed along the south
north and the coal resources are distributed along

257

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 Figure 1. Location of study area.

the west east. The limestone belt which mainly

used to be cement is distributed around the west
and south of the railway.

3 STUDY METHOD

3.1 Data sources and processing methods

According to the connotation of ecological land,
this paper uses the Wuan land use information
and data in 2005 and 2009 to divide the ecologi-
cal land into farmland, forest land, garden plot,
grassland, undeveloped land, water area (Deng
et al., 2006). It can effectively distinguish and avoid
the implications between the two mineral resource
regions when the study area was divided into 3 km
per gradient values, which is calculated by the dis-
tribution of mineral resources. Hence the study
area of this paper is the ecological land in mining
area and non-mining area (non-mining area is the
3 km buffer zone of the mining area), as showed
in Figure 2.

3.2 Index of connectivity

The ecological connectivity of entire study area
was assessed by the Integral Index of Connectivity
(IIC) and Probability Index of Connectivity (PC). Figure 2. Study area.

258

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 258 8/27/2014 5:59:57 PM

 IIC and PC are used to evaluate landscape connec- removing the patch, and its used to measure the
tivity of habitat patches across the landscape scale. different importance of each patch. It is different
IIC is based on two-value connectivity model that when the degree of importance is calculated by a
all habitat patches are connected or not. PC has different index I. The PC is used to calculate the
taken the probability into account. The probability degree of importance in this paper.
is that the connected probability of habitat patches
and its value is a negative correlation with distance
of each patch (Forman, 1990). 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The integral index of connectivity is calculated
as follows: 4.1 The landscape connectivity of ecological
land in study area
a a
i 1 j 1 1 i nlj
n n
Ecological land is important to maintain a com-
ij plete ecological system. Its landscape connectivity
IIC = (1) reflects the degree of obstruction when an inter-
A 2L
nal biological energy flows. As can be seen from
where n is the number of patches in whole land- Table 1, IIC values are both small in the mining
scape, ai is the area of habitat patch i, aj is the area area and non-mining areas, especially the mining
of habitat j, AL is the total landscape area, and area, and that indicate this part of the ecosystem
nlij is the number of linkages in the shortest path function has been a very serious active interference.
between patches i and j with the threshold disper- PC is greater than the IIC, because the calculation
sal distance. model takes into account the possible connectivity
Probability index of connectivity is given by: between a patch and another. The landscape con-
nectivity is poor, which is connected with human
n 1 j 1 ai
n n activities closely and severe ecological disturbance
a j Pij*
PC = (2) in the mine area and surrounding land.
A 2L

where n is the number of patches in whole land- 4.2 The composition ratio of patches
scape, ai is the area of habitat patch i, aj is the area in study area
of habitat j, Pij* is the maximum probability of spe- The rate composition of patches area is the high
cies diffusion between habitat i and habitat j. AL is and low degree of fragmentation visual per-
the total landscape area. 0 < PC < 1. formance in the region. According to the study
The calculation of IIC and PC needs to set a area will be divided into huge patches (greater
reasonable threshold dispersal distance. When the than 20 hm2), large patches (1020 hm2), middle
distance between the patches is greater than the patches (110 hm2) and small patches (less than
threshold, then means there is no connectivity. 1 hm2). The largest number is the small patches
Comparing with the threshold value is less or equal in the study area, the proportion of mining area
that is interconnected and interaction. The scale and non-mining area are nearly 50%, but the larg-
in ecological processes between species should be est rate in area is 1.96%, 4.73% in 2005, 2009. In
considered when selection of distance threshold, contrast, the number of huge is around 70, but the
such as distances of bird migration. In order to largest proportion of area is 59.22%. The number
make the result of PC comparable, the probability of small patches is a little more, and the integrity
is set to 0.5 (Taylor, 1993). of the huge patches is good. From the time point
to see, the number and area of huge patches are
significantly reduced and other types of patches
3.3 Selection of important patches
increases. Integrity of patches has weakened.
What is calculated by the fixed index I is the impor-
tant of a patch to maintain connectivity across the
entire landscape, as follows: Table 1. Overall connectivity of ecological land of study
area from 20052009.
I I remove
dI (%) = 100 (3) Year Location IIC PC
I
2005 Mining area 0.0008 0.0024
where I is the connectivity value when the patch is Non-mining area 0.0012 0.0052
present in the landscape and Iremove is the connectiv- 2009 Mining area 0.0007 0.0022
ity value after removal of that patch. The ranking Non-mining area 0.0013 0.0056
of the dI value is used to indicate the change after

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 Table 2. The type of ecological land in study area. (Unit: hm2)

Number Area of
Year Types of patches Location of patches Rate patches Rate

2005 Huge patches Mining area 64 4.21% 2507.29 40.88%

Non-mining area 77 7.34% 3747.51 59.22%
Large patches Mining area 83 5.46% 1230.77 20.07%
Non-mining area 70 6.67% 1008.32 15.93%
Middle patches Mining area 599 39.38% 2151.03 35.07%
Non-mining area 370 35.27% 1402.52 22.16%
Small patches Mining area 775 50.95% 244.47 3.99%
Non-mining area 532 50.71% 170.23 2.69%
2009 Huge patches Mining area 45 2.75% 1857.42 30.76%
Non-mining area 67 5.00% 2522.84 42.21%
Large patches Mining area 104 6.35% 1433.47 23.74%
Non-mining area 95 7.09% 1328.72 22.23%
Middle patches Mining area 662 40.44% 2463.09 40.78%
Non-mining area 532 39.73% 1928.77 32.27%
Small patches Mining area 826 50.46% 285.37 4.73%
Non-mining area 645 48.17% 196.97 3.30%

Figure 3. The relationship between important value of each patch and area per patch.

4.3 Importance of ecological land in study area

4.3.1 The distribution rule between importance
and area of patches
Important values of a single patch reflect its con-
tribution to the whole landscape. By selecting
different indices, important values of patches are
different. Because the landscape connectivity is
poor and has a certain degree of fragmentation,
the important index is PC in this paper in order
to reflect a reasonable degree of landscape connec-
tivity and potential connectivity probability. It will
be unequivocal relationship between the value of
importance and landscape fragmentation through
the analysis of the correlation between important
value and area of each patch. Important value and
area has showed significant positive relationship in

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 Table 3. Average important value of patches from
20052009.
Average important
Year Location value of patches
2005 Mining area 0.146
Non-mining area 0.250
2009 Mining area 0.132
Non-mining area 0.167
Figure 3, the area is greater, the important value
is higher, and the landscape connectivity is better.
The maximum area and important value of a single
patch in the mineral resources area are 140.12 hm2
and 9.04 during 2005, and they are 302.3 hm2 and
10.8 in the non-mining area. But the maximum
area and important value are 162.9 hm2 and 6.14,
288.4 hm2 and 9.78 in the mining area and non-
mining area during 2009. In contrast, the integ-
rity of patches in non-mining area is superior to
mining area. With the time going on, the distur-
bance gradually strengthens of human activities to
patches, and patches integrity further weakened.
4.3.2 The average important value of whole
patches
Its positive correlation between the area and impor-
tant value of patches. The disturbance will be clear
through description of important value. Important
value is different for each type patch in study area
and the ecological capability inherent is different.
To consider the ecological services in mining area
and non-mining area, this paper selects the average
important value of all the patches in study area as an
evaluation index of ecological disturbance, the aver-
age value is higher, the ecological functions is more
intact, and the fragmentation is weaker. The aver-
age important value of patches in mining area is less
than non-mining area. At the same time, it is higher
in 2009 than in 2005. Therefore, it validates that the
ecological function of the mining area is poor than
non-mining area. Its worth mentioning that the
average value does not decline evidently in mining
area, but the non-mining area is not the case, the
declining proportion is 33.2%. Therefore, with the
growth cycle of the mine later, its internal ecological
disturbance intensity is weaker than the surround-
ing area. It indicates that the ecological disturbance
intensity has an outward diffusion trend.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
Ecosystem service is a comprehensive, systematic
function, it involves a variety of services, including
necessary materials and products for human sur-
vival, and it also can regulate climate, purify the air.
261
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 261
Complete ecological functions are important to the
sustainable development of regional economy and
culture. Good ecological environment will not only
contribute to human survival and development,
and also attract investment. And mining as a pred-
atory land use type, destruction of ecological func-
tion is obvious, and the disturbance intensity has a
relationship with the location of mining. Based on
this, this paper uses Confor Sensinode and Arcgis
to see the ecology disturbance intensity changes in
its internal and surrounding land. Therefore, the
impact change rule of mining will be further clear
through analysis of ecological land connectivity,
component proportion of different types patches
and important values.
5.1 The relationship between time and mining
influence on environment
The environmental impact of mining is a gradual
accumulation process, the longer time of mining,
the more serious damage it will be. The impact has
aggravated the trend caused by mining both in the
mining area and in non-mining area. The overall
landscape connectivity has decreased in the min-
ing area from 2005 to 2009, but the non-mining
area is opposite. It doesnt mean that mining pro-
motes the ecological protection in the surrounding
area as time going on. The increasing of landscape
connectivity has a lot of reasons; the development
of undeveloped land and garden plot caused by
frequently human activities is likely to lead to the
increasing of ecological land landscape connec-
tivity. The reduction of huge patches has proved
this fact. The number of huge patches in the study
area dropped from 141 to 112, indicating that the
integrity of huge patches has damaged to some
extent. The average important values of mining
area and non-mining area are 0.146, 0.250 in 2005,
and reduce to 0.132, 0.167 in 2009. The contribu-
tion to ecosystem services of patches decreases and
the overall ecological service value declines. On the
whole, the relationship of impact of mining on
the environment and the time was positively cor-
related, the longer the period the mine exploits, the
more intense ecological disturbance of surround-
ing environment is.
5.2 The relationship between location and mining
influence on environment
There is a clear relationship between location and
value change of ecosystem services caused by the
mining. In general, the father away from the mine,
the ecological disturbance to land will gradually
weaken. The landscape connectivity of mining area
is clearly worse than non-mining area. The average
value of all patches also has the same trend, declar-
ing the accumulated ecological disturbance inside
8/27/2014 6:00:02 PM
 mine is greater than non-mining area. Connected
with time, the differences of average important value
are 0.104, 0.035 between the two regions in 2005,
2009. The differences are significantly reduced,
which reflected that although the internal accumu-
lated ecological disturbance increases, the intensity
change is somewhat decreased. Disturbance will
be stronger when surrounding land is compared
with mine inside. It concludes that the impact of
mining on the environment is connected with the
mining circle. The ecosystem services of mine and
surrounding land yearly decline and fragmentation
increased as the time goes on. Disturbance of mine
to the surrounding land show a gradually outward
diffusion trend.
The impact on the ecological environment of
mining is complex and simple. The complex is
because the impact ways are varied and the sim-
ple is no matter what the way is, the intensity of
disturbance is always increasing. It should be com-
bined with specific situation of mine in practice
and focus on protecting the patches of high impor-
tant value, good integrity and vulnerability so as to
reduce damage to the environment of mining and
to maintain a good ecological environment.
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Merriam G.R. A.Y. 1984. Connectivity: a fundamen-
tal ecological characteristic of landscape pattern.
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and planning: proceedings, 1st seminar, Interna-
tional Association of Landscape Ecology, Roskilde,
Denmark, Oct 1519, 1984/eds. J. Brandt, P. Agger.
Taylor P.D., Fahrig L., Henein K., & Merriam G. 1993.
Connectivity is a vital element of landscape structure.
Oikos, 571573.
Xu Z., Hou H., Zhang S., Ding Z., Ma C., Gong Y., &
Liu Y. 2012. Effects of mining activity and climatic
change on ecological losses in coal mining areas.
Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural
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of ecological environment evaluation and forecasting
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Technology. (in Chinese).
8/27/2014 6:00:02 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Physiological response to Cd stress and Cd-accumulation of four

herbaceous plants

R.H. Yin, X.M. Li & G.L. Song

Institute of Turfgrass Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, P.R. China

ABSTRACT: The project evaluated the inhibitive effects of Cd on the growth of four herbaceous plants
by measuring plant biomass, chlorophyll content and free proline content to examine the plants resist-
ance to Cd stress and the toxicity mechanism of Cd. The Cd concentrations in each part of the four kinds
of plants was also analyzed to explore their Cd absorption and accumulation characteristics. The results
showed that the degree of growth inhibition from Cd stress on these four kinds of plants is: Medicago
sativa L. > Phytolacca acinosa > Mirabilis jalapa > Festuca arundinacea. The chlorophyll content of Phy-
tolacca acinosa and Mirabilis jalapa decreases at high Cd treatment level, while the chlorophyll content of
Festuca arundinacea and Medicago sativa L. is not affected by Cd. Proline content change varies between
plants: Festuca arundinacea shows no significant differences between each Cd treatment level; Medicago
sativa L. and Phytolacca acinosa first show an increase in proline content and then a decrease as Cd con-
centrations increase; Mirabilis jalapa proline content increases significantly at higher Cd treatment level.
Cd accumulation characteristics of the four plants are different. The amount of Cd accumulation: Festuca
arundinacea > Phytolacca acinosa > Mirabilis jalapa > Medicago sativa L. Festuca arundinacea is more
resistant to Cd than the other three plants. Cd translocation factor: Phytolacca acinosa > Mirabilis jalapa
> Medicago sativa L. > Festuca arundinacea. While, the phytoremediation factor: Festuca arundinacea >
Mirabilis jalapa > Phytolacca acinosa > Medicago sativa L. These data suggested that Festuca arundinacea
and Mirabilis jalapa have strong Cd resistance, considerable biomass, and no serious poisoning symptoms
and high Cd accumulating quantities, so they have the most potential to be applied to the phytoremedia-
tion of Cd polluted soil.

Keywords: phytoremediation; cadmium pollution; physiological response; accumulation characteristics

1 INTRODUCTION uses pollutant-accumulating plants extract and

As the continuous development of the worldwide
industrialization and urbanization, pollution of the
environment by heavy metals has become a global
problem (Witters, Mendelsohn et al. 2012). Heavy
metals that contaminate the soil have the characteris-
tics of high toxicity, persistence, non-biodegradation
and bioaccumulation (Yu, Ji et al. 2012). Cadmium
(Cd) is one of the most deleterious heavy metals
in the present (Dong, Mao et al. 2007). Cd is eas-
ily accumulated in plant tissues because of its high
plant-soil mobility, then leads to the decrease of
crop yield and quality, and threats human health
by the accumulative effect of the food chain (Dong,
Mao et al. 2007). Cd is detrimental to human health
because it accumulates in the human body with a
half-life of more than 10 years and it is related to
renal tubular dysfunction, pulmonary emphysema
and possibly osteoporosis (Majid, Islam et al. 2012).
Phytoremediation of heavy metals has been a
promising technique of soil remediation, which
accumulate contaminants to the harvestable parts
(Han, Yuan et al. 2007). Unlike chemical and physi-
cal remediation methods which can be costly, affect
soil properties, and destroy biodiversity, phytore-
mediation is environmentally friendly, cost-effective
and provides sustainable techniques for metal reme-
diation (Padmavathiamma and Li 2007).
Plants that not only have high tolerance of met-
als in the soil, but also accumulate those pollutants
to high concentrations in the shoots, were coined
hyperaccumulators (Brooks, Lee et al. 1977).
Baker & Brooks defined Cd-hyperaccumulators
as species with shoot concentrations of more than
100 mg Cd kg1 on a dry weight basis and invariably
have greater metal concentration in shoots than in
roots (Baker and Brooks 1989). To date, scientists
have identified approximately 500 trace element
accumulating taxa, belonging to at least 100 plant
families (Barzanti, Colzi et al. 2011). So far some
plants, such as Thlaspi caerulescens J & C. Presl
(Brassicaceae) (Baker, Reeves et al. 1994), Sedum

263

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 263 8/27/2014 6:00:02 PM

 alfredii Hance (Yang, Long et al. 2004), Solanum

< 0.002 mm
nigrum L. (Wei, Zhou et al. 2005), Arabis panicu-
lata L. (Tang, Qiu et al. 2005), have been identi-

18.09%
fied as Cd-hyperaccumulators. However, despite
the great progress, the application of phytoreme-
diation is still limited due to the low biomass of
hyperaccumulators, their limited adaptability to

< 0.02 mm
0.002 mm
different environments, and long maturation peri-
ods (Liu, Zhou et al. 2011). Therefore, identifica-

20.95%
tion of more effective hyperaccumulators is still a
key step to the success of phytoremediation (Wei,
Zhou et al. 2005).
The present study aimed to evaluate the poten-

< 0.05 mm
0.02 mm
tial of four kinds of herbaceous plants, Festuca
arundinacea Schreb. cv. Millennium, Phytolacca

16.75%
acinosa, Medicago sativa L. cv. Xinjiang Daye and
Mirabilis jalapa to be utilized in the practice of Cd
phytoremediation. These four plants are commonly
cultivated in the northern part of China, have high

< 0.25 mm
0.05 mm
biomasses and are usually resistant to unfavorable
conditions. The biomass, chlorophyll content, free

13.78%
Soil particle compostion
proline content, and Cd accumulation of the four
plants under different concentrations of Cd stress
were studied to compare and evaluate their ability

< 2.00 mm
to tolerate Cd stress and absorb Cd from the soil.

0.25 mm
This study could provide new plant candidates for

30.42%
phytoremediation of Cd contaminated soil and
provide evidence for the further study of such an
intriguing topic.

6.79
pH
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Plant material and growth conditions

(mmol/kg)

There were four test plants in the study. The seeds

CEC

of Festuca arundinacea Schreb. cv. Millennium and

350

Medicago sativa L. cv. Xinjiang Daye were from the

lab of turfgrass science at Beijing Forestry Univer-
Availiable K

sity, the seeds of Phytolacca acinosa were provided

by the Institute of Medical Plant Development in
Soil chemical and physical properties of soil.

(mg/kg)

Beijing and the seeds of Mirabilis jalapa were from

262

the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science. The

growth media was yellow brown soil mixed with
turfy-soil at a ratio of 1:3. The chemical and physi-
Availiable P

cal properties of the soil are presented in Table 1.

(mg/kg)

An outdoor pot experiment was conducted

20.9

beside the experimental field of Beijing Forestry

University. The growth media was mixed with
6 different levels of Cd: 0 mg kg1, 10 mg kg1,
Oganic matter

25 mg kg1, 50 mg kg1, 100 mg kg1, 200 mg kg1.

Cd was added and mixed thoroughly with the
soil in the form of CdCl2 powder. A Completely
(g/kg)

Randomized Design (CRD) was used with 3 rep-

127

lications. The pots (23 cm 20 cm) were filled

with the treated media (4 kg pot1). After a one-
Table 1.

week period to allow the soil mixture to stabilize,

Total N
(g/kg)

each pot was seeded and given enough moisture

3.65

for seed germination. Each pot was left with the

264

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 264 8/27/2014 6:00:03 PM

 same number of the same-sized, healthy seedlings
after germination. The growth of the four kinds
of plants was observed and recorded. Sampling
for the assay of physiological indicators was con-
ducted 86 days after seeding. All the plants were
harvested 106 days after seeding for the measure-
ment of biomass and Cd accumulation.
2.2 Determination of chlorophyll content
To prepare the chlorophyll extract, fresh leaves
were collected from the plants in each pot. 0.1 g
of cut up fresh leaf material from each pot were
immersed in 20 ml of 95% ethanol in a test tube.
The test tubes were then sealed and left in darkness
at room temperature for 24 hours. Each test tube
was rotated several times during this period. The
test tubes were then placed on a shaker and shaken
in darkness until all the leaf material became white
in color. The absorbance of each thanol-chloro-
phyll solution was then tested at 663 nm and 645
nm with a UV/V is spectrophotometer (UV-2802S).
Chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll content were
calculated according to the Arnon equation (Marr,
Suryana et al. 1995):
Total chlorophyll (mg/L) = 20.2A645 + 8.02A663
Chlorophyll a (mg/L) = 12.7A663 2.69A645
Chlorophyll b (mg/L) = 22.9A645 4.68A663
2.3 Determination of free proline content
0.2 g of flesh leaf material were placed into a test
tube, and 5 ml of 3% aqueous sulfosalicylic acid
was added before the test tubes were immersed
in a boiling water bath for 10 minutes. After it
cooled to room temperature, 2 ml of the super-
nate were removed to react with 2 ml of glacial
acetic acid and 3 ml of acid-ninhdrin in a test
tube that was also left for 40 minutes in a boil-
ing water bath. After it cooled down, the reaction
mixture was extracted with 5 ml of toluene, then
shaken vigorously for 10 minutes. The upper layer
of toluene-proline solution was taken and its
absorbance read at 520 nm with a UV/Vis spec-
trophotometer (UV-2802S). Purified proline was
used to standardize the procedure for quantify-
ing sample values. The proline content was deter-
mined from the standard curve and calculated on
a fresh weight basis.
2.4 Measurement of biomass and Cd content
in the plants
When the plants were harvested, they were sepa-
rated into parts to account for the different mor-
phologies of each species. Festuca arundinacea
and Medicago sativa L. were separated into two
265
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 265
parts: aerial part and roots. Phytolacca acinosa
and Mirabilis jalapa were separated into three
parts: roots, stems and leaves. The plants were
washed with water and placed in the oven at
105 oC for 15 minutes and then dried at 85 oC
until they reached a constant weight. The bio-
mass of each part then was measured on the dry
weight basis.
The oven-dried plant material was crushed and
sieved with a 60-mesh sieve. Then a 0.2 g sample
was mineralized by wet ashing with a mixture of 1
ml of concentrated HNO3 and 1 ml of H2O2 at 160
oC for 4 hours. When it cooled down, the solution
was diluted to 10 ml with double distilled water
and then the Cd concentration was determined
using ICP-AES.
2.5 Calculation of factors for evaluation
of Cd accumulation capacity
The Tolerance Index (TI) was calculated to meas-
ure the ability of the plant to grow in the presence
of a given concentration of metal (Wilkins 1978):
Dry weight of the plants grown
in Cd medium
TI =
Dry weight of the plants grown
in control medium
The Translocation Factor (TF) was calculated
to evaluate the capability of plant to translocate
metal absorbed by roots to the aerial part (Zacchini,
Pietrini et al. 2009):
Cd concentration in the aerial parts (mg/kg)
TF =
Cd concentra
r tion in the roots (mg/kg)
The Phytoremediation Factor (PF) is a novel
coefficient proposed as an index to evaluate the
capacity of a plant to accumulate a target element
which included biomass as an important factor
(Li, Hu et al. 2011).
Cd concentration in the plant shoot
Biomass of the plant shoot
PF =
Cd concentration in the soil
2.6 Statistical analysis
The tables and figures were obtained with Micro-
soft Excel 2007 software. The significance of the
differences between treatments was analyzed
by ANOVA followed by a Duncan test for post-
hoc comparisons between unequal samples per-
formed with SPSS Statistics 17.0, taking p<0.05 as
significant.
8/27/2014 6:00:03 PM
 3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

1.70 0.29ab

3.45 1.13b
0.33 0.14b
3.78 0.58b
0.20 0.04b
1.31 0.33b
10.64 0.70c
8.94 0.52c

1.11 0.39c
3.1 Effect of Cd on plant biomass

0.00c
0.00c
0.00c
Dry biomass can be used to assess plant tolerance

200
to Cd (Liu, Zhou et al. 2008). All of the four plants
showed a significant decrease in dry biomass at
high levels of Cd treatments (Table 2). The bio-
mass of Festuca arundinacea, Phytolacca acinosa,

7.54 0.98ab
1.40 0.68ab
8.94 1.40ab
2.15 0.67bc
0.31 0.11bc
1.85 0.60bc
1.52 0.14b

0.19 0.03b
1.51 0.26b
11.31 0.39c

12.83 0.25c
1.31 0.23c
Medicago sativa L. and Mirabilis jalapa with 100
mg kg1 Cd in the soil decreased by 10.0%, 89.9%,
42.3% and 34.3% respectively, compared with the

100
control, indicating that the growth of Festuca
arundinacea was the least inhibited by high levels
of Cd in soil among the four plants, with Mirabilis
jalapa being the next most resistant. In addition,

12.63 4.28bc

13.76 4.25bc

1.41 0.17ab
1.01 0.37ab
5.31 0.37ab

1.61 0.45bc
0.18 0.05bc
1.42 0.39bc
4.30 0.29bc
at low levels of Cd treatments (1025 mg kg1),

1.13 0.04b

11.93 2.23a

13.33 2.13a
the biomass of Festuca arundinacea and Medicago
sativa L. showed a significant increase compared
with the control. Similarly, the biomass of Phytol-

50
acca acinosa also increased at 10 mg kg1 of Cd.
Hence, the presence of low levels of Cd can pro-
mote plant growth. The order of the biomass of
the four kinds of plants was as follows: Festuca

9.63 0.70abc
16.86 4.00ab

19.03 5.30ab

12.71 0.38ab

0.65 0.41ab
2.17 0.38ab

3.08 0.46ab
arundinacea > Mirabilis jalapa > Phytolacca aci-

5.66 1.73b
10.71 2.07a

12.60 2.13a
1.89 0.20a
5.00 1.32a
nosa > Medicago sativa L.

Values followed by different letters for a given treatment are significantly different at p<0.05.
3.2 Effect of Cd on plant leaf chlorophyll content
25

The chlorophyll content of Phytolacca acinosa

increased at 10 mg kg1 of Cd, showing a simi-
lar trend to its biomass, and then significantly

4.81 1.22ab
4.02 1.68ab
3.67 1.41ab

0.79 0.34b
21.44 0.98a
2.84 0.32a
24.29 1.20a

12.81 0.74a
1.98 0.72a
14.79 0.96a
14.31 3.11a

17.98 4.43a

decreased at higher concentrations of Cd in the

soil (Fig. 1). There was no influence on the chloro-
Effects of different concentrations of Cd on plant dry biomass.

phyll content of Mirabilis jalapa until a significant

Cd concentration (mg kg1)

decrease at 200 mg kg1. The chlorophyll content

10

of Festuca arundinacea and Medicago sativa L.

was not affected by increasing Cd levels in the soil.
Therefore, the photosynthesis of Phytolacca aci-
12.57 3.38bca

nosa was the most inhibited by Cd stress among

13.01 2.00ab

3.79 1.08ab
1.74 0.24ab
14.31 3.55bc

0.58 0.37ab
3.21 1.42ab

11.48 4.05a

13.61 3.93a
17.79 6.78a

2.13 0.99a
4.77 1.78a

these four kinds of plants, while Cd had little

impact on the photosynthesis of Festuca arundi-
nacea and Medicago sativa L. The differences of
CK

the Chl a/b ratio between different Cd treatments

were not significant for all the tested plants, which
indicated that Chl a and Chl b, the photosynthesis
pigments, were equally affected by Cd in the range
Aerial
Aerial

Aerial

Aerial
Roots

Roots
Roots
Roots
Parts

Total
Total

Total
Total

of concentrations used.

3.3 Effect of Cd on plant leaf proline content

The proline content in the leaves of Festuca arundi-
Phytolacca acinosa

Medicago sativa L.

nacea did not show significant changes at different

Mirabilis jalapa
arundinacea

levels of Cd treatment (Fig. 2). However, the pro-

line content of the other three plant species showed
Table 2.

significant increases at certain Cd levels. Phytolacca

Festuca
Plants

acinosa showed notable proline accumulation at

25 mg kg1 and 50 mg kg1 Cd treatments and its
a

266

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 266 8/27/2014 6:00:04 PM

 Figure 1. Effects of different concentrations of Cd on contents of chlorophyll.

Figure 2. Effects of different concentrations of Cd on content of free proline.

proline content dropped to a level less than that of
control at higher Cd treatments of 100 mg kg1 and
200 mg kg1. As for Medicago sativa L., the pro-
line was most accumulated at Cd treatments of
10 mg kg1 and 25 mg kg1, before decreasing at
higher Cd levels and was lower than that of control
at 200 mg kg1. Mirabilis jalapa did not show signifi-
cant changes in proline content at 050 mg kg1 Cd,
but it accumulated significantly higher amounts of
proline at 100 mg kg1 and 200 mg kg1, with the
highest proline content at 100 mg kg1.
3.4 Cd accumulation and distribution in plants
The accumulation and distribution of Cd in plants
were important indexes in choosing Cd resistant
species (Wang, Yan et al. 2012). According to
Table 3, the amount of Cd accumulated in aerial
parts and roots of the four kinds of plants all
increased as the level of Cd content in the soil
increased. The highest level of Cd accumulated in
the aerial parts of Festuca arundinacea, Phytolacca
acinosa, Medicago sativa L. and Mirabilis jalapa
reached 30.35 mg kg1, 34.64 mg kg1, 16.07 mg kg1
and 80.63 mg kg1 respectively, and Cd accumula-
tion in the roots of these plant species reached
994.88 mg kg1, 79.58 mg kg1, 84.79 mg kg1 and
63.39 mg kg1 respectively. Comparing the Cd con-
tent in the leaves of the four kinds of plants tested,
we found significant differences between species
(p<0.05). Festuca arundinacea and Phytolacca
acinosa accumulated more Cd in their leaves than

267

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 267 8/27/2014 6:00:04 PM

 Mirabilis jalapa and Cd content in Mirabilis jalapa
was higher than Medicago sativa L. However, the
stems of Mirabilis jalapa showed a distinct ability
to accumulate Cd, with content levels of 200 mg
kg1 being the highest among all the above ground
parts of all the four kinds of plant. As for the Cd
content in the roots, Festuca arundinacea accumu-
lated more than 10 times the levels of Cd in the
other three plant species.
Different parts of plants accumulated different
amounts of Cd (Table 3). For Festuca arundinacea
and Medicago sativa L., Cd content in the roots
was remarkably higher than in the shoots. For Phy-
tolacca acinosa, Cd content in the leaves was higher
than in the stems at all Cd treatment levels. At low
Cd treatment levels (1025 mg kg1), Cd content
in the roots of Phytolacca acinosa was higher than
in the stems, but lower than in the leaves, while at
high Cd treatment levels (50200 mg kg1) Cd con-
tent in the roots was higher than in both the stems
and the leaves, indicating that at high levels of Cd
treatment, the ability of Phytolacca acinosa to
translocate Cd from roots to leaves was inhibited.
For Mirabilis jalapa, Cd content in the stems was
higher than in the leaves. Notably, Cd content in
the stems of Mirabilis jalapa at high levels of Cd
treatment (100200 mg kg1) exceeded Cd content
in the roots.
3.5 Evaluation of Cd accumulation capacity
of plants by different factors
Different factors were calculated to evaluate the
ability of plants to accumulate Cd (Table 4). The
tolerance index (TI) of Festuca arundinacea and
Phytolacca acinosa decreased as the level of Cd

Table 3. Cd concentration in each part of the four plants.

Cd concentration (mg kg1)

Plants Parts CK 10 25 50 100 200

Festuca Aerial 1.42 0.30 7.14 0.59 12.67 1.25 19.78 3.66 21.09 4.29 30.35 3.67
arundinacea Roots 15.77 2.98 77.09 13.67 172.72 36.84 380.49 28.39 524.71 52.17 994.88 147.83
Phytolacca Leaves 1.00 0.68 6.61 1.79 9.12 3.01 16.15 4.02 25.99 4.16 34.64 5.35
acinosa Stems 0.54 0.13 1.24 0.28 1.94 0.21 5.33 1.04 8.69 1.87 17.13 3.62
Roots 0.65 0.17 1.77 0.19 2.70 0.38 17.56 3.27 38.13 5.93 75.98 10.54
Medicago Aerial 1.95 0.94 5.62 0.26 8.50 2.31 14.59 2.09 16.07 2.46 /a
sativa L. Roots 12.70 2.69 20.60 4.20 40.96 8.23 59.83 7.49 84.79 13.74 /
Mirabilis Leaves 1.09 0.26 4.12 1.25 7.14 1.65 13.31 3.06 20.58 6.54 33.54 5.28
jalapa Stems 1.21 0.38 7.01 1.44 12.81 1.85 27.70 5.29 59.15 7.46 80.63 15.28
Roots 1.48 0.24 10.29 2.17 16.86 3.59 32.90 7.31 42.44 9.71 63.39 12.25
a
The biomass of Medicago sativa L. at 200 mg kg1 was too low to sample for Cd concentration analysis.

Table 4. Cd accumulation characteristics of the four plants.

Cd concentration (mg kg1)

Factors Plants 10 25 50 100 200

TI Festuca arundinacea 1.70 1.33 0.96 0.90 0.74

Phytolacca acinosa 1.01 0.71 0.30 0.08 0.07
Medicago sativa L. 1.27 1.49 0.42 0.57 /
Mirabilis jalapa 1.09 0.93 0.98 0.66 0.28
TF Festuca arundinacea 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03
Phytolacca acinosa 2.63 2.45 0.72 0.57 0.37
Medicago sativa L. 0.27 0.21 0.24 0.19 /
Mirabilis jalapa 0.59 0.62 0.67 0.94 0.90
PF Festuca arundinacea 15.31 8.55 5.00 2.38 1.36
Phytolacca acinosa 6.90 2.56 1.09 0.29 0.16
Medicago sativa L. 1.80 1.36 1.46 0.23 /
Mirabilis jalapa 6.88 4.09 4.68 2.95 0.96

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 268 8/27/2014 6:00:06 PM

 content in the soil increased. The TI of Medicago
sativa L. was higher at 25 mg kg1 than at other Cd
treatment levels. Mirabilis jalapa showed a consist-
ently high TI at 1050 mg kg1 levels. In general,
Festuca arundinacea showed the highest TI at high
Cd treatment levels.
The Translocation Factor (TF) of Festuca arund-
inacea, Phytolacca acinosa and Medicago sativa L.
decreased with increasing Cd levels. However, the
TF of Mirabilis jalapa increased with increasing
Cd levels. At low Cd levels (1050 mg kg1), the
TF value of Phytolacca acinosa was the highest
among the four kinds of plants, reaching 2.63 at
10 mg kg1, but dramatically decreasing at high Cd
levels. The TF value of Mirabilis jalapa was the
highest at high Cd levels (100200 mg kg1), reach-
ing 0.94 at 100 mg kg1, indicating that Mirabilis
jalapa had the greatest ability to translocate Cd to
its aerial parts when there was a high level of Cd
in the soil.
The Phytoremediation Factor (PF) of all the
plants tested diminished with increasing Cd treat-
ment levels. There were large differences between
different plant species for PF values. The PF value
of Festuca arundinacea was obviously the highest,
which reached 15.31 at 10 mg kg1 Cd level. The
order of the PF values of the other three plant spe-
cies was as follows: Mirabilis jalapa > Phytolacca
acinosa > Medicago sativa L.
4 DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to examine the response
of these four plant species to Cd stress, evaluate
their ability to tolerate Cd and accumulate Cd, and
then accordingly determine whether these plants
have the potential to be used for phytoremediation
of Cd contaminated soil.
As the results showed, low levels of Cd in the
soil can slightly stimulate plant growth, which coin-
cided with previous studies (Sun, Zhou et al. 2009;
Wang, Yan et al. 2012). The mechanisms have been
suggested to explain the positive effect on plant
growth. Low levels of Cd increase the trans-mem-
brane potential at the root surface by hyperpolar-
izing the plasma membranes, thus providing more
energy for cation uptake (Kennedy and Gonsalves
1987). Moreover, cadmium has been found to
induce genes related to cell proliferation, which
could increase cell growth (Beyersmann 2002).
However, the inhibitive functions of much higher
levels of Cd nullified these positive effects.
The different patterns of the changes of proline
content in different plants with increasing Cd lev-
els reveal different resistance mechanisms of Cd
related to proline accumulation. Proline accumula-
tion has been suggested as a mechanism of storage
269
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 269
of excess nitrogen. Its accumulation in plants under
Cd stress is due to the decrease of the plant water
potential, so the functional significance of this
accumulation could be related to the water balance
(Dinakar, Nagajyothi et al. 2008). Accumulation of
free proline while under heavy metal stress seems
to be wide spread among plants (Costa and Morel
1994) and pretreatment with proline increased Cd
accumulation (Xu, Zhu et al. 2012), which indicates
that proline accumulation is one of the mechanisms
developed by plants to adapt to Cd stress. The pro-
line content of Phytolacca acinosa and Medicago
sativa L. increased at first and then decreased
with increasing Cd levels, indicating that they can
develop a proline accumulating mechanism against
Cd stress at medium Cd levels but this mechanism
was inhibited at much higher Cd levels. In contrast,
Mirabilis jalapa accumulated large amounts of pro-
line at 100200 mg kg1 Cd levels, revealing a highly
adaptive mechanism when exposed to highly toxic
Cd concentrations. However, the slight changes of
proline content in Festuca arundinacea indicated
that it may develop other mechanisms other than
proline accumulation to resist Cd stress, which may
need further investigation.
Plants with higher growth rates and greater
biomass potential have been tested for their
phytoremediation capacities, and despite the low
heavy metal content in their tissues, their final heavy
metal extraction can be equal to hyperaccumulat-
ing plants with lower biomass (Meers, Ruttens
et al. 2005; Hernandez-Allica, Becerril et al. 2008;
Meers, Van Slycken et al. 2010; Ruttens, Boulet
et al. 2011). In some cases, a greater shoot biomass
can more than compensate for a lower shoot metal
concentration (Ebbs and Kochian 1997; Ebbs and
Kochian 1998). Thus, the Phytoremediation Fac-
tor (PF), a novel coefficient proposed by Li et al.
(Li, Hu et al. 2011), which includes biomass as a
main factor in its calculation, extends the conven-
tional definition of hyperaccumulator. Although
none of the four plant species tested in this study
fulfilled the criteria of hyperaccumulators defined
by Baker and Brooks (Baker and Brooks 1989), the
plants may also be considered as candidates for
phytoremediation if they have high PF values. In
the present study, the PF values of Festuca arundi-
nacea and Mirabilis jalapa were higher than the
other two kinds of plants, which means they have
more potential to be used in phytoremediation of
Cd contaminated soil.
There have been concerns about the disposal
of the harvested plants containing high levels of
Cd. If the plants were filled back into the soil
and then decomposed, Cd will be released to the
environment again, causing secondary pollution.
However, if phytoremediation could be combined
with its commercial utilization as an energy source,
8/27/2014 6:00:06 PM
 with the residual ash available to be used as an ore,
then it could be transformed into a profitable oper-
ation (Comis 1996; Cunningham and Ow 1996).
Phytomining, also known as bio-ore, includes the
generation of revenue by extracting soluble met-
als from the plant biomass ash, thus avoiding the
problem of secondary pollution. The value of
reclaimed metals may provide an additional incen-
tive for phytoremediation (Chaney, Malik et al.
1997; Watanabe 1997).
5 CONCLUSION
The data presented in this paper demonstrated that
Festuca arundinacea and Mirabilis jalapa have strong
Cd resistance, considerable biomass, no serious poi-
soning symptoms and high Cd accumulation quan-
tities, so they have the most potential to be applied
to the phytoremediation of Cd polluted soil. We
suggest further studies and examinations of these
two plant species for phytoremediation purposes.
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of soil metals. Current Opinion in Biotechnology
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exchange and amino acid content in Cd treated
lettuce. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 32(4):
561570.
Comis, D. (1996). Green remediation: Using plants to
clean the soil. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
51(3): 184187.
Cunningham, S.D. and D.W. Ow (1996). Promises and
prospects of phytoremediation. Plant Physiology
110(3): 715719.
Dinakar, N., P.C. Nagajyothi, et al. (2008). Phytotoxic-
ity of cadmium on protein, proline and antioxidant
enzyme activities in growing Arachis hypogaea L.
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Dong, J., W.H. Mao, et al. (2007). Root excretion and
plant tolerance to cadmium toxicitya review. Plant
Soil and Environment 53(5): 193200.
Ebbs, S.D. and L.V. Kochian (1997). Toxicity of zinc
and copper to Brassica species: Implications for phy-
toremediation. Journal of Environmental Quality
26(3): 776781.
Ebbs, S.D. and L.V. Kochian (1998). Phytoextraction of
zinc by oat (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare),
and Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). Environmental
Science & Technology 32(6): 802806.
Han, Y.L., H.Y. Yuan, et al. (2007). Cadmium
tolerance and accumulation by two species of Iris.
Ecotoxicology 16(8): 557563.
Hernandez-Allica, J., J.M. Becerril, et al. (2008). Assess-
ment of the phytoextraction potential of high biomass
crop plants. Environmental Pollution 152(1): 3240.
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of divalent zinc, cadmium, mercury, copper and lead on
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three ornamental plants to Cd and Cd-Pb stress and
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for Phytoremediation of Uranium, Thorium, Barium,
Nickel, Strontium and Lead Contaminated Soils
from a Uranium Mill Tailings Repository in South
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Mine rock slope ecological restoration techniques

Y.J. Yang & W.D. Zhang

Xian Research Institute of China Coal Technology and Engineering Group Corp, Xian, Shannxi, China

ABSTRACT: There are a large number of mines along the Qinling mountains, such as quarries sur-
rounding HuashanShaohuashan scenic area, Jinduicheng molybdenum surface mine, Chadian phos-
phate mine. These mines seriously affect the visual effects of Qinling mountains because many years of
mining destroyed the original vegetation while there are some important rails and high-ways through here,
so they are called Qinling mountains psoriasis. But as most of these mines are hard rocky and high slopes,
commonly ecological restoration techniques are ineffective. Since 2008, the Department of Land and
Resource takes a variety of governance methods to restore the ecological environment. In these projects,
the main measures are overburden planting, planting trees on Fish Scale Pit, reclamation by plant growth
bag barrier weir, drilling grass, the vegetation concrete spraying, tyre revetment, block by rattan and tree
and so on. Although a variety of ecological restoration measures showed some inappropriate during the
construction process, the task was finally completed successfully through the active exploration of field
technical personnel.

1 INTRODUCTION reached 53.5% (Li et al. 1998), and British reached

Due to the rapid development of community
economy after reform and opening-up in China,
the large-scale development of mineral resources
has also caused the largest terrestrial ecosystem
destruction. With national attention on the ecologi-
cal environment and people requiring to improve the
quality of life, Department of Land and Resources
and mining enterprises pay more and more atten-
tion to mine environmental restoration aimed at
giving people back suitable living environment and
the beautiful country scene. Mining is one of the
main factors which cause environmental damage,
especially surface mining. Rock and soil is bare after
resource extraction, no vegetation fixed, produce
dust in the dry and windy, and may lead to soil ero-
sion even landslides in the rain. Bare rock and soil is
very inconsistent with the surrounding natural scen-
ery, especially near traffic fortress. It seriously affects
the visual effects and the local image, therefore aban-
doned mine ecological restoration is urgent.
Some developed countries has begun earlier
emphasis on ecological restoration slope and cre-
ated a series of techniques, such as soil spraying
method, fiber green method, thick layer of green
substrate injection method, eco green method
of porous concrete, vegetation blowing attached
methods, vegetation pack up method, seed spray-
ing method. Destroyed land currently by various
types of mines in the United States reclamation
rate has reached 79.5% (Bradshaw 1990), German
87.6% (Zhong 2003).
China had more than 9,000 medium-sized
mines, 260,000 small-scale mines. Land occupied
has approached 40000 square kilometers, and
land abandoned reach 330 square kilometers per
year because of mining (Qiao et al. 2010). The
Regulations on Land Reclamation in 1988 and
the Peoples Republic of China Environmental
Protection Law in 1989 mark the mine ecological
restoration has into a new stage of legality.
There are many ways to ecological restoration,
but due to different conditions around different
projects, the same way has different result with the
changing of place. Distribution of distribution
of igneous and metamorphic rocks are spread
large area of Qinling mountain, where is rich in
various minerals; Granite is also a good build-
ing material, therefore, the distribution of mine
in Qinling mountain is quite extensive, such as
HuashanShaohuashan scenic quarry (NWME
2009), Jinduicheng molybdenum surface mine,
Chadian phosphate mine (CCRIXian 2009).
The fragile ecology was undermined in the min-
ing process. Ecological natural recovery is very
difficult as the slope mostly is rocky in this area.
Artificial measures must be taken to shorten the
time of ecological restoration. Geological envi-
ronment restoration of HuashanShaohuashan
scenic abandoned quarry in Qinling mountains of
Shaanxi province is success stories of ecological
restoration for the rock slope.

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 2 PROJECT OVERVIEW slopes, generally slope 2045, most of the slope
accumulation of surface gravel or stone which
There are more than 50 quarries spread 30 kilometres containing a small amount of clay, with occasional
in HuashanShaohuashan scenic in Qinling large stone or boulders, regular shape, part of the
mountain of Shaanxi province. Bare rock and slope grow weeds or small trees. Pit slope height is
verdant mountain slopes are very uncoordinated 22238.7 m and slope is rock slope. Slope is sta-
when looking from the Xian-Tongguan highway, bility under natural conditions without landslides.
Zhengzhou-Xian high-speed rail, the Longhai Most mining platform relatively flat, regular. There
railway and state road 310, like Longhai railways is a small amount of stone, gravel close at pit slope.
psoriasis, seriously affecting the handsome scenery Weeds begin to grow on mining platform after min-
of HuashanShaohuashan scenic. It has become ing stopped for a long time. Waste yard is generally
a serious flaw of this tourist city of Xian. To elimi- located in the foot of Qinling mountain, individu-
nate the quarry collapse, landslides, mudslides, other ally distributed on both sides of the gully, mostly
geological disaster and atmospheric dust pollution grow grass or planting pepper, cedar trees and other
caused by disordered mining, eradicate the psoria- yard waste, is being restored green scene.
sis phenomenon in Huashan-Shaohuashan scenic The overall objective of this project is to unin-
and within visual range of transport links, restore stall through cutting, cleaning such as unstable
the original appearance of Qinling mountain, pro- rock slope, eliminating geological disaster such as
mote sustainablility of Huashan-Shaohuashan sce- collapse, landslide, debris flow; utilize overburden
nic and Xian tourism, Department of Land and afforestation purify the atmosphere and ecological
Resource of Weinan city launched geology environ- restoration to improve the Qinling mountain, to
mental engineering to ecological restore abandoned achieve disaster prevention and mitigation, land-
quarry of the HuashanShaohuashan scenic in scaping Huashan-Shaohuashan scenic and traffic
Qinling mountain in Shaanxi province. arteries landscape.
Project area terrain is different from south to
north and and the altitude varies considerably. The
southern is high mountains, peaks; North steep 3 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
fall, into the Weihe River and its tributaries alluvial TECHNIQUES
plain. Climate is between mountains and plains cli-
mate type, humid climate and low temperatures, the According to the actual situation, combined with a
annual average temperature of 5.79.1C. Annual similar part of the highway engineering in Shaanxi
precipitation in the southern mountains is above province, reference domestic, international experi-
900 mm and the north to the Weihe river gradu- ence of mine ecological environment restoration,
ally reduced to 525 mm, and more concentrated in major techniques taken in this ecological restora-
May to October. The surface water in this area is tion in Table 1.
mainly rivers. Underground aquifers is fractured
aquifer mainly due to fractured bedrock particular 3.1 Overburden planting
development, belong to moderateweak water-rich Overburden planting ecological restoration is
rock group. The main water source of recharge is the most commonly used method. Because the
precipitation. Run-off mode is from low-middle
mountains to the rivers in the way of spring, spring
flow 0.21.4 L/s. Table 1. The use of different ecological restoration
Outcropping strata in project area mainly are techniques.
ancient metamorphic gneisses rocks of archean
taihua group, metamorphic volcanic and clastic, Ecological restoration Application Slope
carbonate of late precambrian. There are ancient techniques of slope angle condition
mesozoic yanshan intrusive rocks between channel
and Huashan mountain. The main lithology is all Overburden planting <25 Gravel
types of hybrid gneiss, amphibolite rocks, quartzite Planting trees on Fish <45 Gravel or
Scale Pit soil slope
and other hard rocks. Cenozoic quaternary mainly
Plant growth bag <45 Rock slope
in the vast area south of the valley and piedmont barrier weir
faults north of the river terraces, the main lithology Drilling grass <75 Soil slope
is loess soil, clay, sand, gravel and clay. The vegetation <75 Rock slope
Generally quarry consists of three elements, concrete spraying
pit slope, mining platform, waste yard. Pit slope Tire revetment <75 Rock slope
appearance shape is chair-like or chair group, Pit soil replacement <75 Rock slope
most pit slope scarp-like upper steep slope 3184, Block by rattan and trees >75 Rock slope
individual negative angle; slowing down the lower

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 abandoned slag heap by surface mining process
has no nutrients, poor water retention, difficult to
grow plants. It was usually ecological restore by
overburden planting after leveling.
3.2 Planting trees on Fish Scale Pit
Mainly used for gravel slope that less than 45,
Fish Scale Pit was built scaly pits on slope (6 points
per square meter), planted desert shrubs in it, this
method is low cost and good greening effect.
3.3 Plant growth bag barrier weir
Reference some highway plant growth bag bar-
rier weir technology, combined with specific
characteristics of this pit slope, this technology
is mainly used for rock slope less than 45. Shrub
selected as amorpha, tufted locust, caragana
shrubs; The grass selected as crownvetch adsur-
gens, alfalfa. Grass planting as a pioneer, shrubs
reinforcement slope in future, to achieve the desired
landscape effect.
3.4 Drilling grass
This technology is mainly used for soil slope at the
top and around pit slope, design 10 hole per square
meter, planting locust, caragana, euonymus, amor-
pha and other shrubs, cost of this method far less
than soil spray broadcast, and has water storage
space, holes also provides a space for plant root
development.
3.5 The vegetation concrete spraying
The height of highway slope used vegetation con-
crete spraying is 3040 m and the gradient is 60
70, restoration results is mixed. Which used
locust, caragana, planting species amorpha bet-
ter than green grass only on rock slope, and exist
fall off phenomenon. Comprehensive analysis that
grass shallow root lead to poor reinforcement abil-
ity and grass roots easy fall off along the slope.
Pit slope in this project is large angle, long and
uneven and ecological restoration is extremely
difficult. The design used this technology for high
and steep slope above 45 but not soil spray broad-
cast, because the difference between them is slope
treat through vegetation concrete spraying is not
collapsed, not lost when raining, good stable per-
formance, as well as grass and shrubs flourish.
Seeds for spraying select those barren, drought
tolerance, cold-resistant, fewer pests. Trees selection
of Chinese pine trees; shrubs selection of locust
bush, amorpha, tamarisk, caragana and other
deep roots of trees or shrubs for long-term fixed
slope varieties; grass seed selection of adsurgens,
275
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 275
ryegrass, small crown flower, alfalfa those as pio-
neer to protect slope.
With the passage of time after vegetation con-
crete (green concrete) sprayed, native plants blend
into surrounding environment without artifacts
once penetrated, engineering slope will return to
its natural state, achieve the ultimate goal of eco-
logical restoration. Shortcomings of the technol-
ogy is the seeding material increase over the soil
spray broadcast, project cost is slightly higher
(soil spray broadcast total cost about 140 yuan per
square meter, green concrete about 150 yuan per
square meter currently).
3.6 Tire revetment
This technology is use waste tires which fill with grass
planting and soil then fixed in the high steep rocky
slope. Just as a pilot projects because of its a new
technology. The program can build grass or shrub
and grass communities, but also planting small trees,
instances of domestic restoration confirmed that the
technique works well on re-green slope.
When the project in the implementation proc-
ess some experts advise the pit soil replacement
method (when the original terrain allows on high
rock slope, excavate the trench and fill plant-
ing soil; in the case of terrain more complex, be
punched in the slope, filling replanting plants and
seeds), the technology is protected by natural ter-
rain conditions, construction difficult, costly, and
therefore this method is few practical application,
this ecological design give up the advice.
3.7 Trees or rattan block
In rock slope ecological restoration process, due
to the lack of nutrients, moisture, room for root
development in local complete rock slope, plant
survival is difficult, even thousands years of expe-
rience in nature. Therefore, we use the tall trees and
rattan block method, on the one hand to promote
the process of weathering of rocks in the shelter,
provide conditions for plant growth, on the other
hand can beautify the environment, and will not
damage sensory effects.
4 PROBLEMS EXISTED
In the ecological restoration process, because often
encountered rock slope, ecological restoration
techniques commonly used are not suit for this
type of slope. Design also not fully consider the
actual local situation in the construction process,
The vegetation concrete spraying, tire revetment
and other new ecological restoration technology
have many problems.
8/27/2014 6:00:07 PM
 1. When the vegetation concrete spraying, in order
to ensure the thickness of vegetation concrete,
and cannot appear falling off phenomenon,
you must first hanging wire mesh in the slope.
In the hanging process, we must ensure distance
between mesh and slope, else prone to falling off,
lack of thickness and other ills. If the distance
is not enough we should add pads and others
same as it, Wire mesh should be securely fixed
on the slope, the vegetation concrete should be
filled with dense jet.
2. When the vegetation concrete spraying, cement
and other binders need to add in order to
enhance the adhesion of vegetation concrete,
but too much additives will affect plant growth,
too small will affect bonding effect, easy fall off,
easy to wash, so must test appropriate vegeta-
tion concrete formulations based on local con-
ditions before construction.
3. As a new technology, tire revetment is rela-
tively successful in some places for lower slopes,
but stacked tires and fixed on high slope exist
greater difficulties, a large area of discarded
tires exposure, easy odor, air pollution and pos-
ing a fire hazard exists, so tires revetment should
be selected after careful consideration.
4. After ecological restoration on the rock slope,
ecological communities is difficult to generate.
Grass should strengthen conservation, extend
the period of plant conservation, and develop
community capacity to adapt after planting.
Grass grow better in the conservation, but due
to the lack of nutrients and water storage space,
no space for root development, soon wither
from conservation on complete rock slope,
therefore, a complete rock slope ecological res-
toration technology remains to be researched.
5. Seed germination rate is crucial for ecological
restoration. Seed should be germination tested
before using, otherwise, once the seeds have
problem, the loss will be irreparable.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Mine ecological restoration involves a number of
professional and technical fields, in carrying out
ecological restoration process it should be more
professional investment coordination. Native spe-
cies should be protected and respect local peoples
willing to the overall design of the reclamation
area. Contrast to the feasibility of the program
276
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 276
during the restoration process, as well as technical
and economic calculations.
Since ordinary mine waste heap, dump, slag
dumps rock block size is small, can overburden
green after leveling, there are many domestic
projects and technology is improving daily. But
there are many problems of the rock slope ecologi-
cal restoration, such as limited source of nutrition,
limited water storage, water supply difficulties, pre-
cipitation erosion, limited root development room,
long time to form a stable ecological communities
and so on. So in rock slope ecological restoration
process, it is necessary to consider the rainfall ero-
sion, but also consider the need for plant growth,
and in the early going enough base fertilizer, choose
drought, root varieties, using methods such as drip
irrigation, extension of conservation plants time,
and other ways to culture of plants adaptability
before the end of the project.
In some places, restoration is difficult. In order
not to affect the visual effects, bare rock should be
block by the tall trees or rattan. Rattan growth in
the process, reduce evaporation, accelerated weath-
ering of rocks, to provide conditions for other spe-
cies to survival, and finally into a more appropriate
plant growth environment, and gradually restore
the ecological.
REFERENCES
Bradshaw, A. 1990. Western Europe abandoned land
management and restoration. Ecology 10(1): 2835.
Li Shuzhi et al. 1998. Mines ecological damage control
techniques. Beijing: Coal Industry Press. (in Chinese).
Northwest Nonferrous exploration engineering com-
pany. 2009. Design of HuashanShaohuashan scenic
abandoned quarry geological environment treatment
engineering in Qinling Mountains of Shaanxi Province.
(in Chinese).
Qiao Xiaojuan et al. 2010. Analysis of the impact of
coal mining on water resources and environment
Taking Shanxi Taiyuan Xishan coal mining area as an
example. Protection of water resources 26(1): 4952.
(in Chinese).
Xian Branch of China Coal Research Institute. 2009.
Design of Chadian phosphate mine of The New State
Industry & Trade Co., Ltd geological environment com-
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8/27/2014 6:00:07 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Study on the artificial revegetation succession law of the deserted

quarry of the north of China

H. Zhang, Q. Wang & L.B. Zhou

Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: For many years, large amounts of Huangyuan village quarry loose deposits by disordered
quarrying caused serious threat to the regional ecological environment security, and also the extremely
hard things of vegetation restoration and reconstruction. In this paper, the authors took the north of
ChinaBeijing Huangyuan deserted quarry as an example, surveyed the revegetation conditions includ-
ing the communities and characters and the life form composition; dividing the vegetation communities
into different site types by the order of the ummed dominance ratio methods; analyzing the diversities
and succession characters of the vegetation communities under three factors. It would have the extreme
important scientific value to realize the revegetation restoration and ecological environment improve-
ment. The main findings are as follows: 1) there were 25 families, 43 genera and 58 species in the area, and
the plant species were mainly Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae and Grassy. The herbaceous
was dominant, which accounts for more than 70%, and the trees represents 1015%, only the shrubs and
vines were scarce. However, there was a gradual trend towards grass-shrub and tree-shrub layer succes-
sion; 2) The authors also summarized three major types for the appropriate vegetation succession in the
deserted quarry; 3) The plant communities diversity variation was: the cover and the index value of diver-
sities was highest of the compaction area higher than the platform area and slope areas.

1 STUDY SITE AND EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
Experimental Zone in Beijings Fangshan District
(E 115 25116 15, N 39 3039 55), are mainly using diversity index, richness and evenness index
waste piled muck natural slope and platform. The
test area is warm temperate semi-humid monsoon
climate, with an average annual temperature of
411.7 C, rainfall is 655 mm. Abandoned the nat-
ural slope of the test area after the accumulation
of sediment dumped together, slope length, height
and sizes, the slope of 3045, and the construction
of multi-level platforms along the slope. All origi-
nal soil and vegetation damage, poor physical and
chemical properties of sediment, water leakage is
serious, low nutrient content, revegetation difficult.
Existing Ulmus pumila Linn., Ailanthus altissima,
Vitex negundo Linn. var. heterophylla (Franch.)
Rehd., Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv., Chenopodium
album Linn., Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr.,
Pharbitis nil (L.) Ching, Salsola collina Pall..
2 METHOD ANALYSIS
2.1 Study method
Diagonally set l m l m plots of herbs and shrubs or
2 m 2 m plots of trees, a total of 272. Select three
different types of artificial vegetation restoration
site investigation (Ian, 2012). Plant growth, includ-
ing survival, survival, growth, growth height, diam-
eter, crown and other growth indicators; test area
was set using vegetation survey sampling methods,
analysis quarrying vegetation of field character-
istics, screening plants species suitable integrated
analysis (Wang, 2013).
2.2 Data analysis
Vegetation surveys using sampling methods (Hao,
et al, 2012), the name of each plant quadrat record
number, height, sub-cover, total vegetation cover
and growth form (Zaxi, 2012), while recording every
elevation, aspect, slope and slope position samples
parties. Compass measured aspect and slope; meas-
ured plots of vegetation coverage through visual
estimation; growth pattern in accordance with the
use of trees, shrubs, vines and herbaceous statistics;
tape measured plant height, measured three times
averaged. Biodiversity indicators index was the for-
mula (1, 2, 3, 4) (Li, 2000), the observation period
was July 2011 and July 2012.
Simpson index:
n
D 1 Pi2 (1)
i =1

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 Margalef index: shrub Lespedeza bicolor Turcz., Hibiscus syriacus
Linn. and other wild native herbaceous species are
S (S ) / ln N (2)
mainly Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv., Potentilla
chinensis Ser., Chenopodium serotinum Linn.,
Shannon-Weiner index: Convolvulus arvensis Linn., Lxeris sonchifolia
n
Hance, Dregea sinensis Hemsl., etc., which can
E = H/H max, H Pi log 2Pi , H max = log2S increase species richness.
i =1 (3)

Comprehensive odds ratio: 3.2 Classified community types of plant species

SDR3 = (density ratio than + cap + height ratio)/
3 100% (4)
The formula:
P: the number of individuals Ni of the total
number N of individuals,
S: the total number of species in the
community,
H: the actual observation of species diversity,
Hmax: the maximum species diversity.
T test for independent samples, one-way
ANOVA and multiple comparisons were used
through statistical software SPSS18.0, and SIG-
MALPLOT10.0 software and EXCEL 2007 were
used.
3 RESULT
3.1 The communities characters
Excellent plants in abandoned quarry had a total
of 25 families, 43 genera and 58 species. As shown
in Table 1, the platform area, compacted areas and
slope areas plant species of abandoned quarry
were 42,16 and 33 species, vegetations which have
relatively large advange were Setaria viridis (Linn.)
Beauv., Artemisia annua Linn., Rhus typhina,
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit., Cynanchum
chinense R. Br., Chenopodium glaucum Linn.,
Chenopodium album Linn., Humulus scandens
(Lour.) Merr., Leonurus sibiricus Linn., Salsola
collina Pall.
This indicates that these plants are built aban-
doned quarry vegetation species and dominant
species. In addition to cultivated species, the nat-
ural growth of the test area only Ulmus pumila
Linn., Morus alba L., is rich in natural growth of
The vegetation composition and summed domi-
nance ratio of different factors of Herbs, shrub
and trees are in Table 2. The order of the ummed
dominance ratio are in Table 3.
Herbs and trees under different site types
sort insignificant, were the dominant species
appeared Lespedeza bicolor Turcz., test area only
davurica appears. Therefore, we can infer there
are three types of cluster populations: 1) Rhus
typhinaLespedeza davurica (Laxm.) Schindl.
Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. associations,
2) Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. + Artemisia annua
Linn. + Chenopodium glaucum Linn. associations,
3) Ulmus pumila Linn.Setaria viridis (Linn.)
Beauv. associations.
It shown that the associations under different
types of site types were different, which increases
the artificial restoration years, shrub species began
to appear and gradually increase performance sig-
nificantly, and there is gradually stabilizing com-
munity succession tree, shrub and grass trend,
therefore, artificial vegetation restoration meas-
ures on vegetation succession has a significantly
promoting role.
4 COMPARISON OF COMMUNITY
DIVERSITY
As shown in Table 4, the overall coverage and the
level of diversity Sort: compaction zone > plat-
form area > Slope area. As the number of sam-
ples is less in compaction zone side, so fewer plant
species, but the diversity and evenness of view,
the area is relatively the most abundant plants,
the highest uniformity, and because the compac-
tion zone after compaction technology effectively

Table 1. The communities and characters in different site types.

Number of Number of Plant Average Cover of plant Total

Site types sample point quadrate species Quantity height/cm species/% cover/%

PA 17 51 42 277 57.6 10.6 54.6

CA 4 12 16 33 42.8 11.9 65.7
SZ 44 132 33 371 24.4 10.9 51.2

*Platform area: PA, Compacted platform area: CA, Slope of experimental zone: SZ.

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 Table 2. The vegetation composition and summed dominance ratio.

Summed dominance ratio

Name of plant PA CA SZ

11 Compositae
Artemisia argyi Levl. Et Vant. 0.3171 0.3760
Patrin ex Widder var. sibiricum 0.1055 0.2696 0.3855
Bidens pilosa Linn. var. radiata Sch.-Bip. 0.1600 0.0946
Bidens pilosa Linn. 0.0952 0.1908
Artemisia annua Linn. 0.5155 0.4529
Artemisia mongolica (Fisch. ex Bess.) Nakai 0.1227 0.4686
Conyza canadensis (Linn.) Cronq. 0.1440
Artemisia capillaris Thunb. 0.0764
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit. 0.4089
Bidens parviflora Willd. 0.1761
lxeris sonchifolia Hance 0.1908
Cosmos bipinnata Cav.
Sonchus oleraceus Linn.
Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess.
Lagedium sibiricum (Linn.) Sojak
Artemisia vestita Wall. ex Bess.
Dendranthema chanetii (Lvl.) Shih
Artemisia lavandulaefolia DC.
21 Gramineae
Spodiopogon sibiricus Trin. 0.3760
Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link 0.1412
Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. 0.7294 0.8226 9.4321
Digitaria sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop. 0.1360 0.0559 0.2994
Festuca elata Keng ex E. Alexeev
31 Leguminosae
Melilotus alba Medic. ex Desr. 0.3171
Astragalus scaberrimus Bunge 0.0344
Lespedeza davurica (Laxm.) Schindl. 0.0595
Melilotus officinalis (Linn.) Pall.
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Desr.
Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindl.
Medicago sativa Linn.
Inddigofera bungeana Steud.
Astragalus adsurgens Pall.
41 Asclepiadaceae
Cynanchum chinense R. Br. 0.3300
Periploca sepium Bunge 0.1338
Dregea sinensis Hemsl. 0.1262
51 Salicaceae
Salix matsudana Koidz. 0.1825
Populus davidiana Dode 0.1995 0.4278
Populus tomentosa Carr. 0.1062
Populus adenopoda Maxim.
61 Primulaceae
Lysimachia grammica Hance 0.0569 0.0304
Lysimachia pentapetala Bunge 0.1990
71 Chenopodiaceae
Chenopodium glaucum Linn. 0.4503 0.6422
Chenopodium serotinum Linn. 0.2998
Chenopodium album Linn. 0.2786 0.1363 0.8482
Salsola collina Pall 0.2486 0.1862 0.9823

(Continued)

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 Table 2. (Continued)

Summed dominance ratio

Name of plant PA CA SZ

81 Solanaceae
Capsicum annuum Linn. 0.1908
Solanum nigrum Linn. var. humile (Bernh.) 0.1269
C.Y. Wu et S.C. Huang
Datura stramonium Linn. 0.1429
91 Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus retroflexus Linn. 0.1328 0.1287 0.1305
Chenopodium album 0.1631 0.3062 0.4673
101 Labiatae
Leonurus sibiricus Linn. 0.2396 0.7621
Scutellaria laxa Dunn
111 Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia humifusa Willd. 0.0415
121 Zygophyllaceae
Tribulus terrester Linn. 0.1119 0.1422 0.1963
131 Malvaceae
Abutilon theophrasti Medicus 0.2396
141 Crassulaceae
Sedum spectabile Boreau 0.1784 0.2623
Sedum sarmentosum Bunge 0.0992
Sedum 0.1203
Sedum 0.1963
151 Anacardiaceae
Rhus typhina 0.4244
161 Rosaceae
Potentilla chinensis Ser. 0.0392 1.1279
Armeniaca sibirica (Linn.) Lam. 0.1908
171 Moraceae
Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr. 0.1318 0.2927
181 Brassicaceae
bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medic. 0.1290
191 Pinaceae
Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. 0.2514
201 Ulmaceae
Ulmus pumila Linn. 0.2114 0.4686
211 Convolvulaceae
Calystegia hederacea Wall. 0.1469
Pharbitis nil (L.) Ching 0.0232 0.1202 0.1274
Pharbitis purpurea (Linn.) Voigt 0.0769 0.1232 0.2801
Ipomoea obscura (Linn.) Ker Gawl. 0.0520
Convolvulus arvensis Linn.
Pharbitis purpurea (Linn.) Voigt
221 Simaroubaceae
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle 0.2889
231 Caryophyllaceae
Saponaria officinalis Linn 0.2176
241 Verbenaceae
Vitex negundo Linn. var. heterophylla 0.1037
(Franch.) Rehd.

saved soil moisture, improve site conditions for
plant growth, but also for the future establish-
ment of a relatively stable vegetation communi-
ties play an important role. Slope area of diversity
and uniformity index was the lowest, indicating
that the plant affected by the slope and different
slope positions, affecting plant growth micro-site
environment, thus affecting the water needed for
plant growth, heat, light and other conditions, so
plants growth and distribution are quite different,

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 Table 3. Order of the ummed dominance ratio data.

Order Life form PA CA SZ

1 Herb Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. Setaria viridis (Linn.)
Beauv.
2 Artemisia annua Linn. Artemisia annua Linn. Potentilla chinensis Ser.
3 Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit. Chenopodium glaucum Linn. Salsola collina Pall.
1 Shrub Lespedeza davurica (Laxm.)
Schindl.
2
3
1 Arbor Rhus typhina Ulmus pumila Linn.
2 Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. Populus davidiana Dode
3 Ulmus pumila Linn. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.)
Swingle

Table 4. The communities characters and diversities of different site types.

Total The biggest Diversity Uniformity

Site Species Type Quantity coverage advantage over index Abundance index

PA 42 277 2652 54.6 0.1878 0.9111 42 0.7660

CA 16 33 279 65.7 0.2368 0.9183 16 0.9466
SZ 33 371 2379 51.2 0.5776 0.8343 33 0.6578

the lowest total coverage, the lowest diversity
index, indicating that the micro-site conditions
will affect the diversity of plants and plant dis-
tribution. The total area of the platform cover
and diversity index after the compaction area.
The dominant species in the area are: Setaria
viridis (Linn.) Beauv., Artemisia annua Linn.,
Rhus typhina, Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit.,
Cynanchum chinense R. Br., Chenopodium glau-
cum Linn., Chenopodium album Linn., Humulus
scandens (Lour.) Merr., Leonurus sibiricus Linn.
and Salsola collina Pall..
5 CONCLUSIONS
1. Excellent plants in abandoned quarry had a
total of 25 families, 43 genera and 58 species.
The dominant species are: weed, Artemisia
annua, torch trees, scoparia, Cynanchum, gray
hedges, gray vegetables, Humulus, mother-
wort, Salsola. Herb dominant, accounting for
more than 70%, accounted for 1015% of trees,
shrubs and vines of the most rare, but the trend
had gradually filling and succession to the tree,
shrub and grass layer.
2. Summed suitable abandoned quarry under dif-
ferent site conditions are two main types of
vegetation succession clump type groups: (1)
Rhus typhinaLespedeza davurica (Laxm.)
Schindl.Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. associa-
tions, (2) Setaria viridis (Linn.) Beauv. + Artemi-
sia annua Linn. + Chenopodium glaucum Linn.
associations, (3) Ulmus pumila Linn.Setaria
viridis (Linn.) Beauv. associations.
3. With the improvement of plant communities
abandoned quarry site conditions, gradual
increasing of species, overall species diversity
of plant communities gradually increased.
The surrounding community type was similar
with community environment. Diversity index
in descending order was compaction zone >
platform area > Slope area. Overall coverage in
descending order was compaction zone > plat-
form area > Slope area. Artificial vegetation
restoration techniques not only increased plant
diversity abandoned quarry, but also for the
formation of a stable succession of tree, shrub
and grass communities to play an active role.
REFERENCES
Hao, Y.F., B.Y. Fan and K.H. Wu, etc, 2012. Analysis of
tree species diversity and interspecific association of
tree layer in secondary broad-leaved forest in Yeshan
forest-farm. Journal of Anhui Agricultural University,
6: 915919.
Ian W.R. Young, Christian Naguit and Sara J. Halwas,
etc, 2012. Natural Revegetation of a Boreal Gold Mine
Tailings Pond. Restoration Ecology, 2: 17.

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 Li, B. 2000. Ecology. Beijing: Higher Education Press. Zaxi, C.R., L, Qiong and C z, Zhuoma, etc, 2012. Sur-
Wang, X.M., L. Chu and Z.X. Chu, etc, 2013. Vegetation vey on the vegetation of Aga mining area at Zhaqi in
Development on Coal Waste Pile in Panyi Coal Mine. Tibet and its restoration technology. Journal of Tibet
Asian Journal of Chemistry, 10: 57785780. University, 2: 15.

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Ecological restoration methods research of the Haihe River Basin

Z.X. Li, Z.Z. Ma & L.X. Li

Haihe River Water Conservancy Commission, Ministry of Water Resouces, Tianjin, China

D.W. Wang
China Aerospace Science and Technology Consulting Company Ltd., Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: At large watershed scale, ecological restoration is a complicated and systematic project
which involves ecological objects with various types, space layouts and area ratios. Combinations of dif-
ferent ecological restoration measures, such as forest and grass implementation, grazing prohibition,
breeding shed and integrated governance, also have different effects on soil and water conservation. Haihe
River Basin is one of the Chinese seven major river basins, with an area of 320,600 square kilometers.
How to conduct ecological restoration comprehensively and effectively has been the focus of Haihe River
Water Conservancy Commission. Based on current conditions and characteristics of the Haihe River
Basin-soil erosion, soil conservation, ecological construction and existing problems of ecological restora-
tion, this paper analyzes different geographic and ecological characteristic of small river basins within
Haihe River Basin, such as the Yongding, Daqing and Luan rivers. According to our analysis, different
integrated measures for soil and water conservation are proposed, and proved to solve soil erosion of
these small river basins effectively. These integrated measures not only accelerate vegetation watershed
restoration and ecological reconstruction but also improve self-repair capability of great significance.

1 INTRODUCTION watershed as ecological restoration unit, consider-

Currently, the Ministry of Water Resources of PR
China puts forward several new advanced propos-
als about soil and water conservation. These mainly
include the following five points: (1) continuous
completing scientific conception about soil erosion
preventing and controlling, (2) insisting prevention
measures of artificial control and natural recovery
simultaneously, (3) making overall plans of small
watershed management of hills, waters, farmlands,
forests and roads, (4) giving consideration to both
the improvement of ecological environment and
requirements of resource conservertion, (5) play-
ing the comprehensive prevention model for soil
and water loss by organic combination of precau-
tion, protection, supervision, management and
ecological restoration.
Ecological rehabilitation project of soil and
water conservation means making full use of
natural regeneration capacity through artificial
assistant measures to build and keep a healthy
development and relatively stable ecosystem that
is adaptable to natural conditions and coordinate
with sustainable development of social economy in
soil erosion districts. The above methods can also
promote vegetation growth continuously, improve
structure and function of damaged ecosystem, and
accelerate pace of soil erosion prevention. Taking
ing resources in watershed comprehensively such
as water, land, biology and so on, and combining
ecological restoration with water project construc-
tion and water resource allocation closely are the
development direction of Chinas ecological resto-
ration (Wang, 2003). According to current condi-
tions and characteristics of Haihe River Basin-soil
erosion and soil conservertion, ecological recovery
by means of water and soil conservertion in Haihe
River Basin need to take full advantage of forces
of nature and accelerate prevention pace of soil
erosion relying on ecological self-repair ability.
2 CURRENT CONDITIONS AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAIHE
RIVER BASIN-SOIL EROSION
The soil erosion in Haihe River Basin has the
properties of various erosion types and wide-
spread distribution. Water erosion is defined as
the main erosion type in above study area, next
are wind erosion, gravity erosion and mixed
erosion. Water erosion includes surface erosion,
linear erosion, gravity erosion and mixed erosion.
Surface erosion is mainly distributed in sloping
farmland of earth-rocky mountainous area as well
as abandoned farmland and overgrazing slopes

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 of earth-rocky mountainous area and loess hilly
region. Linear erosion usually occurred in earth-
rocky mountainous area and loess hilly region.
Gravity erosion mostly takes place in ravines.
When mountain flood happens in earth-rocky
mountainous area and loess hilly region, mixed
erosion will be appeared under dual action of
water and gravity. Wind erosion mainly occurred
in sandy hills area and loess hilly region. Soil
and water loss in loess hilly area, sand area and
shallow mountainous area with more frequent
human activities of Yongding River, Zhangwei
River and Luanhe River are more serious (Ma,
2010). Results up to 2011, the total area of soil
erosion in Haihe River Basin is 78913.73 square
kilometers and accounts for 24.61% of drainage
area. Among them, the soil erosion area in moun-
tainous region and plain district are 76103.56 and
2810.17 square kilometers. Referring to erosion
genres of soil in mountainous region, water ero-
sion and wind erosion are account for 91.92% and
8.08%. And the erosion type in plain area is only
water erosion.
3 ECOLOGICAL CONSTRUCTION
SITUATIONS OF SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION
More than 30 years ago, Haihe River Basin began
to carry out comprehensive management of small
watershed. The upstream of Yongding River,
Miyun Reservoir in Chaobai River and Panjiakou
Reservoir in Luanhe River are listed as national key
areas of soil and water conservation in succession.
And some counties in upstream of Miyun Reser-
voir are listed as key prevention regions of soil and
water conservation. In the 21st century, the com-
prehensive control of soil erosion in Haihe River
Basin will still take large basin as the main body and
small watershed as unit. In the meanwhile, ecologi-
cal rehabilitation project of soil and water conser-
vation is implemented. And some projects, such as
Beijing-Tianjin sand source control project, capital
water resources sustainable utilization planning of
soil and water conservation project in early part of
the twenty-first century, and the national key con-
struction project of soil and water conservation in
Taihang Mountainare, are successive initiated in
this watershed. By the end of 2012, the cumula-
tive amount of controlled soil and water loss area
in the whole watershed is 76500 square kilometers.
And among them, the area of terraced fields, dam
field, basic farmland, arboreal forest, bushy forests,
economic forest, grass-planting, closed treatment
and other measures are 7028.71, 620.31, 3557.38,
29565.83, 11494.24, 9592.76, 2015.98, 12525.33
and 78.15 square kilometers.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 284
Ever since 2001, Haihe River Basin starts from
ecological recovery and brings it into ecological
construction of water and soil conservation. At
the same time, several pilot projects have come into
effect. In the area with fragile ecological environ-
ment, we firmly adopt policies of forest conserva-
tion, soil and water conservation, and deforestation
strictly forbidden. Various measures have been
adopted to carry out ecological recovery accord-
ing to natural conditions and achieved remark-
able results. However, ecological restoration in
Haihe River Basin still lacks unified planning. The
matching establishments cant meet application
requirements and the supervision of this region is
also difficult. It is noteworthy that the results of
ecological restoration are affected significantly due
to the lack of scientific division and classification
guidance.
4 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
OF SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION METHODS
Based on features of soil erosion and soil and water
conservation in Haihe River Basin, this paper will
carry on further researches on objects, ranges, divi-
sions and distributions of ecological restoration.
4.1 Objects of ecological restoration
It shows from the work in the pilot areas that mild
and moderate soil erosion districts are more suit-
able for ecological restoration. According to sta-
tistics, the area of mild and moderate soil erosion
districts in our study region reaches 25000 square
kilometers. It contains 6 land types: the first one is
bush forest, which is consists of coppice-land and
brush land with forest canopy closure greater than
40% and height lower than 2 meters; the second is
sparse forest, which means open woodlands with
forest canopy closure between 10% and 30%; the
third is moderate coverage grassland with coverage
between 20% and 50%; the fourth is mild cover-
age grassland with coverage between 5% and 20%;
the fifth is bare land with soil covered surface and
vegetation coverage lower than 5%; and the last
one is barren land with rock or gravel covered sur-
face and cover area greater than 50%. Because the
area of bare land and bare exposed rock or gravel
land is small, we combine them into one class to
perform statistical analysis.
4.2 Divisions of ecological restoration
According to geographical characteristics, Haihe
River Basin can be classified into loess hilly region,
earth-rock mountain area, rocky mountain area
8/27/2014 6:00:10 PM
 and sandy area of the plain, etc. The divisions
of ecological restoration are based on features of
topography and geomorphology, precipitation,
river system, vegetation and so on. It takes natural
areas as a unit and considers dominant factors as
well as scientificity. The layout of ecological resto-
ration measures is determined according to similar-
ities in each division and differences between every
divisions. On the premise of making comprehensive
consideration for natural conditions, soil erosion
situations, soil erosion prevention measures, and
social-economic conditions (including population
density, land use patterns, etc), the entire basin can
be divided into 3 first-level ecological restoration
domains. And then we classify secondary ecological
zones based on units of river networks (see Table 1).
The overall layout is determined through the above
three first-level ecological restoration domains, and
destinations, areas and objects of ecological resto-
ration zones are confirmed. Meanwhile, ecological
restoration measures are formulated according to
secondary ecological zones.
4.3 The overall layout and focal points
of restoration
4.3.1 Luanhe River protection zone of soil
and water conservation
The main types of soil erosion is water erosion
and the degree of erosion is mightiness. The main
measures of ecological restoration are vegetation
protection and enclosure in upstream of Panjiakou
Reservoir. The purpose of above measures is to
carry on water source protection. Meanwhile, It
can strengthen protection of water resources and
measures of balance management. The concrete
measures of soil and water conservation are deter-
mined by water conditions of this area.
4.3.2 Beisan River protection zone of soil
and water conservation
In this protection domain, we adopt measures of
strengthening enclosure and maintenance. At the
same time, we also replant water conservation
forest species properly. Ecological restoration is
mainly concentrated on upstream of Miyun Res-
ervoir in Chaobai River. This region is suitable
to arrange management of small watershed and
gather technique and funds to establish key dam
project for gully harness. Meanwhile, we can take
advantages of stereo protection. Aiming at char-
acteristics of different regions, we determine cor-
responding key prevention and control strategies.
For example, dune and sand erosion area should
mainly adopts measures of windbreak and sand
fixation; earth-rock mountain area usually take
afforestation, greening barren hills, and basic
farmland construction as major work; rocky hill
region should focus on afforestation, growing fruit
trees, and artificial grass planting; soil hills usually
stresses sloping farmland reconstruction and key
dam for gully harness.
4.3.3 Yongding River protection zone of soil
and water conservation
In loess hilly gully region, the major control meas-
ures are relatively sloping farmland transformation,
constructing water conservative forest, firewood
forest and fodder forest, and conversion some slop-
ing farmland to grass land. The concrete measures
include prohibition of disordered mining, consoli-
dation results of converting farmland to forest or
grassland and ecological immigrant, and grazing
blocked by fencing and captive breeding in some
husbandry intercrossed zones. In earth-rock moun-
tain area, we mainly adopt enclosure in distant hills
and planting grass, shrub forests and economic for-
est in the mountains nearby. At the same time, we
develop water conservative forest and fodder for-
est energetically in nearby mountains. The major
methods are prohibition and complementary
planting. In order to prevent soil and water loss, we
appropriate to take flood retention and drainage
water measures. For example, sludge in Guanting
Reservoir affects water supply in Beijing and poses
a security threat to Beijing as well as downstream

Table 1. Ecological restoration domains of soil and water conservation in Haihe River Basin.

First-level ecological restoration domains Secondary ecological restoration domains

Yanshan ecological restoration domains
of soil and water conservation
Yongding River ecological restoration
domains of soil and water conservation
Taihang mountain ecological restoration
domains of soil and water conservation
Tuhai-Majia River ecological restoration
domains of soil and water conservation
Luanhe River protection zone of soil and water conservation
Beisan River protection zone of soil and water conservation
Yongding River protection zone of soil and water conservation
Daqing River management area of soil and water conservation
Ziya River management area of soil and water conservation
Zhangwei River management area of soil and water conservation
Tuhai-Majia River protection zone of soil and water conservation

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 plain area, therefore we need to implement soil
and water conservation project and prohibit fell-
ing trees. In both sandy land surrounding districts
and wind-sand source areas, we consolidate the tiny
particles on the surface by biological and chemical
methods in order to reduce wind and sand harm.
4.3.4 Daqing River management area of soil
and water conservation
Most of the region is earth-rock mountain area and
part of the upstream area is loess hill region. This
domain is suitable for ecological restoration of soil
and water conservation because its better vegetation
conditions and relatively mild degree of erosion.
We need to creat dam field and bottomland posi-
tively and develop forest land vigorously. The forest
land should highlight economic shrub and fruit tree
forest to achieve unification of economic benefits
and protective benefits. The main land types in the
slope area are soft ridge terrace and alternation of
slope and terrace. In the earth-rock mountain area
with little land, hard ridge terrace and rock ridge
terrace are the primary land types. In the above
regions, we develop various economic shrubs which
include abundant native tree species with features
of cold resistance and drought tolerance. Artificial
grass planting should carry out by combination of
forage-crop rotation, forest-grass mixed planting
and grass-crop intercropping under the premise of
adequate grassland area. Level terrace, level bench,
horizontal ditch, and suitable land preparation for
afforestation measures will be adopted in gully
slopes. The floor of trench will be deployed ero-
sion control dam, stone check dam, and biological
check dam. Grasses, bushes and trees will also be
planted accordingly.
4.3.5 Ziya River management area of soil
and water conservation
In earth-rock mountain area the ecological con-
struction mode is mainly planting trees, combining
with agriculture and stock raising. The hilly region
should take agriculture as the foundation and pro-
mote agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and
sideline occupations coordinated development.
The high mountainous area in upstream of Hutuo
River need to convert cropland to forest, accelerate
grazing slope transformation and develop animal
husbandry properly. The domain in midstream
of Fuyang River and Hutuo River should mainly
adopts measures of planting trees and actively
develop economic forest, agriculture and animal
husbandry. Starting from requirements of water
and soil loss control in upstream of Hutuo River
and channeldeposits reduction, we put emphasis
on project measures of terraced fields, gully recla-
mation and so on in loess hilly areas. Furthermore,
we should prohibit wheel shortage farming and
286
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 286
steep slope farming. As for sloping farmland of
large area that cant put cropland conversion into
practice, we will gradually transite it to high-level
terrace using simple measures. In hill-gully and
gentle slope area, we mainly construct biological
check dams. And for earth-rock mountain and ter-
race region, we mainly build stone check dams and
earth-rock mixed check dams.
4.3.6 Zhangwei River management area
of soil and water conservation
In loess ravine reion and loess hilly terrace region
of northwest Zhuozhang River Basin, we should
take agriculture as the foundation and actively
develop economic forest, agriculture and animal
husbandry. Because southeast earth-rock moun-
tain area has characteristics of higher mountains,
better vegetations and lighter soil erosion, we
should maily adopt measures of planting trees,
consolidating the existing basic farmland and
combining forest industry with stock raising. In
loess hill and gully area, we build level terraces,
vigorously develop orchards and control soil ero-
sion due to its serious erosion degree, broken ter-
rain and lower grass-forest coverage. According to
gentle slope and relatively lighter erosion degree of
loess hilly terrace area, we convert slope farmlands
into horizontal terraces to prevent the occurrence
of surface erosion. The earth-rock mountain area
has the properties of thick stone overlay and thin
soil layer. Therefore, we mainly protect the existing
forest vegetations and close hillsides to facilitate
afforestation. Meanwhile, we continue our efforts
to improve quality and quantity of forage grass
and cultivate trees in slope wasteland.
4.3.7 Tuhai-Majia River protection zone
of soil and water conservation
The main types of water and soil loss in this region
are water erosion and wind erosion. The degree
of water and soil erosion is moderate and mild-
moderate. The main control measures conducted in
this area include the following aspects: 1) improve
tillage system, implement no-tillage production
system, and cultivate ground cover plants; 2) gen-
eralize new technology of soil consolidation and
reduce the tiny particles and dust emissions of the
surface; 3) change grazing systems and turn stock-
ing method into captive method.
5 GUARANTEE MEASURES
5.1 Policy guidance
According to valid law and characteristics of
ecological restoration, it is necessary to develop
relevant laws and management methods to imple-
ment the responsibility of management and
8/27/2014 6:00:10 PM
 restrict unreasonable production and construction
activities. Meanwhile, in order to arouse farmers
enthusiasm of ecological construction, the govern-
ment can formulate preferential policies and pro-
vide supports and compensations for policies, such
as production modes changing, ecological migra-
tion and so on. On the basis of unified planning
and construction criteria, its important to form a
new pattern of ecological construction of soil and
water conservation through support and develop-
ment of rural economic organizations and farmer
cooperative. The above institutions are used to
undertake the ability of soil and water erosion pre-
vention, management and protection.
5.2 Technology promotion
Ecological rehabilitation project of soil and water
conservertion need to depend on advanced technol-
ogy and develop scientific experiments, researches
and extensions of ecological rehabilitation. It also
need to strengthen monitoring, analyze results
timely and launch evaluation. Meanwhile, improv-
ing comprehensive technical service system, pro-
moting advanced technology vigorously and
increasing synthesized benefits are also significant
measures. In addition, we can provide scientific
and technological supports to ecological rehabili-
tation through strengthening technical training,
improving staff qualities of technical and manage-
ment personnel, and ensuring programmes, designs
and engineering quality. Aiming at the difficulties
and key techniques of ecological rehabilitation, we
287
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 287
carry out basic researches and technological key
projects. Finally, we can establish expert consulta-
tion and technical support system and complete
technical extension and information service system
to offer services in different regions about program
formation.
5.3 Supervision strengthened
Ecological restoration should consider corre-
sponding policies and supporting facilities. For
example, develop efficient agriculture actively to
make the vast masss live has sufficient social secu-
rity; provide relevant technique service to exert
the advantage of stable-raising livestock; offer
service guarantee of technological promotion and
market development. All the above supporting
facilities are beneficial to the healthy development
of ecological restoration. In the meanwhile, we
should strengthen supervision, management and
protection; definite the duties, complete modern-
ized means as soon as possible, and fully depend
advanced monitoring technology. And then gradu-
ally realize real-time monitoring on the basis of
above measures.
REFERENCES
Ma, Z.Z. 2010. Soil and water conservation in Haihe
Basin. Haihe Water Resources 1:6770.
Wang, Z.G. 2003. Approach to Concepts and Issues on
Ecological Renovation. Soil and Water Conservation
in China 259:45.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Application of plant fiber blanket in land reclamation

and ecological rehabilitation

Y.J. Chen
Shenhua Baorixile Energy Industrial Co., Ltd., Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia, China

ABSTRACT: To promote the application of vegetation cover technology in ecological rehabilitation

of the mountainous area, and in combination with the study progress and the application cases of plant
fiber blanket technology at home and abroad, the complete introduction is made on the technical princi-
ples, technical points and scope of application of this technology, which is characterized by the fusion of
engineering protection and ecological protection. Vegetation cover technology can effectively resolve the
soil and water loss of the side slope, significantly improve the strength of the soil body, and increase the
integrity of the side slope and partial stability. It can maintain the diversity of the ecological system and
ecological equilibrium, and realize the long-term stability of the side slope.

Keywords: plant fiber blanket; side slope; ecological rehabilitation

1 PRESENT SITUATIONS OF THE STUDY
ON ECOLOGICAL REHABILITATION
OF THE MINE
Since the 1960s, new greening technologies, such
as spray seeding technology, have been widely
used in stabilizing side slope, preventing soil ero-
sion and recovering the vegetation (Ye J.J. 2006).
In June, 1987, Japan introduced continuous fiber-
reinforced soil construction method from France,
which was then combined with the slope greening
construction method, to develop the continuous
fiber greening construction method (TC greening
construction method) (Li X.G. et al. 1995). In the
theoretical study, foreign scholars made a large
amount of studies. With respect to the influence of
vegetation on the stability of side slope, the schol-
ars Ellison and Cman-drake et al. proposed that
the slope with forest cover had larger creep speed
than that with turf cover and the side slope
load enlarged by the forest resulted in the unbal-
anced destruction of the side slope after observing
the movement of the side slope after the cutting
in the forest cover zone in Queensland. Practice
has proven that the side slope with good vegeta-
tion cover has much lower rate of landside than the
bare side slope (Wu Y.H. 2006).
With social and economic development, the
mining activities consider not only the economic
benefit for investment and social benefit of green
landscape, but also ecological and environmental
benefits of soil and water conservation. In the hilly
area of Northern China, there was a large percent-
age of side slope excavated due to the construction,
and original vegetation was also damaged, aggra-
vating the rainwater erosion. The wave scouring
of both banks due to the flood discharge from the
built dam has resulted in the scouring of the river
banks, often causing the originally stable side slope
to become very unstable and very easily have land-
slide and collapse accidents. Therefore, it has been
an important step in the engineering construction
to recover ecological environment, strengthen soil
and water conservation, prevent landslide and col-
lapse as soon as possible (Peng F.Q. & Feng Z.Y.
2004).
In summary, human activities have influenced
on the continuity of natural ecological system,
grassland ecosystem has been isolated and water
circulation has been short-circuited and cut off
from the source, thus aggravating the grassland
ecological and water environment. To guarantee
social and economic sustainable development,
the ecological rehabilitation of the mine shall be
placed on the agenda and will become one part of
the mine remediation in the future (Zheng W.L. &
Shen C.X. 2008).
2 PRINCIPLE AND APPLICATION
OF VEGETATION PROTECTION
Soil and water loss of the side slope generally
starts from the dropping and splashing of rain-
drops onto the slope surface. With the increase of
rainfall, it gradually forms surface flow, fine flow

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 and gulley erosion. So in essence, soil and water off. After the turfing and closure of the plant, the
loss consists of two processes, that is, detachment corrosion of the fibers in the grass blanket has
of the soil particles from the substrate under the formed the substrate for the growth of the plants.
effect of high-speed lashing of raindrops and the
dragging of the slope surface runoff and migration
of soil particles (Pan S.L. et al. 2005). Based on 3 APPLICATION OF PLANT FIBER
this principle, vegetation technology can effectively BLANKET IN THE ECOLOGICAL
reduce the soil and water loss by reducing the lash- REHABILITATION FOR THE MINE
ing of raindrops on the exposed soil particles and
reducing the flow and speed of side slope water 3.1 Structure of plant fiber blanket
flow. Before full development of vegetation, the Plant fiber blanket is the new-type vegetation reha-
bumpiness formed by the plant fiber blanket on bilitation material taking the plant fiber as the sub-
the side slope can reduce the lashing speed of the strate, in combination with multiple materials, such
slope runoff, thus effectively preventing the seeds as the shaping mesh, for the one-time processing
and seedlings from being washed away by rain- on the large production line, before being laid on
water. Since vegetation blanket has small pores so the ground, roadside and hillside, playing the role
that only grass seedlings can run through the holes of resisting the erosion of water and wind, consoli-
and large soil particles cannot run through the dating the surface, preventing soil and water loss,
holes, it can cover the soil particles and also play retaining surface moisture, and forming partial
the role of water conservation and thermal insula- micro environment necessary for the plant growth.
tion, beneficial to the growth and development of Main structure is shown in Figure 1.
vegetation. After full development of vegetation,
it will form thick surface vegetation cover, thus
3.2 Construction method of plant fiber blanket
effectively inhibiting the scouring of rainwater on
the side slope. Firstly, the stems and leaves of the 3.2.1 Treatment of basic surface
vegetation might dissipate energy of high-speed The slope surface shall be smooth, straight, flat and
raindrops and alleviate the impact of the rain- stable, without the stone having the diameter more
drops on the soil particles. Secondly, vegetation than 4 cm in the 10 cm soil layer, with the stone hav-
can intercept and alleviate the water flow speed on ing the diameter over 2 cm no more than 10%, and
the side slope, and reduce the lashing force. The shall have the soil available for the plant growth.
developed root system of the plants, particularly
the exposed root system densely distributed on the
soil surface, closely covers the soil particles on the
surface of the side slope, increasing the connecting
strength of the particles and stabilizing the soil on
the surface of the side slope, alleviating the scour-
ing (Lou Z.L. & Dong Z. 2001).
Vegetation protection is applicable for the side
slope with slope ratio no more than 1:1.0 and
stable soil and without serious surface scouring.
When the target plant community mainly consists
of grass or ambush, it may be protected directly
with plant fiber blanket. For the side slope made
of the mixed earth and stone, or the side slope with
the weathered rock, it is possible to carry out the
construction in combination with mature processes
of spray seeding on outside soil, such as hydroseed-
ing, TBS hydroseeding irrigation, CS mixed fiber
spray irrigation and hydraulic hydroseeding and
plant irrigation, replacing the conventional steps
of covering with nonwoven cloth (Zhang M.T.
et al. 2004). Plant fiber blanket is characterized by
moisture conservation, sunscreening, and preven-
tion against rainwater scouring, beneficial to the
creation of the environment for rapid sprouting, Figure 1. Structural schematics of environment-friendly
forming the vegetation, so that the plant can run grass blanket.
through the gap between plant fibers and achieve 1Upper mesh; 2Fiber layer; 3Lined seed layer;
good growth without the need of being removed 4Seed layer with soil; 5Lower mesh.

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 3.2.2 Selection of species
Main objectives of ecological restoration tech-
nology are not only simply greening, but also the
creation of the plant community in harmony with
the environment in the project place, so that the
plant community on the slope harmonizes with the
environment of the project place, basically leaving
no trace for excavation. So it is required to make
the detailed regional environment observation, so
as to determine the target plant community on the
slope.
It is required to survey the looks, structure, spe-
cies composition of natural vegetation, and the
distribution of advantageous herbaceous plants
and shrubs in the surrounding area of the project,
particularly the species and growth of the herba-
ceous plants and shrubs in the native soil. The Figure 2. Plan sketch for the laying of plant fiber blanket.
plant species and proportion are determined for 1Plant fiber blanket; 2Anchoring nail.
the ecological restoration in combination with the
supply of the plant seeds.
The plants are required to have strong adapta-
bility to the soil; resistance against draught, flood-
ing and coldness; quick sprouting and growth,
long and developed root system, and good price.
The plants shall have the capability of stabilizing
the side slope and resisting the diseases and insects,
and be easy for management and harmonize with
the neighboring vegetation and landscape. The
proper grass seeds are chosen and sown uniformly
on the soil surface, and shall be properly covered to
ensure sufficient touch between the seeds and soil.
Figure 3. Section sketch for the construction of plant
3.2.3 Laying of grass blanket fiber blanket.
The width and depth of the anchored ditch is gen-
erally no less than 20 cm, and it is proper to lay
the plant fiber blanket in the up-down order. The
lapping width between the grass blankets shall
not be less than 10 cm, the grass blanket has suf-
ficient touch with the ground, and the grass blan-
kets shall be laid uniformly and in order, and the
sown seeds shall not be trampled on the slope for
times; the grass blankets in the anchored ditch shall
be closely fit with the ditch bottom and walls, and
there shall be the grass blanket with at least 40 cm
length outside the anchored ditch. After the lay-
ing, the ditch bottom and the lapping place shall
be fixed with U-shaped nail (at least one fixer per
meter), as shown in Figure 2. There shall be at least
one fixer per meter for other laying surfaces. The
backfill native soil in the anchored ditch shall be
tamped and sown with the seeds. Finally, the pre-
served grass blankets shall be folded on the soil and
fixed, as shown in Figure 3.

3.3 Application effect of plant fiber blanket

For the plant fiber blanket made of palm, coconut Figure 4. Application of plant fiber blanket in the treat-
or hemp fiber, the plant fiber is characterized by ment of gangue mountain in Germany.

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Figure 5. Application of plant fiber blanket in the
treatment of the gangue mountain for guandi coal mine
in Taiyuan City, Shanxi Province.
Figure 6. Application of plant fiber blanket for the pro-
tective slope of the disposal site in the Shenhua Baorixile
open coal mine.
292
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 292
high strength, and high resistance against scouring
and corrosion. It is very suitable for the ecological
rehabilitation for the mine, river and water ditch.
This function of environment-friendly grass blan-
ket has been widely used in Germany and other
European countries.
The effects of the vegetation to the slope are
mainly reflected in: first, slope consolidation func-
tion, in which the vertical root system of the veg-
etation runs through the loose weathered belt in
the surface layer of the slope, and is anchored into
the deep and stable rock and soil layer, thus play-
ing the role of anchor bolt with upper stress; sec-
ond, slope stabilization effect, in which it reduces
the pore water pressure of the slope. Rainfall is one
of significant factors incurring the landslide, and
the slope instability is closely related to the water
pressure on the slope. By means of absorption and
evaporation of moisture in the slope, the plants
reduce the pore water pressure in the soil body and
increase the absorption of the soil body, improve
the tensile strength of the soil body, thus benefit-
ting the stability of the side slope. Third, it controls
erosion of soil and conserves soil and water. Veg-
etation can intercept the raindrops at high speed
and reduce the quantity of raindrops and the soil
particles being splashed, and can inhibit surface
runoff and alleviate the raindrop sputtering, thus
controlling the loss of soil particles. Usually, loss
of soil body is reduced exponentially with the
increase of the vegetation cover rate. In addition,
it has the functions of purifying air, reducing the
noise and light pollution.
4 CONCLUSION AND PROSPECT
In the initial period of vegetation recovery, plant
fiber blanket cannot only prevent fugitive dust, but
also effectively protect the slope surface from being
influenced by the rainwater scouring, provide bet-
ter sprouting and growth environment for the
plant seeds, and accelerate the process for natural
ecological rehabilitation; its degradability will not
result in the secondary pollution. Compared with
the laying of conventional turf roll, plant fiber
blanket is more convenient in construction and
more flexible in season, capable of preventing the
dust and avoiding the wasting of the farmland. But
it is required to strengthen the experiment about
the application of plant fiber blanket, and further
explore the experience to bring it into better play.
At present, the studies on vegetation cover at
home and abroad mainly focus on the slope sta-
bility, the nature and thickness of final soil cover
layer, and the selection of the resistant species. Few
studies involve the cover materials. The studies in
other directions are to be developed, such as R&D
8/27/2014 6:00:13 PM
 of special materials and configuration of plant
species and so on.
REFERENCES
Li X.G., Mao W.B. & Xu F.Y. 1995. Side Slope Greening
and Protection in Japan [J]. Journal of Highway and
Transportation Research and Development, (2): 2226.
Lou Z.L. & Dong Z. 2001. Study on New Technology for
Ecological Rehabilitation Works in the Rocky Slope
[J]. Underground Space, 21(4): 318322.
Pan S.L., Wang L. & Gu B. 2005. On the Ecological
Rehabilitation of Side Slope [J]. Chinese Journal of
Ecology, 24(2): 217221.
Peng F.Q. & Feng Z.Y. 2004. Application of Ecological
Plant Rehabilitation Technology in the Mine Recov-
ery [J]. Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering,
35(10): 13.
293
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 293
Wu Y.H. 2006. Application of Ecological Protection
Technology in the Side Slope Protection Works [J].
Guangdong Water Resources and Hydropower, (3):
1214.
Ye J.J. 2006. Exploration of the Method for Ecological
Protection of the Side Slope [J]. Research of Soil and
Water Conservation, 13(5): 215219.
Zhang M.T., Qiu J.D. & Yan D. 2004. Application of
Spray Seeding with External Soil in Ecological Reha-
bilitation and Protection of the Side Slope [J]. Science
of Soil and Water Conservation, 2(3): 1012.
Zheng W.L. & Shen C.X. 2008. Preliminary Explora-
tion on the Ecological Rehabilitation in the Mine and
Several Problems [J]. Water Resources Planning and
Design, (2): 5557.
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 Part 4: Mining methods and measures for minimization
of land and environment damage

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Development of backfill design parameters for control of surface

and subsurface mining related movements

R.M. Feng
Department of Mining and Mineral Resources Engineering, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA

Y.P. Chugh
Department of Mining and Mineral Resources Engineering, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA
China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Surface and subsurface deformations of overlying strata inevitably occur during the
process of longwall mining. In order to protect water resources, agricultural lands, buildings, and rail-
roads, partial or complete mine backfilling method is considered an effective approach. Cemented and
compacted backfill is commonly practiced for ground and subsidence control in high extraction mining
areas. Backfill stiffness and strength parameters must be designed to achieve desired control of rock mass
deformations. Since these parameters may vary with time, both initial and final values of these parameters
must be designed. A simplified ground mechanics model based on the concepts of beams on elastic foun-
dations with varying stiffness is used here to analyze the deflection characteristics of overlying strata with
cemented backfill. This model can be used to estimate the final deflections of immediate roof, maximum
horizontal strains, and final surface subsidence movements. The model can also be used to estimate time-
varying strength and stiffness parameters of the backfill based on the limiting maximum surface subsid-
ence and critical horizontal strains. The model also permits estimation of deflections after the longwall
face has been backfilled a certain distance. The authors present the model and the application of backfill
properties for one mine in China.

Keywords: subsurface movement; cemented backfilling; beams on elastic foundation; backfill design
parameters; mining subsidence

1 INTRODUCTION coal production in China uses longwall mining

methods (Xu, 2009). This method invariably
According to the latest data released by EIA, results in surface and subsurface movements
coal consumption in China has had an increas- which can cause infrastructure damage, and
ing trend for the past decade (Fig. 1). China is loss of agricultural lands and water resources.
now the largest global producer and consumer Therefore, mining technologies must be designed
of coal. It accounts for about 47% of global coal to allow extraction of coal resources while
consumptionalmost as much as the rest of the minimizing environmental impacts. Backfilling
world combined (EIA, 2013). Due to an increase behind longwall mining in mined-out areas has
in electricity generation, coal demand in China has
averaged 9% growth per year from 2000 to 2010;
more than double the global growth rate of 4% and
significantly higher than global growth excluding
China, which averaged only 1%.
Energy supply in China is largely dependent
upon Chinas energy infrastructure. Chinese gov-
ernment has devoted lot of effort towards diver-
sifying its energy supply. However, coal is still the
most important part of Chinas energy consump-
tion, accounting for almost 70% based on the
energy development report of China (2012).
In order to maximize extraction ratio in rela-
tively deep coal deposits in China, over 90% of Figure 1. Coal production in China in the past decade.

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Figure 2. Reactive forces acting on the roof and floor
of the coal seam due to backfilling.
been extensively used globally, including China,
to achieve this goal.
Cemented backfill technology utilizing coal
processing waste and coal combustion by products
can allow controlled rock mass movements that are
cost effective. The technology requires determination
of time-varying backfill characteristics (strength,
stiffness, effect of moisture, and wetting etc.) that
would limit long-term rock mass movements to
acceptable values. This is particularly important in a
country like China where population density is high
with need to protect farmland and water resources.
Although cemented backfill technology is widely
used in mining industry in China, technical chal-
lenges remain related to estimation of backfill
design parameters. Longwall mining with backfill-
ing behind in the mined-out area may be simplified
as a problem of beam on elastic foundation as shown
in Figure 1. The overlying roof strata may be ideal-
ized as an equivalent beam of uniform stiffness or a
multiple layered beam resting on elastic foundations
of backfill stiffness. Previous studies by Budryk,
1933; Salustowicz, 1953; Shi, 2000 have used this
approach to develop analytical tools. However, a
common shortcoming of these models has been
the assumption of constant backfill stiffness. For a
cemented backfill the strength and stiffness varies
as a function of curing time. This results in a spa-
tially non-uniform reactions forces for the overlying
roof and floor beam (Fig. 2) in the backfilled area.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) could be used to
analyze this problem but most mines do not have
the expertise to use this relatively sophisticated
tool. Therefore, these solutions cannot be routinely
used for development of cemented backfill design
parameters. To overcome this limitation, finite dif-
ference analysis of beams on elastic foundations of
varying stiffness was utilized. The effect of variables
such as time-varying stiffness of the backfill and
mining/backfill width were investigated.
2 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES
Grice (1998) reviewed backfilling technologies in
Australia and identified three major traditional
backfilling methods: hydraulic backfilling, paste
backfilling and rock backfilling. Paste backfill is
298
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 298
defined as an engineered mixture of fine solid par-
ticles (with or without binder) and water, contain-
ing between 72% and 85% solids by weight. One
of the main benefits of high-density paste backfill
as compared to low-density backfill is relatively
low risk of ground water contamination (Spear-
ing, et al. 2013). The author listed technical advan-
tages of the two and stated that the cost differential
between the two would likely reduce over time as
costs of traditional surface disposal increase due
mainly to ever-restrictive disposal regulations.
Except in Germany and Poland, paste backfilling
is relatively new. Grice above also described how
backfill impacts the mining operation and some
challenges posed by different backfilling methods.
Yao et al. (2012) summarized backfilling technolo-
gies over the past 20 years. He included a few of
emerging backfilling technologies such as high
water content, total tailing, and paste-like backfill-
ing technologies. Many factors affect the perform-
ance of backfill such as property and content of
the binder, and the gradation of tailings as aggre-
gate. Coates (1981) stated that backfill effectively
increased load bearing capacity of the surround-
ing rock mass that controls the deformation into
the mined-out space. The backfill not only makes
the pillars and walls more stable, but also controls
caving and roof falls, thus minimizing subsurface
and surface displacements. Backfill with relatively
high initial stiffness and improved strength can be
produced by addition of cement or chemical bind-
ers (Lamos & Clark, 1989).
To characterize the mechanical behavior of
cemented paste backfill, Belem (2000) conducted
a series of experiments on various backfill mix-
tures for mid-term (up to 91 days) and long-term
(more than 91 days) curing time. Two Canadian
sulfur mine tailings samples were used for making
various backfill mixtures with three different types
of binder: Portland cement-based binder (PC),
fly ash-based binder (FP) and slag-based binder
(SP). The Uniaxial Compression Strength (UCS)
test results showed that (qu)SP > (qu)FP (qu)PC. The
results also discussed the kinetics of hydration with
different binders while achieving similar long-term
strength. The confined compression test results
showed that cohesion of the backfill increased and
internal friction angle decreased with an increased
percentage of binder.
Belem & Benzaazoua (2008) proposed a meth-
odological approach for mix design of cemented
paste backfill. This approach is based on the
experience in cemented paste backfill field using
empirical models for mix design. Benzaazoua,
et al. (2004) demonstrated that the strength devel-
opment of paste backfill depends on the physical,
chemical and mineralogical properties of the tail-
ings, the water chemistry, amount of water and,
the binder type and its proportion. The hardening
8/27/2014 6:00:17 PM
 is caused not only by direct hydration of binder
reagents, but also by precipitation of hydrated
phases from the pore water of the paste backfill,
and the sulfates have a significant influence on the
mechanical behavior of the paste backfill.
Based on the bending theory of beams on elas-
tic foundations, Budryk (1933) developed a mathe-
matical model to predict the deflection of roof and
stress distribution in mining areas using hydraulic
sand backfilling. After World War II, Salustowicz
(1953) analyzed the deflection of immediate roof
in backfilling area and the distribution of abut-
ment pressures in both solid coal area and back-
filled area (Equation 1).
Pz 2 + 2
z= + beam starts with approximation for the first deriv-
c 2
p p
z + z e x sin x x (1)
k c + difference expression for the derivatives of the ver-
where, z is the roof deflection in the backfilling
area; pz is vertical pressure acting on roof beam;
c is the stiffness of coal seam; k is the stiffness of
backfill; , and are two factors related with c, k
values and physical properties of immediate roof.
Shi (2003) analyzed the effect of all the parameters
affecting roof deflection and the distribution of
abutment pressure in mining area using Salusto-
wicz (1953) model. However, all the above models
assume that the elastic coefficient of backfill is a
constant which is not true for a cemented backfill.
3 DISCUSSION OF THE BEAM ON
ELASTIC FOUNDATIONS MODEL
3.1 Proposed model
The conceptual model was shown in Figure 2.
A more detailed model is shown in Figure 3. For
cemented backfill, its stiffness is a time-varying
parameter which results in a spatially non-uniform
supporting force for the immediate roof and floor.
Therefore, the net force carried by the immediate
roof, a resultant force between uniform overburden
Figure 3. A simplified mechanics model of the physical
problem.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 299
loading and backfill support, is a spatially non-
uniform force. An analytical model quantifying
the deflection for a cemented backfill with time-
varying stiffness was developed as in Figure 4. The
model uses the concepts of beams on elastic foun-
dations of varying stiffness and finite difference
computational method. The immediate roof layers
are assumed as beams and the supports consisting
of coal pillars and backfill are assumed as elastic
foundations. The immediate roof layers of varying
strength and stiffness are analyzed as a single beam
of equivalent homogeneous stiffness.
In Figure 4, x denotes the horizontal distance
from the left boundary and y represents vertical
deflection of the roof beam. The derivation of
finite difference expressions for a node i along the
ative (dy/dx)i, then another derivative (d2y/dx2)i is
derived through this approximation. The finite
tical deflection y at distance x from the left-hand
side of the beam, are much simplified if the nodes
are equally spaced (node spacing is L) along the
length (L) of the beam (Hetenyi, 1985).
dy
( yi + yi ) (2)
dx i 2( L )
d 2y ( yi 2 yi + yi 1 )
2 ( L )2
(3)
dx i
The finite difference theory links the unknown
nodal deflections with the applied loading and
known stiffness. It is convenient to replace the
distributed continuous loading by an equivalent
system of nodal point loads. The governing differ-
ential equation is given as:
d 2 d 2y
EI 2 = q ky
k (4)
dx 2 dx
where, E is Youngs modulus of the equivalent
roof beam, I is the second moment of area, k is
Figure 4. Loaded beam on an elastic foundation.
299
8/27/2014 6:00:17 PM
 stiffness of the backfill, n is total number of nodes, where,
L is length of the beam, q is uniformly distributed
loading, and y is deflection of the beam; a = EI/(L)3; (7)
Combining equations (3) and (4) gives L = L/n; (8)
k ( L )4
dii a 6 + , (3 i n 2); (9)
EI
EI
( L )3
yi 4 yi
4y 1 (6 + ki )
L )4 / EII yi 4 yi 1 + yi 2

0.5k1( L )4
qL d1,1 a 3+ (10)
(5) EI
Equation (5) is the finite difference equation k ( L )4
d 2 ,2 a 7+ 2 (11)
linking loading, stiffness, and deflections. This
EI
equation is valid for all nodes; the values k(i) rep-
resent varying stiffness of the backfill. The back- 0.5kn 11 ( L )4
filled mined-out areas and unmined solid coal dn ,nn1 a 7+ (12)
control surface and subsurface movements. The EI
following assumptions are made: 1) The beam and 0.. kn ( L )4
foundation materials are assumed homogeneous, d n,n a 3+ (13)
elastic, and isotropic, and 2) The model ends were EI
assumed to have zero displacements. Thus lateral
stress induced in the model is due to Poissons ratio In order to simplify computation and predict
only. Based on the equation (5), the relationship the surface subsidence, multiple roof layers may be
between deflections of immediate roof layers and considered as a single monolithic beam of equiv-
applied non-uniform loading due to elastic foun- alent stiffness (E value). This can be estimated
dations of varying stiffness were derived as the fol- through calibration studies of the developed model
lowing matrix equation (Feng & Chugh, 2013). in the field of observed subsidence without back-
filling. Similar studies may also be performed using
2-D FEA modeling. This approach allows analysis
d11 4a a 0 0 0 y1
of the laminated beam to be accomplished through
4a
4a d 22 4a a 0
highly developed probability integral method.
a 4aa d33 a a In this study, validity of the developed model
was established using Phase 2D FEA model.
0 a 4a
A model with multiple roof layers typical in China
0 coal mining was constructed (Fig. 4) with fol-
lowing parameters: 1) Length-1000 m, 2) Mining

depth-180 m, 3) Coal seam thickness-3 m, 4) Floor
a 44a dii 4a a yi
strata thickness-122 m, 5) Width of left barrier-
0 150 m and 6) Width of mined-out area-250 m.
The width of mined-out area was based on super-
a
critical width assuming 25 degree angle of draw.
0 a 4 a yn 1
The engineering properties of each layer used are
0 0 a 4 a d nn yn given in Table 1. For typical coal mining in China,
subsidence factor of 0.8 was based on field meas-
0.5 urements. The comparison of surface deflections
1


Table 1. Engineering properties for different lithologies
associated with coal seam.

*
= q( ) (6) Rocks E T
Composite 500 0.25 22 0.3 0.026
roof beam

Coal seam 2,300 0.28 26 2.1 0.013
Floor bed 6,896 0.18 27 13.8 0.026
1
*E-Youngs Modulus/MPa; -Poissons Ratio; -Friction
0.5 Angle/; T, Tensile Strength/MPa; , Bulk Density/MN/m3.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 300 8/27/2014 6:00:20 PM

 using the proposed model and FEA model is given Table 2. Early backfill stiffness characteristics to assess
in Figure 5 with estimated E value of the compos- effect of early curing backfill (7 days data).
ite beam to be 500 MPa. The two models provide
results within about 90% of each other. Also the Backfill modulus E/MPa
Cohesion
results can be improved by making smaller size ele- Days Case I Case II Case III S0/MPa /
ments in BEF modeling. Since backfill properties
are only one factor in the observed surface subsid- 1 34.5 20.7 4.1 0 15
ence, the above accuracy is considered more than 2 137.9 48.3 13.8 0.7 16
adequate. 3 206.9 82.8 24.1 1.4 17
4 275.9 117.2 34.5 2.1 18
5 344.8 151.7 48.3 2.8 19
3.2 Use of the proposed model for simulating
6 344.8 179.3 65.5 3.4 20
China backfilling process
7 344.8 206.9 103.4 4.1 20
Figure 6 illustrates the process of backfilling, loca-
tion of roof beam over time, and calculations based
on BEF modeling. Mining and backfilling advance
rates are 5 m per day, and the maximum open span incremental deflections can be predicted through
between mining and backfilling is 10 m and roof varying the stiffness values kin the proposed math-
control within this zone is through steel supports. ematical model. The total deflection of immediate
Mining direction is also shown in the figure. The roof strata can then be estimated by cumulating all
backfill stiffness properties over time are given in incremental daily deflections of the previous days
Table 2. The goal is to calculate the deflection of the for the immediate roof.
immediate roof layer/s after a period of time. As the
longwall face advances, backfilling stiffness is also
changing due to curing. Interactions among vary- 3.3 Parameters selection for the backfilling model
ing force reactions provided by backfill, incremental Figure 6 shows supports of coal pillars and back-
surface deflections occur as the face advances. The fill assumed as elastic foundations. The elastic
constants or stiffness, k values, are their important
parameters that affect surface deflections. Elastic
foundations can be subdivided into large number
of small elements whose stiffness can be defined.
The stiffness of supports (coal pillars and backfill)
may be considered as the stiffness of the spring.
Since the Poissons ratio need not to be consid-
ered, this equivalent stiffness approach simplifies
the calculation of k values. Based on the follow-
ing simple derivation, k values can be derived
(Fig. 7).

F
= (14)
A
h
Figure 5. Comparison of FEA and BEF models with- = (15)
h
out backfilling.
E (16)

where, F is the overburden overlying the backfill,

A is the stressed area, is the stress within backfill,
h is the height of the backfill, h is the amount of
compression or settlement of the backfill, is the
strain of backfill element; and E is the modulus of
the backfill for that element.
According to the above three equations and
Figure 7, we have:

F A E E l1
Figure 6. A schematic for calculating deflection of roof k= = = (17)
beam resting on backfill of varying stiffness values. h h h

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 301 8/27/2014 6:00:25 PM


Figure 7. Stiffness calculation for a backfill element.
where, l is length of backfill element (l = 1 at right
angles to the plane of the paper). For a given prob-
lem, h and l are constants, and E is measured in the
laboratory or in the field, and k value can be derived
from 17. Analyses were performed for a typical coal
mine in China: 1) Mining depth-180 m, 2) Aver-
age bulk unit weight of overburden layers 2.6 t/m3,
3) Elastic modulus of equivalent overburden beam-
500 MPa, 4) Mining height-3 m, and 5) In-situ elas-
tic modulus of coal seam 2.41 GPa. The q value in
the matrix is then 180 m*26 kN/m3 = 4.7 MN/m2.
K value of the coal seam is 80 GN/m and is deter-
mined by substituting backfilling height h = 3 m in
equation (17).
3.4 Surface deflections analysis for different
backfill parameters using BEF modeling
To analyze early stiffness effect of the backfill
on deflection of roof beam, three different back-
fill parameters for 7-days in Table 2 were used.
It is assumed that the parameters do not change
after seven (7) days. The analysis results based on
Beam on Elastic Foundations (BEF) model for
deflections were compared (Table 3) with a two-
dimensional finite element modeling using Phase
2D (FEA) to provide additional confidence in
analysis.
The following conclusions are made: 1) The
predicted maximum surface movements by the
two methods are within about 25% of each other;
2) This can be improved through better discretiza-
tion of backfill elements; 3) Since the BEF model
is simple and requires less effort, it can be used
with confidence by mining industry, and 4) Early
stiffness of the backfill has significant influence
on maximum surface deflections that will also
influence ground conditions underground. Using
this analysis appropriate backfill parameters can
be determined to achieve surface and subsurface
deformations control.
302
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 302
Figure 8. Effect of early backfill stiffness on surface
deflections using the BEF modeling.
Table 3. Comparison of FEM and BEF modeling
results.
Maximum
deflection/mm Case I Case II Case III
FEM modeling 393.8 519.5 685.9
BEF modeling 493.6 624.4 762.8
3.5 Limitations of the proposed model
Deflections of roof beam can be calculated pre-
cisely in a finite difference analysis of a loaded
beam on elastic foundations. Furthermore, the
proposed model can be extended to calculate
shear force, bending moments, horizontal strain,
and curvature of roof beam at each of the nodal
points along the beam. Truncation errors occur
when nodal points do not coincide exactly with
the maximum or minimum values of these stress
resultants. Since it is not always obvious where
the points of maximum or minimum shear force
and bending moment will occur, it is difficult
to avoid truncation errors entirely. The use of
unevenly spaced nodes cannot be relied upon
to overcome the problem in every case, and this
approach also brings with it unnecessary compli-
cations in applying finite difference theory, par-
ticularly near and at boundaries and supports.
A more practical approach is to utilize a large
number of equally spaced nodes and to repeat
the analysis with different numbers of nodes each
time. In this way, most of all peaks and troughs
in the shear force and bending moment diagrams
can be located.
The simple approach for ensuring that a node
coincides with the point of application of a point
load or couple is for the expression x (n 1)/L to
be an integer value, where x is the distance of point
load or applied couple from left-hand end of the
8/27/2014 6:00:27 PM
 beam, n is the total number of nodes, and L is the The following equations represent the curvature
overall length of beam. expressions for all nodes.

4 EFFECT OF MINING CONDITIONS d 2y M 2( y2 y1 )

K ( ) = 2 = 1 =
dx i
EI ( L )2
Besides backfill stiffness, another important vari-
able that is of interest is the width of mining that d 2y Mi y 2 yi + yi +1
affects the maximum open span to the point of K (i ) = 2 = = i (19)
dx EI ( L )2
the backfill sinceit will influence deflection of the i

overlying strata. Based on the designed physical K ( n ) = d y = M n = 2( yn yn )
2
properties of Case III, the following simulations 2
were performed all the simulation below was con- dx n EI ( )2
ducted. The stiffness values in Case III are typical
of the backfill used in China. The relationship between horizontal strain and
curvature is based on the theory of elasticity.
4.1 Effect of varying width of mining
r
The effects of backfilling width of 3 m, 5 m and = = rK (20)
p
7 m daily on the maximum surface subsidence
or deflections using BEF modeling are shown in where, r is the distance from any longitudinal sec-
Figure 9. As would be intuitively expected, reduc- tion to the neutral axis of the overburden beam.
ing the mining and backfill width each day (more Based on the roof beam deflection data and
frequent backfilling) results in less surface and sub- time-variable backfill stiffness of Case III, the hor-
surface deflections and roof deflections since the izontal strain values for different daily backfilling
open beam span is smaller. This variable should be widths using BEF modeling is shown in Figure 10.
considered to reduce overall deformations of the The effect of varying backfill stiffness on horizon-
roof strata. tal strain is shown in Figure 11.

4.2 Computation of roof horizontal strain

The critical value of horizontal strain used to esti-
mate whether the immediate roof beam will fail
with the designed backfilling process may be based
on critical strain of 12 mm/m or any other selected
value. The proposed model can easily provide the
total horizontal strain at any point along the beam
span. The curvature of the immediate roof beam is
expressed as below.

d 2 y( x )
k(x ) = (18)
dx 2 Figure 10. Horizontal strains with different width of
mining.

Figure 9. Effect of different width of mining and

backfilling on surface deflections (assuming Case III Figure 11. Horizontal strains with different backfilling
backfill). stiffness.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 303 8/27/2014 6:00:28 PM

 5 DISCUSSION
This paper describes a simplified dynamic deforma-
tion process of immediate roof strata above a coal
seam which is mined using a typical longwall min-
ing method in China with cemented backfill placed
behind in mined-out areas. Effects of initial backfill
stiffness, rate of strength gain with time, and daily
mining and backfilling width on surface deflections
are analyzed. Previous research has developed mod-
els to assess deformations of immediate roof strata
but they are based on the assumption that the stiff-
ness of the backfill is a constant during the entire
backfilling process. The beam on elastic foundations
model can consider elastic foundations of variable
stiffness. Therefore, it can consider time-variation
in the stiffness of the backfill as it cures during the
cementation process. In addition, the model can be
used to analyze the curvature and horizontal strain
of immediate roof beam and continually analyze if
the roof strata. It can be used to design the backfill
parameters to achieve goals of stabilizing aquifers
or coal seams above the coal seam being mined or
surface structures. Using the proposed backfilling
rate (planned daily backfilling width), and limiting
maximum surface subsidence, appropriate stiffness
values of the backfill can be calculated.
Compared with FEA modeling, BEF modeling
needs less input physical parameters, which are
available easily, and the output results from BEF
modeling are reliable. The proposed model has the
potential to be applied by mine engineers routinely.
6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The authors think that a cooperative study with a coal
company should be developed to: 1) Design backfill
parameters, 2) Identify appropriate mix designs to
achieve those parameters, and 3) Validate the per-
formance of backfill parameters through measure-
ments of surface and subsurface deformations. The
model can be further improved to include: 1) slippage
between multiple equivalent roof beams, 2) Non-
linear behavior of backfill materials and laminated
roof beams, and 3) Floor materials as spring elements
of varying stiffness. However, the authors think that
simplified linear analyses proposed here may be more
than adequate for backfill parameter design.
NOMENCLATURE
E Youngs modulus, Pa
h height of immediate roof, m
i node reference
I second moment of area, m4
K stiffness of backfill, N/m
L length of beam, m
M bending moment, N*m
304
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 304
n total number of nodes or node reference
P equivalent nodal point load, N
q uniformly distributed loading, N/m
Poissons ratio
stress, Pa
strain
Angle of internal friction,
x horizontal distance from left-hand end of
beam, m
y deflection of beam, m
REFERENCES
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Canadian Geotechnical Society, Montreal, Canada,
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Belem, T., Benzaazoua, M. 2008. Predictive Models for
Prefeasibility Cemented Paste Backfill Mix Design.
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February, 2008, pp. 113.
Benzaazoua, M, Fall, M., and Belem, T. 2004. A Con-
tribution to Understanding of the Hardening Process
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Budryk, W. 1933. Sinkholes in the area of Ino-Wroclaw.
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Feng, R., Chugh, Y.P. 2013. A Simplified Ground
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Lamos, A.W. and Clark, I.H. 1989. The Influence of
Material Composition and Sample Geometry on the
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Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 8994.
Shi, Y. 2003. Mechanism and Technology of Surround-
ing Rock Control in Coal Mining Face. China Univer-
sity of Mining and Technology Press, Xuzhou, China
(in Chinese).
Spearing, A.J.S., Benton, D., Kostecki, T., et al. 2013.
The Potential of Using Coal Washing Plant Waste as a
Backfill in Room and Pillar Mines. In Proceedings of
32nd International Conference on Ground Control,
Morgantown, West Virginia, USA, pp. 114.
Xu, Y. 2009. Coal Mining. China University of Mining
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8/27/2014 6:00:31 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Experimental study of feasibility of carbon dioxide storage

in unmineable coal seam

B.S. Nie
State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China University of Mining and Technology,
Beijing, China
School of Resource and Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, China

T. Yang
North China Institute of Science and Technology, East Yanjiao, China

W.J. Jia, X.C. Li & H.Y. Tang

State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China University of Mining and Technology,
Beijing, China
School of Resource and Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The carbon dioxide usually performs as a kind of supercritical fluid when it is being
injected into unmineable coal seam. The injecting process will cause a series of mechanical structure
changes such as the cubical expansion, the shrink, the change of pore structures and so on, which will
cause the permeability change of coal seam. It will also affect the process of adsorption, desorption and
diffusion of methane. In order to find out the law of permeability change of coal seam and the displace-
ment of methane during the carbon dioxide injecting process, some laboratory experiments had been
done. The experiments contain the single-phase adsorption and the competitive adsorption of carbon
dioxide and methane in coal sample, the displacement experiment of methane and the permeability tests
of coal sample. The results show that under the same situation, carbon dioxide is easier to be adsorbed by
coal sample than methane. During the process of injecting carbon dioxide into coal containing gas, meth-
ane will be displaced with high efficiency. The permeability of coal sample changed a lot before and after
the injecting process which is helpful to improve the efficiency of methane drainage. The paper provided
a reliable basis to store carbon dioxide effectively and safely in unmineable coal seam.

Keywords: carbon dioxide storage; unmineable coal seam; supercritical carbon dioxide; displacement;
permeability coefficient

1 INTRODUCTION of injecting CO2 (Dan et al. 2004; Ma et al. 2007;

Gas disaster has severely restricted the green devel-
opment of the coal industry, and mine gas control
has come to the point of imminent. Therefore,
the occurrence of coal mine gas accident can be
reduced or even eliminated, and a new clean, effi-
cient energy can be gotten if the method of coal-
bed methane mining is optimized and improved
with plan and purpose.
The coal seam has the capacity of adopting gas
because micro porosity on its surface has unsatu-
rated ability and easily generates van der waals
forces with the non-polar molecules. The natu-
ral mixed gas of CH4 (typically 90%) and small
amounts of heavier hydrocarbons and CO2 and
N2 become the coalbed methane at natural state
of coal seam (Pang et al. 2008; Xu et al. 2005;
Zhang et al. 2011). In recent years, the research
Zhang & Yang 2011; Yang 2010) to exploit the
coalbed methane technology develops very quickly
and it has become a concerned mining method at
home and abroad (Tu et al. 2012).
The critical temperature of CO2 is 31.06 C and
the critical pressure is 7.39 MPa (Xue et al. 2004;
Yang et al. 2008). In the storage process, the injec-
tion is usually in a supercritical state. Its critical
density is 0.448 g/cm3 and it is the highest above
common supercritical solvent. The coal seam
volume expansion, contraction, pore structure
changes and other phenomena are usually caused
with the process of injecting and storing CO2,
while the process of coal seam adsorption and
desorption on CH4 is changed. The coal-related
natures influenced by the supercritical CO2 are
studied through experiment including the single-
phase adsorption experiment on CO2 and CH4 at

305

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 305 8/27/2014 6:00:31 PM

 the same conditions with the same coal, the super-
critical CO2 injection experiment.

2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
AND PROCESS

2.1 Experimental system

The main purpose of the single-phase adsorption
experiment is to study the different adsorption
ability between the same coal sample for CO2 and
CH4, and provide evidence for proving that super-
critical CO2 can displace gas.
The structural schematic diagram of MDS-200
triaxial permeameter used in this experiment is
shown in Figure 1. The system can be simulated
experiments of gass adsorption and desorption
under various depth by adjusting the axial pressure
and confining pressure. Figure 2. The structure of supercritical CO2 system of
The structural schematic diagram of the experi- extraction.
ment station, which is designed on the basis of
MDS-200 triaxial permeameter, used in super-
Table 1. The proximate analysis data of ZiChang-coal.
critical CO2 displacing experiment is shown in
Figure 2. The temperature control device is needed Coal samples Aad% Mad% Vad% FCad%
special treatment because of the large tempera-
ture difference between day and night during the ZiChang coal 10.68 2.56 30.68 56.08
experiment. CO2 inflows the preheating and heat-
retaining device numbered 14 in Figure 2 by cylin-
der. The device is composed of a circulating water
and time for heat exchange in order to ensure the
bath and airway. Water temperature is set by the
heating effect at the same time. Conduits flowed
temperature control device at a predetermined
by gas are needed insulation treatment with insula-
temperature. Gas flows through the built-airway
tion material and the reactor should place constant
to achieve the purpose of heating the gas. Airways
sheet composed of heated sheet and temperature
are surrounded in the apparatus to make the gas
control cabinet with temperature at 50 C outside
and water bath have a sufficient heat transfer area
after heating the gas through a water bath.

2.2 Coal samples

Figure 1. Structural of 3D permeable experimental
machine (MDS-200).
The coal samples taken from ZiChang Coal in
Shaanxi belong to bituminous coal. Its proximate
analysis data is shown in Table 1.
The coal sample is processed into a stand-
ard cylindrical specimen having a size of
50 mm*100 mm as shown in Figure 3. The specific
process is removing a cylindrical specimen having a
diameter of 50 mm and length more than 100 mm
from the drilling during processing because of
crispness. Then carrying out the end treatment.
That is using a rock cutting machine for cutting
slightly longer than 100 mm. Two end surfaces
must be guaranteed parallel and have a certain flat-
ness in order to ensure that the entire section of the
specimen even by force. Therefore, the specimens
end face parallel should be hand polished within
0.02 mm, whose sides are also flat, after cutting.
The coal sample should be placed vacuum drying
oven for 4 hours at 70 C to room temperature.

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Figure 3. The coal before the experiment of the dis-
placement of supercritical carbon dioxide.
2.3 Experimental process
1. Single-phase adsorption experiment
Connecting equipment and testing devices air
tightness after the connection. Processed sam-
ple is placed in MDS-200 triaxial penetration
bench (Fig. 2) if the situation does not leak.
The coal sample placed in penetration is set the
pore pressure P (2 1.0) MPa to ensure that
the specimen between the sidewall and pouches
doesnt leak where P is the pore pressure and 2
is confining pressure. The confining pressure
is applied to 9 MPa and axial compression is
added to 10 MPa in this experiment. Each pres-
sure should be regulated by accumulator. The
vessel body temperature should be controlled at
room temperature. CH4 adsorption isotherm-
desorption experiment and CO2 adsorption
isotherm-desorption experiment should be done
firstly before carrying out the carbon dioxide
flooding experiment.
First, the space should be evacuated using
a vacuum pump to prepare for the adsorption
experiment of coal to gas. Opening the outlet
valve and closing the inlet valve when vacuum-
ing. CH4 should be injected after the vacuum
working for 8 h. The specific operation is closing
outlet valve and opening the inlet valve. Inject-
ing CH4 with pressure of 4.7 MPa and purity
of 99.99% and letting it adsorb until balanced
and recording changes of gas pressure. Desorb-
ing freely until there is no gas desorbing at room
temperature after the adsorption equilibrium
while collecting gas using drainage method and
recording time. Then studying the coal sam-
ples adsorption and desorption characteristics
for CO2 using the same procedure. The whole
adsorption-desorption processes are completed
under the condition is set in the axial compres-
sion 10 MPa and confining pressure 9 MPa.
307
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 307
2. Supercritical CO2 flooding experiment
1. Gas adsorption experiment
Processed sample is placed in MDS-200 tri-
axial penetration with the confining pres-
sure applied to 9 MPa and axial compression
added to 10 MPa for quantify the effect of the
supercritical CO2 flooding CH4. Each pressure
should be regulated by accumulator. Closing
the osmotic pressure entrance valve. Connect-
ing reactor with a vacuum pump outlet to vac-
uum for 8 h, and then closing the outlet valve
and dismantling vacuum. Opening pore pres-
sure valve, which leads to the CH4 with con-
centration of 99.9% and pressure of 4.7 MPa.
Recording the time and pressure until the gas
pressure does not change.
2. Gas natural desorption experiment
The axial compression and confining pres-
sure should be kept constant after the end of
the gas adsorption experiment. Closing pore
pressure inlet valve and outlet valve while
collecting gas using drainage method and
recording time and volume until gas volume
doesnt change.
3. Supercritical CO2 flooding CH4 experiment
The flooding experiment should be begun
after the adsorption and desorption experi-
ment. The critical temperature of CO2 is
31.06 C and critical pressure is 7.39 MPa as
known from the introduction. In this experi-
ment the temperature is set at 50 C and pres-
sure is 8.0 MPa.
First, all the equipments and instruments should
be connected well and the experimental table
should be heated by temperature-controlled heat-
ing plate to 50 C while ensuring that all the pip-
ing and reactors insulation effect are good. Then
opening the controlled valve of the pore pressure
and reactor outlet slowly with CO2. The gas is a
mixture of gas CO2 and CH4 out of the outlet. Col-
lecting and recording time and volume of gas using
the method of clarifying limewater at the end of
the gas collection system. The temperature and the
pressure were maintained at the set value until the
limewater turbid at the air manifold system in this
process.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Results of the single-phase
adsorption experiment
It is shown in the Table 2 that changes of the pres-
sure of CO2 and CH4 at the same time while doing
one-component gas adsorption on coal. The initial
pressure of CO2 and CH4 are both 4.7 MPa from
8/27/2014 6:00:33 PM
 Table 2. The change of adsorption quantity vs. time of experimental equipment. The gas pressure drop
carbon dioxide and methane during single-phase adsorp- larger at this time because gas needs to fill the
tion process. remaining space and this is a process of diffusion.
Diffusion process is a balancing process due to the
Reactor Reactor
Test time/ pressure of Test time/ pressure of
free movement of molecules making the material
min CH4/MPa min CO2/MPa transport from high-concentrations system to low-
concentration system. The gas concentration dif-
0 4.7 0 4.7 ference is the driving force. The process based on
15 4.1 12 4.1 adsorption will be carried out in the reactor after
105 3.8 38 3.8 the entire pressure is balanced. That is to say, the
257 3.5 139 3.5 remaining space is filled by gas.
528 3.2 236 3.2 In the next experiment, the adsorption amount
677 3.0 348 3.0 of coal gas is gradually increased, but the slope of
1941 1.89 1468 1.89 the curve is decreased, and the adsorption amount
3298 1.432 3298 1.2 on CO2 is higher than CH4 in the same time. This
rule accord with the Langmuir adsorption theory.
The theory is that the rate of adsorption is quick
at the beginning, and the rate decreases along with
decrease of the surface vacancies. That is to say
adsorption is a time-dependent process. Langmuir
isotherm equation:

p p 1
= + (1)
X a ab

The Formula 1 can be transformed into The

Formula 2.

abp
X= (2)
1 + bp

where p is pressure, and X is the amount of adsorp-

Figure 4. The change of adsorption quantity over time
of carbon dioxide and methane during single-phase
adsorption process.
the Table 2. The same changes of pressure using dif-
ferent time during the experiment. The CH4 adsorp-
tion experiment using time for 105 min while CO2
using 38 min when the cylinder pressure reduce to
3.8 MPa. In other words, the pressure is not the same
after the value of the same time. The pressure values
are not the same at the end of the reaction. Both
reached the equilibrium after 3298 min. The final
equilibrium pressure are different. The pressure of
CH4 is 1.432 MPa while the CO2 is 1.2 MPa.
It is shown in the Figure 4 that the curves of
gas adsorption capacity of coal sample with time
during the one-component gas adsorption experi-
ment. It can be seen that adsorption of coal sample
on CO2 and CH4 is different and the adsorption
amount of CO2 adsorption of the specimen is
more than CH4 under the same condition and
time. In the initial stage, two curves slope are basi-
cally same and changes are relatively steep before
40 min. It is different from the curve after 40 min
as there is remaining space except coal samples in
tion, and a is adsorption constants and X will
equal to a if p tends to infinity, and b is adsorption
constants. a is only a parameter related to specific
surface area of the coal and the gas adsorbed, and
b is only a parameter related to temperature and
the gas adsorbed. The change of the adsorption
amount due to the different gas adsorbed reflects
on the value of a and b. The rate and amount of
the adsorption are different because of the differ-
ent value of a and b.
The experiment also prove that the coal adsorp-
tion capacity on CO2 is stronger than its on CH4. It
can be found that the rule is related to the nature of
gas and coal. It is shown that the boiling point of
CO2 is much higher than CH4 in the Table 3. The
adsorption capacity of coal on gas not only is related
to pore surface but also gas pressure, boiling point,
temperature, moisture, coal rank. The critical tem-
perature of CO2 is 31.06 C and CH4 is 82.01 C.
Generally, the gas is more easily adsorbed if the
critical temperature of the gas is higher.
3.2 Flooding results of supercritical CO2
It is shown in the Figure 5 that the slope of the
curve of gas pressure and adsorption volume

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 Table 3. Some physical and chemical parameter of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4).
Gas
Boiling point (Tb/C)
Critical pressure (Pc/MPa)
Critical temperature (Tc/C)
Critical density [/(g cm3)]
Effective diameter/nm
Ionization potential/eV
Adsorption amount (cm3/g)
Mean free path/nm
Figure 5. The gas absorption change over time of coal.
tion experiment. The desorption quantity is consist-
ent with the trend of the index type, and the fitting
effect is good, and the fitting error is less than 20%.
CO2 CH4 The fitting equation for the adsorption volume is
78.48 161.4
Q = 660.07763*exp(t/38.12902) + 776.11349.
7.39 4.6407
The total amount of free desorption gas is 840 ml
31.06 82.01
through calculating. The adsorbed gas volume
0.448 0.426 after desorption is 3882.56 ml because the total
0.456 0.414
adsorbed gas volume is 4722.56 ml.
15.6 13.79 The experimental results of supercritical CO2
23.4 18.2 displacing gas are shown in Figure 7. The gas pro-
83.6 53.1 duction quantity is large and rate is quite fast at the
beginning of the displacing experiment. Then the
gas production reduces slowly until no gas with
the prolongation of time.
It is shown that the main replaced gas is the gas
that is detained in the seepage channel composed
of pore and fissure and pore between equipment
and sample from the studied results and knowledge.
The reason why the output of gas volume decline
is that CH4 absorbed in the coal matrix and pore
desorbs slowly and flows into the flow channel and
flows out of coal sample with the air because of
replacement and displacement effect of supercriti-
cal CO2.
According to the adsorption and desorption
experiment, the total volume of adsorbed gas V1
is 4722.56 ml, and accumulated volume V2 of col-
lecting gas through displacement experiment is
3674 ml.
can be used for representing the displacement
efficiency.
It can be defined that

V2
= 100% (3)
V1

where V1 is the total volume of gas adsorbed of

adsorption experiment, and V2 is the cumulative vol-
ume of gas collected of displacement experiment.

Figure 6. The gas desorption volume change over time.

changes very quickly at the beginning. The reason

why the slope changes quickly and has differences
from the type I is that there is remaining space
between equipment and instruments in the course
of the experiment and gas diffuses slowly because
of the differences of the concentration. The final
volume of the adsorption gas is 4722.56 ml.
It is shown in the Figure 6 that the desorption
quantity changes along with time after the adsorp- Figure 7. The change of volume of gas with time.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 309 8/27/2014 6:00:35 PM

 It can be calculated that the experimental dis-
placement efficiency is 77.8% when the value of V1
and V2 is taken into Formula 3. Compared to the
displacing effect of conventional CO2 (20%30%)
injected into coal, the displacing effect of super-
critical CO2 achieves a better results.
4 CONCLUSIONS
1. It can be seen from figures that the absorp-
tion amount of coal on CO2 and CH4 is dif-
ferent at the same condition and time, and the
adsorption amount on CO2 is always larger
than the adsorption amount on CH4. The
adsorption amount of coal on gas is gradually
increased, but the slope of the curve is gradu-
ally decreased during the experiment. Besides,
the adsorption amount of coal on CO2 is
larger than the adsorption amount on CH4 at
the same time. It is proved through the experi-
ment that the adsorption capacity of coal on
CO2 is stronger than the adsorption capacity
on CH4.
2. It is shown in the Figure 7 that the desorp-
tion quantity changes along with time after the
adsorption experiment. The desorption quan-
tity is consistent with the trend of the index
type, and the fitting effect is good. The fitting
equation for the adsorption volume is
Q = 660.07763*exp(t/38.12902) + 776.11349.
3. The gas production quantity is large and rate
is quite fast at the beginning of the displac-
ing experiment. Then the gas production
reduces slowly until no gas with the prolonga-
tion of time. The effect of the entire displacing
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 310
experiment is good and displacement efficiency
can reach 77.8%.
REFERENCES
Dan Weihua, Zhou Wenchang, Zeng Rui. 2004.
Application Status of Supercritical CO2 Fluid Tech-
nology [J]. China Leather, 33(17):4346.
Ma Yuhua, Zhao Zhong, Li Keyou. 2007. The Study of
Supercritical CO2 Fluid Extracting Almond Oil [J].
Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural
Engineering, 23(4):272275.
Pang Zhonghe, Yang Fengtian, Duan Zhongfeng.
2008. The Development Status and Prospect of CO2
geological sequestration technology[C]. Dun Huang:
479492
Tu Yi, Xie Chuanli, Li Wuguang. 2012. The Study of
Adsorption/Desorption Rules of Seams for CO2, CH4
and N2[J]. Coal Science and Technology, 40(2):7072.
Xu Jun, Zhang Junying, Pan Xia. 2005. Research Sta-
tus of CO2 Storage Technology[J]. Coal Conversion,
28(3):8086.
Xue Weidong, Zhu Zhenghe, Zou Lexi. 2004. Theoreti-
cal Calculation of the Thermodynamic Properties of
Supercritical CO2[J]. Journal of Atomic and Molecular
Physics, 21(2):295300.
Yang Junlan, Ma Yitai, Zeng Xianyang. 2008. Properties
Under Supercritical Pressure of CO2 Fluid [J]. Fluid
Machinery, 36(1):5357.
Yang Hongmin. 2010. Research of Mechanism and Rules
for Injecting Gas Displacing Coal Bed Methane[D].
Jiao Zuo:Henan Polytechnic University.
Zhang Bing, Ye Jianping, Zhang Xiaopeng. 2011.
The Constituency Evaluation Technology of Deep
Coal Injection/Burying CO2 Extracting Coalbed
Methane [C]. Xia Men.
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310
8/27/2014 6:00:38 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Close-range coal seam mining and stowing with upper entry

X.L. Du
College of Resources and Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing),
Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The environmental damages caused by coal mining mainly contain surface subsidence
which is induced by the large area of gobs and environmental pollution which is induced by the banking
of the solid wastes. In order to reduce the unfavorable effects caused by the mentioned factors, a plan to
exploit the close-range coal seam with the solid wastes as primary material and a upper entry used for
stowing was put forward. The upper entry was arranged at the above coal seam or sill, and the lower coal
seam should be mined and filled first. After mining the lower coal seam, the upper coal seam would be
mined with backfilling. The layout of the roadways and the applicability of the upper entry were intro-
duced, and the prioritization scheme of the mining was discussed. Also the economic performance of the
technology was analyzed. It hopes that the suggested technology is helpful for controlling the subsidence
and reducing the solid wastes, and mining and stowing with the upper entry can realize the least environ-
mental damages.

1 INTRODUCTION solid wastes as raw material, and it could reduce the

Though nowadays the mining height of coal mine in
China has reached hundreds of meters, coal mining
would still cause many environmental, ecological
and even social problems, like surface subsidence,
damage of the vegetation, bad ecological environ-
ment, et al. (Donggan et al. 2011, Bhuiyan et al.
2010a, b). Technologies like mine land reclamation,
turning subsidence areas to pounds, soil reconstruc-
tion, et al. could repair the damaged land to a cer-
tain extent, but the mentioned methods could not
kill or reduce the environmental problems caused
by coal mining from the root (Shrestha & Lal 2011,
Dolealov J et al. 2012, Borvka L et al. 2012,
Bograd et al. 2012). Meanwhile, underground coal
with stone heads would make a lot of coal gangues
left on the ground. Most of the hillocks contained
many harmful heavy metals, and the weathering
of the hillocks would release dusts to the air and
would cause air pollution (Petsonk et al. 2013).
Given many of the east cities air quality in China
are poor, the control of the hillocks was taken into
the agenda gradually (Cheng et al. 2011). The strat-
egy that mining first and repairing second would
not only cause the waste of manpower, material
resources and financial resources, but also could be
not sure that the ecological environment could be
repaired as it was for the repairing work could not
be done immediately (Meredith 2007). Thus, mining
technology should be improved to reduce the envi-
ronmental damage induced by underground coal
mining. Generally, mining with stowing chooses
ground banking of solid wastes like coal gangues.
After the gob area being stowed, the stowing body
could provide a strong support to the overburden,
and this could reduce dynamic disasters in coal
mine, depress the surface subsidence. It hopes that
mining with stowing is a good way for solving the
environmental problems caused by underground
coal mining (Jiang et al. 2009, 2011). Based on the
close-range coal seam geological condition, the use
of upper roadway for stowing in close-range coal
seam and the prioritization scheme of the mining
was discussed in this paper.
2 LAYOUT OF THE UPPER ROADWAY
AND MINING WITH STOWING
METHOD IN CLOSE-RANGE
COAL SEAM
When mining close-range coal seam with the pur-
pose to improve the mining efficiency and reduce
environmental problems caused by underground
coal mining, the lower coal seam should exploited
first. An upper roadway should set in the coal
seam or rock at the overburden. As is shown in
Figure 1, the upper roadway is in the middle of
the lower coal seam, and it has a parallel position
to the bottom roadways (Du et al. 2014). Drilling
with long diameter should be drilled from the
upper roadway to the lower gob areas, and drill-
ings are used for the transporting of the slurries of
the solid wastes. For the length limitation of the

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Figure 1. Layout of the upper roadway for mining with
stowing in close-range coal seam.
drilling diameter, pure solid wastes are not suit-
able for stowing through the drillings. So the coal
gangues should be broke into micro pieces and
mixed with fly ash, cement, additive, water, et al.
The mixture is full of liquidity, and it will be trans-
ported to the lower gob by pipelines. After mining
and stowing the lower coal seam, the upper coal
seam should be exploited when the stowing body
is steady. The stowing work in the upper coal seam
could be either backfilling or the same technology
as the lower coal seam did. If an upper stowing
roadway was used for the upper coal seam, cost of
production may increase. While if the coal seam
bearing huge gas, the upper roadway for exhaust-
ing gas and the upper roadway for stowing could
be merge to one roadway. In this case, the produc-
tion cost could be reduced.
3 APPLICABILITY OF THE UPPER ENTRY
IN CLOSE-RANGE COAL SEAM
3.1 Roof condition of the mining coal seam
When the upper roadway was used for mining and
stowing in close-range coal seam, the hardness of
the immediate roof of the mining coal seam should
be over medium hard, so that the roof would not
cave immediately after mining. In his case, the
volume of the stowing materials and the safety of
workers could be guaranteed.
3.2 Influence of the distance between coal seams
to the layout of the roadways
When mining with roof caving method was used
in coal mine, the stress condition in the overbur-
den would change after mining, and three zones
named caving zone, fractured zone and bending
zone respectively would appear from bottom to
top. While after stowing in the gob, there was
312
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 312
no three zones in the vertical overburden. Micro
fractures would still exist in the roof, but basically
most of the overburden strata were steady enough.
There would be periodical pressure phenomenon
or slightly periodical pressure phenomenon. The
movement of the overburden was tightly related
with the volume of the stowing materials. Thus,
the original caving zone would not cave strongly
after stowing, and the original fractured zone
would have a fall tendency with a good stability.
Based on the available experience, when the min-
ing height was M, the height of the caving zone
and the fractured zone under middle hard roof
with mining with roof caving method applied
could be defined by the following formulas (Wang
et al. 2013):
Height of the caving zone:
100M
H1 = 2.5 (1)
6.2M + 10.0
Height of the fractured zone:
100M
H2 = 6.5 (2)
3.1M + 6.0
When mining with stowing was used in coal
mine, normally the equivalent height of the cav-
ing zone and fractured zone would be shorter
than that calculated by the mentioned formulas, so
the upper roadway for stowing could be arranged
between the caving zone and the fractured zone. If
the distance between the lower coal seam and the
upper coal seam was H, then the rational distance
of H should be:
H1 H H2 (3)
Under this circumstances, as was shown in
Figure 2a, the upper roadway could be arranged
in the upper coal seam and used as one of the
mining roadways of the upper coal seam, so the
production cost could be reduced. When H H1,
as was shown in Figure 2b, the upper roadway
could be arranged at the fractured zone over the
upper coal seam. In this case, the mining height M
was the mining height of the upper coal seam. In
order to reduce the transporting distance, if there
was a thick, hard, and steady sill over the upper
coal seam, the upper stowing roadway could be
arranged in this kind of sill. While H H2, as
was shown in Figure 2c, the upper roadway for
stowing could be arranged in the middle of the
close-range coal seam, and it was suggested that
the roadway should arranged over the equivalent
caving zone.
8/27/2014 6:00:38 PM

Figure 2. Layout of the upper roadway under different
distance between close-range coal seam.
4 LAYOUTS OF THE UPPER ROADWAY
FOR STOWING IN CLOSE-RANGE
COAL SEAM
Taking the condition as H1 H H2 an example,
the layouts of the upper roadway for stowing were
discussed with the condition that the length of the
working face in the same coal seam was the same.
4.1 Equal length of the working face
for close-range coal seam
Figure 3 shows in the case that equal length of the
working face for the close-range coal seam. Based
on the available research, the working faces of the
313
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 313
Figure 3. Layout of the roadways for close-range coal
seam with equal length of the working face.
Figure 4. Calculated model for the length of all the
drillings.
close-range coal seam could not be arranged per-
fect parallel, and the fracture development of the
roof should be considered for better mining with
stowing. There should be a dislocated position for
the working faces. Given the barrier pillars should
be set between different working faces, the position
of the roadway and drillings could be defined by
general analysis of the width of the barrier pillars
and the length of all the drillings.
In order to avoid breaking the barrier pillar and
the integrity of the rock, when the length of the
close-range coal seam working face was the same, a
upper roadway could be used to do stowing work.
As is shown in Figure 4, the length of all the drill-
ings L(x) in the same plate could be calculated by
the following formulas (Du & Yang 2013):
L ( x ) = L1 L2 + Li L j +  Ln (4)
( i ) r
2
Li H2 (5)
( i ) r
2
Lj x + H 2 (6)
l + a + b ( x + r ) + H 2
2
Ln (7)
where Li, Lj, and Ln are representative the length of
the drillings numbered i, j, n, here Li lies in the left
of the upper roadway, and Lj lies in the right of the
upper roadway; x is the vertical distance from the
beginning of the drillings to the lower tail entry,
here a + (l/2) x l + a; H is the vertical distance of
8/27/2014 6:00:40 PM
 close-range coal seam; a and b are representative
the width of the lower entries; r and d are repre-
sentative the diffusion radius and diffusion diam-
eter; n is the number of all the drillings, and it is
calculated by n = (l + a + b)/d by counting fractions
over 1/2 as one and disregarding the rest.
4.2 Unequal length of the working face
for the close-range coal seam
1. Length of the upper working face was bigger
As is shown in Figure 5, when the length of the
upper working face was bigger, the entries in
one working face of the upper coal seam could
be arranged uniformly and treat the barrier pil-
lar of the lower coal seam as middle point. In
this situation, drillings were developed from the
tail entry and head entry of the upper working
face respectively. Section 3.1 could be a refer-
ence for the optimizing of the drillings. For the
limitation of the safety regulations, the adjacent
working faces in the lower coal seam could not
be excavated at the same time. So when two
entries of one working face were prepared, one
upper roadway could be excavated for stowing.
After mining one of the lower working faces,
one entry near the next working face could be
used to save the production cost. Under this
circumstances, another upper roadway in the
upper coal seam and another entry in the lower
working face should be excavated simultane-
ously, and the preparing work should be done
before mining.
2. Length of the upper working face was smaller
As is shown in Figure 6, when the length of the
upper working face is smaller, we could arrange
the roadways based on the range of the min-
ing panel, the planning of the mining section
Figure 5. Layout of the roadways when the length of
the upper working face was bigger.
Figure 6. Layout of the roadways when the length of
the upper working face was smaller.
314
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 314
and the multiple of the length of the working
faces in close-range coal seam. Under this cir-
cumstances, two of the upper roadways in one
working face could be used for stowing work,
and based on the diffusion radius of the stow-
ing slurries, the number of the drillings could
be defined rationally according to section 3.1.
After the gob area being filled, behavior of
mine ground pressure both in the working face
and gate road had a weaker tendency than that
without backfilling. So the width of the barrier
pillar could be reduced to increase the yield of
coal.
4.3 Discussion
For the different bed succession under various
geological conditions, it was difficult to define a
uniform standard of how long the working face
in close-range coal seam should be, and the con-
crete geological conditions and the available min-
ing experiences should be considered for design of
the panels. If the geological conditions were quite
suitable, the length of the lower working face could
be extended as far as it could. For the limitation
of the diffusion radius of the stowing slurries, the
layout of the upper roadways were restricted. In
the range of the diffusion radius of the slurries, the
number of the roadways should be reduced as little
as it could. The less the amount of the roadway
was, the faster the working efficiency and the less
production cost were. After filling the lower gob,
there still were some fractures in the overburden,
but the whole behavior of mine ground pressure
was not obvious, and it was helpful for the safety
production of coal mine. Meanwhile, the upper
gob with backfilling or stowing after mining would
limit the movement of the overburden, which could
realize controlling of the surface subsidence. While
for coal seam bearing massive gas, there would be
more fractures after mining, so attention should
be paid for monitoring and exhausting gas (Wang
et al. 2008).
5 ROADWAYS PRIORITIZATION
OF MINING AND ANALYSIS OF
OVERALL PERFORMANCE WITH
UPPER ROADWAY
5.1 Prioritization scheme of mining
in close-range coal seam
Equally speaking, when mining with all the gob
area filled, the volume of coal and the stowing
materials were the same. But timely speaking, the
close-range coal seam could be mined at the same
time or excavate different coal one by one. The
benefits would be different from unequal strategy.
8/27/2014 6:00:44 PM
 Figure 7a shows the mining scheme before pri-
oritization, if we mining one by one, we may waste
a lot of time. Figure 7b shows the mining scheme
after prioritization, close-range coal seam were
mined at the same time with a rational dislocated
position, and the dislocated position should be at
least a length of one working face (normally over
200 m). When mining the upper coal seam, the
working faces should be above the solid coal as
much as they could. As for later mining upper coal
seam, the coal seam under them should be mined
as early as they could, so that the stowing body
could solidify and form as strong support body.
It should be avoided that mining the correspond-
ing upper coal seam immediately after mining the
lower coal seam.
5.2 Analysis of overall performance with upper
roadway in close-range coal seam mining
Economically speaking, the time for mining close-
range coal seam was reduced to half after prioriti-
zation, and coal production could be twice in the
same time; safely speaking, as there were no island
working faces and less stress concentration, the
safety of mining could be better; as for the extrac-
tion rate of coal, it could be improved by reduc-
ing the width of the barrier pillar; as for reducing
the surface subsidence, the stowing body would be
a good support for the overburden sill and min-
ing with stowing could decrease the damage of
ground buildings; as for the environment protec-
tion, solid wastes like coal gangues and fly ashes
were the main raw materials for stowing, so stow-
ing could reduce the banking of solid wastes and
improve the air quality. However, workshop build-
ings, workers, pipelines, materials, facilities, et al.
should be prepared for stowing work, and those
items would increase the production cost. So the
decision-making section should take the increasing
Figure 7. Prioritization scheme of mining.
315
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 315
cost of one ton coal for stowing and benefit-cost
analysis into account, and then make the decision
whether use the technology or not. While from
the aspect of environment protection, application
of upper roadway for stowing in close-range coal
seam is an environmentally friendly green mining
technology (Azapagic 2004, Mudd 2010, Mishra &
Das 2010, Zhao et al. 2014).
6 CONCLUSION
1. The hardness of the immediate roof of the min-
ing coal seam should be over medium hard, so
that the roof would not cave immediately after
mining;
2. Based on the different dislocated position of the
close-range coal seam, the upper roadway could
be arranged at different place, and the rational
dislocated position H should be: H1 H H2;
3. Close-range coal seam were mined at the same
time with a rational dislocated position after
prioritization, the dislocated position should be
at least a length of one working face (normally
over 200 m), and rhythm of production could
be greatly improved;
4. Stowing work would increase the production
cost, but from the aspect of environment protec-
tion, application of upper roadway for stowing
in close-range coal seam is an environmentally
friendly green mining technology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financially supported by National Key Technol-
ogy R&D Program in the 11th Five year Plan of
China (2009BAB48B02) and 973 Program under
Grant No. 2010CB226801. For constructive com-
ments and supports of the manuscript I would like
to thank Professor JIANG Yaodong and Associ-
ate professor YANG Baogui.
REFERENCES
Azapagic A. Developing a framework for sustainable
development indicators for the mining and miner-
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Efficient groundwater monitoring for underground

and open-cast mining

E. Berger, D. Balmert & J. Richter

Ribeka GmbH, Bornheim, Germany

H.Y. Liu
Ribeka, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Comprehensive databases, respectively comprehensive data management and evaluation

systems are the key aspects for efficient and sustainable groundwater monitoring. To serve quality control-
led and reliable data with a high availability, one the one hand very specialized, one the other hand very
user-friendly software solutions are required. The presented case studies describe the implementation of a
comprehensive groundwater monitoring and bore log management system for a large salt and potassium
mine, a web based water monitoring and early warning system for a railway tunnel construction, both in
Germany as well as a groundwater and discharge monitoring and management system for an open-cast
lignite mine in Turkey.

1 INTRODUCTION a focus on potash and salt mining and is a leading

The element water is our most valuable resource
and its economical, ecological and geopoliti-
cal importance will continue to strongly grow in
future. Stability of the long-term water balance
and optimal use of the potential of the resource
water depends on many factors. The water cycle
is a sensitive system that can quickly and last-
ingly react to changes and interferences. Therefore,
handling water calls for a specially cautious, fore-
sighted and sustainable management. A complex
challenge, such as the monitoring and manage-
ment of groundwater, calls for an interdiscipli-
nary, comprehensive approach. Mining activities,
agriculture, industry, land use and contaminated
sites, drinking water extraction as well as hydroge-
ological, hydrologic and meteorological factors can
interact and influence the groundwater resources,
both in terms of quality and quantity. These fac-
tors result in a highly complex data pool that has
to be efficiently managed and that requires a struc-
tured evaluation before it can be used as a basis for
decision-making.
2 CASE STUDIES
2.1 Comprehensive groundwater monitoring
and bore log management for the K+S AG
The K+S AG (formerly Kali und Salz GmbH ) is a
German mining company based in Kassel. K+S has
global supplier of potash and magnesium products
for agricultural and industrial applications. K+S is
mainly active in Europe as well as in North and
South America and employs over 14,000 people
worldwide (K+S Aktiengesellschaft 2013).
Amongst others, the most important mining
area for K+S in Germany is the potassium salt
mine Werra with its related sites in Herring,
Philippsthal and Unterbreizbach, all close to
the border of Hesse and Thuringia. The potash
salt mine Werra is, with an exploitation area
of approximately 2500 km2, the worlds largest
potassium mining area. The objective upper and
lower potassium deposits are located in a depth of
up to more than 800 m are part of the Zechstein
Unit (Lopingium) of the Permian period, are sur-
rounded by the Werra Rock Salt (Werra Steinsalz)
formation (Fig. 1).
The highly saline brine waters which originate in
the framework of the potassium quarry are partly
injected into the dolomite layer (Plattendolomit/
Zechstein 3) covering the Werra Rock Salt for-
mation, partly discharged directly into the Werra
River. Additionally, the large amounts of salt,
mostly Sodium Chloride (NaCl), accompany-
ing the potassium salt are deposited on vast mine
dumps which are exposed to precipitation and sub-
jected to wind drift (Regierungsprsidium Kassel,
2007).
The disposal of brine waters and also the
large salt dumps are a potential risk to the local

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 Figure 1. Cross section of the potassium deposits in the
Werra region. K+S Aktiengesellschaft.
environment as well as surrounding groundwa-
ter and surface water resources. Hence K+S is
required to precisely monitor all surrounding
water resources and proof that there is no nega-
tive impact for current and long term sustainable
impact. Corresponding reports have to be issued
to the responsible environmental authority on a
regular basis.
Ribeka was commissioned to implement an
integrated groundwater monitoring and manage-
ment system together with a bore log and drill-
ing data management for the thousands of high
complex drillings and monitoring stations in and
around the mines of the K+S AG. In addition cus-
tomized hydrological and hydrochemical tools for
water samples evaluation, reporting tools as well as
modules for precise water level measuring in highly
saline brine waters were developed.
Due to the high complexity of K+S exploratory
drillings in these formations which are down to a
depth of more than 1600 m K+S demanded a very
sophisticated bore-log data management and visu-
alization tool. Currently all drilling data and related
data can be stored in the GW-Base database. Next
to basic drilling information like drilling purpose,
authorizations, client, companies, etc., detailed
information concerning drilling sections, drilling
fluid, casing elements, filter screens and backfills
can be stored. In addition, all relevant hydraulic
parameters like conductivity, transmissivity and
storativity as well as geophysical borehole explora-
tion logs can be managed. The bore log comprises
detailed information about stratigraphy, petrogra-
phy, condition, properties, jointing and cleavage.
With the help of its Module GW-Bore, GW-Base is
able to automatically plot and visualize this infor-
mation in bore log and well construction diagrams
(Fig. 2).
The complete system is installed in a multitier
server environment at the German K+S headquar-
ters in Kassel. From there all branch offices at the
318
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 318
Figure 2. Screenshot of a complex bore log and casing
diagram, visualized in GW-Bore, automatically created
with data stored in the GW-Base database.
different mining sites have access to GW-Base and
its comprehensive databases, to all customized
modules and to the bore log visualization tool
GW-Bore. The complete range of data acquired
by K+S consisting of geological data, bore log
and well construction data, geophysical logs, water
level, water quality and water quantity data, field
measurements and laboratory analysis as well as
hydrogeological parameters are managed, evalu-
ated and reported with this system.
2.2 Web-based environmental monitoring
and early warning system as a part of the
Wendlingen-Ulm high-speed railway project
The construction of the Albabstieg railway tunnel
is a parallel project to the Stuttgart21 project and
is part of the Wendlingen-Ulm high-speed railway,
a section of the StuttgartAugsburg project, an
extensive railway and urban development project
in Germany.
The Swabian Jura (Schwbische Alb) is a low
mountain range located in southern Germany
in the state of Baden-Wrttemberg. It consists
mostly of different layers of limestone formed in
the Jurassic period covered with Tertiary sediments
(Henningsen & Katzung 2006). Due to the complex
groundwater situation in the Swabian Jura region,
a spatially and temporally small-meshed water level
monitoring during railway tunnel construction
was required. To comply with these requirements
ribeka was assigned to develop a web based infor-
mation, monitoring and early warning system.
In the beginning of 2012, automatic SEBA
GPRS/GSM water level loggers were installed and
set into service in all designated monitoring station
along the Albabstieg railway tunnel track. Since
8/27/2014 6:00:46 PM
 then, the logged water levels are automatically
imported to ribekas water monitoring and manage-
ment system GW-Base as well as to a newly devel-
oped web application (Fig. 3). The web application
is based on ribekas web solution GW-Web which
was extended with necessary project specific func-
tionalities. Next to basic functionalities like map
display and basic station information, GW-Web
offers time series diagrams of water levels, water
analysis parameters and climate data, display of
bore log and station construction data as well as
a sophisticated document and user management.
Among the special and customized functionalities
are multiple geological cross sections which feature
a real-time water level display and the display of
the tunnel face advance (Fig. 4). A comprehensive
automatic warning system concerning water level
and analysis parameter thresholds ensures the pos-
sibility of timely reaction measures in case of any
incidence.
In consequence of the large scale groundwater
drawdown required for the tunnel construction and
Figure 3. GW-BaseGW-Web communication scheme.
Figure 4. Screenshot of GW-Web. Cross section of the
Albabstieg region with displayed monitoring stations,
water levels and the tunnel track.
319
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 319
the consequent groundwater reinfiltration tasks to
recharge the natural aquifer a comprehensive water
quality monitoring and a consistent reporting to
the responsible environmental authority and all
groundwater stakeholders is required. All Water
quality measurements as well as laboratory water
sample analysis are managed in GW-Base and
automatically uploaded to the web tool. In addi-
tion, periodic report documents and surveys are
published to the internet and are made available to
authorized stakeholders and charged authorities.
The complete system is installed on the cus-
tomers server infrastructure at their headquarters
in Munich and facilitating remote access from all
involved branch offices as well as from the tunnel
construction headquarters in Ulm (Fig. 4).
2.3 Groundwater monitoring for an open-cast
lignite mine in Elbistan, Turkey
The Cllolar open-case lignite mine is located in
the Afsin-Elbistan basin, northwest of the city of
Elbistan. The development of the Cllolar field
started in 2007, adjacent to pre-existing open-cast
lignite mines. In general, the Elbistan-Afsin basin
holds over 3 billion tons of lignite which is Turkeys
largest lignite resource (Hertling 2009).
To monitor the drainage concept and the subse-
quent requirements for the stability of the pit slope,
ribeka was commissioned to implement a ground-
water monitoring system to store and evaluate the
data deriving from the groundwater monitoring
stations and groundwater discharge wells around
the Cllolar field.
The mine operator is using discharge pumps
with a specific pump performance and correspond-
ing operating hour meters to calculate the actual
discharge. Ribeka introduced the Water monitor-
ing and management system GW-Base as well
Figure 5. View into the open cast mining area with the
two power plants Cllolar A and B.
8/27/2014 6:00:48 PM
 GW-Mobil, the GW-Base Module for handheld
PCs for field data acquisition. In both applica-
tions, specific extensions were developed, to enable
the system to automatically calculate the discharge
amounts out of pump performance and operating
hours and simultaneously perform appropriate
data quality and plausibility checks. In addition
to the water management the bore log plotting
module GW-Bore was installed. As a result, the
complete water and hydrogeology management,
consisting of water quantity and quality, logger
data and geological data can be managed, evalu-
ated and reported with the implemented system.
3 CONCLUSION
Increasing water demands for industry, mining,
agriculture and potable water are facing limiting
and competing factors such as availability, pollu-
tion, droughts and rising demand which affect water
resources, both in the rapidly growing urban areas
as well as in the industrial and mining regions.
Sustainable management of water resources is
a complex challenge and requires a comprehensive
knowledge about the actual state and the tempo-
ral changes in water quality, water quantity and
water dynamics. This is only feasible on basis of
320
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 320
comprehensive and valuable high-quality data.
However, this complex data can only be used as
a basis for future-oriented decision-making and
sustainable planning if the decision-makers have
access to appropriate interpretation and evalua-
tion software.
Ribeka presented three examples for implemen-
tations of user-friendly and complex monitoring
systems used for distinct groundwater monitoring
projects which were all developed and customized
on the basis of sophisticated standard applications
(GW-Base/GW-Web).
REFERENCES
Henningsen D. & Katzung G 2006, Einfhrung in die
Geologie Deutschlands. Heidelberg; Berlin: Spektrum
Akademischer Verlag.
Hertling H. 2009, Von der Lagerstttenmodellierung bis
zur Bergbauplanung: Ingenieurtechnische Betreuung
eines Greenfield Projektes fr den Neuaufschluss
eines Braunkohlentagebaues in der Vorbereitung und
whrend der Aufschlussphase. In Energie und Rohst-
offe 2009: 267280, Clausthal-Zellerfeld: Papierflieger
Verlag.
K+S Aktiengesellschaft 2013, Finanzbericht 2012. Kassel.
Regierungsprsidium Kassel, Abteilung Umwelt- und
Arbeitsschutz 2007. Pilotprojekt Werra Salzabwasser:
Endbericht. Bad Hersfeld.
8/27/2014 6:00:50 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Study on the development law of water flowing fractured zone

in extremely thick coal seam mining at oasis mining area

H.L. Liu
College of Geology and Mines Engineering, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China

H.F. Wang
College of Resources and Environmental Science, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China

D.S. Zhang, H.C. Zhao, Y. Wang & Y.L. Yang

College of Geology and Mines Engineering, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China

ABSTRACT: Yili District of Xinjiang is rich in coal and water and has become one of seven coal chemi-
cal industry bases in China. Yili mining area is the only oasis mining area of five large-scale coal mining
bases in Xinjiang. Aquifer-protection in coal mining is the most difficult problem which needs to be solved
for economic development in Yili district. Based on the situation of extremely thick coal seam at Yili min-
ing area, the features of structure and mechanics of overlying coal seam were analysed. Numerical models
were adopted to study the rupture rule of overlying rock, the development of mining fissure, and coupling
relationship between the structure of key stratum and impermeable layer. The results show that the area
nearby the cut-open and deadline is likely to become new fractures for water flowing when upper layer
strata mining. The key layer guarantees the stability for aquifuge which suppresses and weakens the role of
the internal fractures overlying key layer strata with the lower layer mining, new fractures zone ranges from
50 to 150 m next to the open-cut and within the scope of 25 m near by the stop line. Thus, the stability of
surrounding rock nearby the fractured zone plays an irreplaceable role in water-preserved mining.

1 INTRODUCTION the influences on terrestrial environment caused by

Black coal, as an irreplaceable energy in the
process of Chinas economic and social develop-
ment, plays a dominant role in primary energy
consumption (remained at around 70% in recent
years). The coal-dominated structure will always
to be unchanged in the next 50 years (Cui 2008).
Recently, with the westward movement of Chinas
energy strategy, the center of the national develop-
ment of mining industry and coal resource exploi-
tations has gradually shifted from the east to the
west, in particular the coal mining company.
Compared with the former coal mining in east
China, the notable characteristics of coal resources
occurrence in western coalfields includes:
1. The upper layer of coal seams is shallow;
2. Thick coal seams and simple geological
conditions;
3. Extremely advantageous conditions for using
advanced mining technology.
However, considering the fragile ecological envi-
ronment in surface of western China, it is clear that
underground mining of shallow coal seams will be
more and more sensitive and intense. Water flow-
ing fractured zone increasing during the mining
process easily extend to ground. Lots of serious
problems emerge including soil erosion, desertifi-
cation increased and et. These influence leads to
devastation damage to the fragile ecological envi-
ronment (Zhang 2013). Therefore, we do research
on the regular law of development of water flow-
ing fractured occurrence based on the typical mine
in terms of a wide range of western shallow seam,
the results will provide theoretical guidance for
reasonable support technology selected and the
surrounding rock stability mechanism in oasis
mining area.
2 GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
Abundant black coal resources have been found in
Xinjiang, the estimated resources reserves is about
2.19 trillion tons totally, accounting for 39.3% of
Chinas whole estimated reserves, ranking at the

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 first in the country (National 2012). The latest data ment and Reform Commission. Mining area
shows that the expected reserves of coal resources extend 118.5 square and the reserves resource is
distributed throughout Yili District which is becom- about 4.8 billion tons with its significant feature
ing one of seven coal chemical industry bases in as described previously. The experimental working
China is more than 0.6 trillion tons, accounting face of interest is W1501, firstly caved according
for 27.4% of Xinjiang. The typical occurrence the mining plan, which buried at 138 m in depth,
characteristics of coal seam in Yili district its hal- with inclination of 68, 7 on average.
low burial depth (the largest overburden depth is
120 m) and its thick of coal, (pure thick of coal bed
reaches to 66.98 m, the maximum single thickness 3 STRUCTURES CHARACTERISTICS AND
reaches 29.01 m). Besides, high industrial value and CLASSIFICATION OF UPPER STRATAS
varieties of species are also another two significant
features. Meanwhile, the Yili region is rich in water In order to analyze the lithology and mechanical
resources. It is famous for its attractive nature scen- properties of surrounding rock in roof and floor
ery so that the most regard it as one of the best areas of 1501 W working face, Yili mine, we got the
of ecological environment in Xinjiang, Beyond the samples form underground through combination
Great Wall Jiangnan is also a reputation for this technology such as drilling from the ground and
magical place, the only oasis mining area of five selecting rocks from underground. Then, detailed
large-scale coal mining bases in Xinjiang. test on mechanical properties was execute in the
For its abundant coal and water resources, Yili laboratory. Table 1 shows the test results of rock
area has become one of the seven coal chemical mechanical properties for coal seam No. 5.
industry base in China. According to the over- As shown in Table 1, the rock mechanical
all planning of development in terms of coal properties of coal seam No. 5 are relatively lower
resources, during Twelfth Five-Year Plan (setted than other samples including uniaxial compres-
by the Central Committee of Chinese Communist sive strength, tensile strength and shear strength,
Party), the production capacity of Xinjiangs black from which we can regard it as a typical soft rock
coal will increase from 140 to 420 million tons, and in engineering. We classify the upper stratas into
the production of Yili mining area will reach to different layers based on the effective played in
100 million tons of coal (Development 2012). With controlling of water-flowing fracture development
the advancement of the national industrializa- both at formation and synizesis of fracture. In fact,
tion process, there will be serious problems for the the 3 main layer has their own structure and char-
development of coal resources in Yili area with the acteristic, content measurement is as flows:
large-scale mining activities which will do harm for 1. Determine the target aquifer
the regional ecological environment. According to the geological prospecting report
Coal resources are mainly concentrated in valley, about Tuoweileke coal field proposed by
along with the Yili river. The coalfield is bounded
into southern, North and Nileke and ZHAOSU in
accordance with the orientation. A new round of
large-scale and large-scale high-intensity mining Table 1. The test results of rock mechanical properties
for coal seam No. 5.
for black coal can easily cause water infiltration
and loss, and will seriously affect on the stability Uniaxial
and safety of Yili River (international rivers). If compressive Tensile Shear
not solve the contradiction between large-scale Category of strength strength strength
mining and water conservation effectively, a series rock seam (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
of associated complex problems arise including
Oasis desertification, coal chemical industry limits Mudstone seam 11.00 1.10 2.20
and construction subject to international disputes Sandstone seam 15.20 1.40 4.90
with neighboring countries, in particular, water Mudstone seam 11.00 1.10 2.20
resources and the environment. Focusing on these Coal seam No. 3 5.20 0.50 1.80
problems as above, in this paper, we analyze the Siltstone seam 21.20 2.71 6.70
Water-flowing fracture development law of mining Fine sandstone seam 13.25 1.40 3.70
overlying strata based on the geological conditions Coal seam No. 4-1 5.96 0.57 1.70
Siltstone seam 16.00 1.83 3.80
in Yili mine, Xinwen Group Corporation Limited.
Coal seam No. 4-2 6.50 0.65 1.80
Yili mine whose annual production capacity
Siltstone interbedded 9.60 1.20 3.10
exceed 10 million tons is located in Chabuchaer with fine sandstone
Xibe Autonomous County, Yili Autonomous Coal seam No. 5 8.80 0.30 1.55
Prefecture in Xinjiang, the first and largest mod- Mudstone seam 10.06 0.70 3.05
ernization mine approved by National Develop-

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Figure 1. Histogram in working panel 1501 W.
No. 1 institute of geology and mineral resource
of Shandong province and the exploration
results by hydrogeological hole (Gao 2006), the
Gravel and Sandstone nearby the upper strata
paly a controlling role as a main aquifer in
which the water recharge boundary is piedmont
subcrop line in southern coal. Thus, we finally
explore that the overlying gravel layer and the
sandstone layer are the determined aquifer in
this research.
2. Determine the key stratum
Based on the definition and criterion of key
stratum (Qian 2010), we hold the view that there
are two different layers as the key stratum after
compared with the structure and mechanical
properties of upper strata in 1501 W working
panel. Finally, we regard the siltstone (6.75 m
in thickness) and Fine-grained sandstone (silt-
stone) as main key stratum and second key stra-
tum respectively.
323
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 323
3. Impermeable stratigraphic division of aquitard
Considering the physical properties under the
influence of water form Figure 1, there are 3 kind
of aquitard to prevent water movement freely.
The first layer consist of mudstone (6.09 m in
thickness), sandstone (6.45 m in thickness) and
another mudstone (4.36 m in thickness); The
second layer is fine-grained sandstone with
thickness of 6.09 m; The third one is made up
of 4-1, 4-2 coal seam and 6.0 m sandstone seam,
which can be seen form Figure 1.
4 NUMERICAL MODELING
In order to analyze the deformation rules and the
process of the propagation of cracks in 1501 W
working panel, this study is based upon the numer-
ical calculation software (UDEC, produced by
Itasca Co., Ltd.,) to set the model by using simpli-
fied analysis methods to tackle with the complex
relationship between the geological condition and
the basic requirement of the model. Based on the
similarity principle and nonlinear finite element
method, Optimization technique was put forward
to find the reasonable parameter in terms of the
thickness of coal seam No. 5 and the mechanical
parameters got from the Lab. Finally, we chose the
height of the numerical model is 160 m, and the
width is 350 m. Select the Mohr-Coulomb Crite-
rion as the failure criterion:
1 + sin 1 + sin
1 3 + 2c (1)
1 sin 1 sin
where 1 is the maximum principal stress; and the
3 is minimum principal stress; c is cohesion; is
the internal friction; and then select the plane strain
model which is restricted by two sides in the hori-
zontal axis, and the lower boundary is restricted
by both the horizontal and vertical axis. Use the
natural collapse to management roof (Li 2011).
To ensure the numerical analysis model be closer
to reality production and geological conditions,
facilitate the analysis the coupling relationship
between key layer and aquifuge. Divide the block
dimension of key layer of upper strata into 12.0 m
(length) 7.5 m (height). The block dimension of
sub-key layer is 12.0 m (length) 7.5 m (height)
based on the field measurement about initial and
periodic breaking distance. Figure 2 shows the
numerical model setted by UDEC.
Considering the occurrence characteristics
of coal seam No. 5 and the condition of work-
ing panel, we simulated the caving model step by
step, and divided the two layers in to 9.0 m. In
order to explore the fracture extend law of lower
8/27/2014 6:00:50 PM
 Figure 2. Discrete numerical model.
strata influenced by the dynamic stress, we chose
the advance distance of working face is 270 m
and each excavation distance is 10 m in numerical
analyze.
5 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS MODEL
During excavation of coal seam No. 5, analyze
overlying strata fracture formation and extension
features of both upper and lower layered working
panel when the distance to open-off cut is 50 m,
100 m, 150 m, 200 m, 250 m and 270 m, respec-
tively. Figure 3(ae) and Figure 4(ae) show the
overlying strata fracture development situations of
both upper and lower layered coal seam.
5.1 Overlying strata fracture development law
of upper layered coal seam
During coal seam No. 5 upper layered seam recov-
ery, it could be seen from Figure 3(a) and (b) that
when working panel moved forward 50 m, main
roof of coal seam No. 5 emerged breakage and
caving, while bottom composite water-resisting
layer 3 emerged partly breakage and development
law of overlying strata was main horizontal and
vertical fractures induced by main roof breaking.
When working panel moved forward 100 m, key
strata of coal seam No. 5 was broken and overly-
ing strata fractures were main horizontal fractures
except for gravel layer vertical fractures develop-
ment near surface. As thickness of the composite
water-resisting layer 1 was large, vertical fractures
in this layer would be weakened. Meanwhile, as
the existence of water-resisting layer 2, including
a large number of hydrophilic mineral and becom-
ing muddy when encountering water, water-lowing
fractures cannot emerge.
As shown in Figure 3 (c) and (d), main roof of
coal seam No. 5 has been through periodic break-
age for many times with numerous horizontal and
vertical fractures development. Because of the
breakage of main roof in front of working panel
coal wall, vertical fractures above coal wall were
324
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 324
Figure 3. Overlying strata fractures distribution dia-
gram of upper layer mining.
developed relatively. With advancing of working
panel, fractures of coal seam No. 5 overlying strata
gradually closed except for those within 50 m hori-
zontal distance from working panel open-off cut.
Subsidence had reached full mining when work-
ing panel moved forward 200 m and overlying
strata fractures above coal wall gradually moved
forward along with working panel advance. Fol-
lowing advance of working panel, main roof was
with periodic breakage and goaf was gradually
compacted. And horizontal and vertical fractures
in main roof developed persistently while horizon-
tal and vertical fractures in goaf overlying strata
gradually closed.
When the distance from working panel to open-
off cut was between 250 m and 270 m, the frac-
ture evaluation was almost the same with that
when working panel moved forward from 150 m to
200 m. And it was with no more recovery process-
ing when working panel moved to 270 m far away
in the simulation model. Hence, after mining activ-
ity, vertical fractures of the coal wall overlying
strata still existed, and distribution situation were
shown in Figure 3 (d) and (e).
8/27/2014 6:00:52 PM

Figure 4. Overlying strata fractures distribution dia-
gram of lower layer mining.
Through analyses of fractures development law
during upper layered recovery, it can be seen that
overlying strata fractures still existed both at dis-
tance within 50 m from open-off cut and at work-
ing panel stopping line. These two places were the
areas that may emerge water-flowing fractures.
5.2 Overlying strata fractures development law
of lower layer mining
Figure 4(ae) shows overlying fractures develop-
ment in lower layer recovery. During recovery of
coal seam No. 5, the main roof emerged secondary
breakage on the basis of upper layer recovery as it
had already emerged fractures and the horizontal
and vertical fractures both developed largely.
As shown in Figure 4(a) and (b), overlying strata
had intense influence by mining activity within
70 m from open-off cut. Although, composite
water-resisting layer 1 had some extent control
function to overlying strata fracture development,
vertical and horizontal fractures in this area still
extended apparently. When working panel moved
to 100 m, goaf overlying strata presented overall
325
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 325
tendency of mobilization which leaded to strong
subsidence of surface. During overall mobilization
of overlying strata, horizontal fractures increased
significantly while vertical fractures extended not
obviously.
When working panel moved to 150 m distance,
surface subsidence had reached full mining as
shown in Figure 4 (c) and (d) and horizontal and
vertical fractures within 25 m before and after
working panel developed largely. Fractures in the
three water-resisting layers also developed appar-
ently, thus leading to formation of the water-
flowing fracture before and after working panel
within 25 m. When working panel reached 200 m
from open-off cut area, overlying strata fractures
at before and after working panel closed gradually.
At the distance of 150 m to the open-off cut, over-
lying fracture still existed and this type fracture
had water-flowing function.
When working panel moved 250 m and 270 m to
open-off cut, overlying fractures continuously gen-
erated and closed as show in Figure 4(e) and (f). As
the stoppage of working panel, overlying fractures
no longer closed before and after stopping line
within 25 m and at the distance 150 m to open-off
cut. These fractures which belong to water-flowing
fractures can form water-flowing channel easily.
5.3 Coupling relationship of key strata
and water-resisting layer
Through numerical simulation of the upper and
lower layer of coal seam No. 5, key strata and
secondary-key strata had apparent control func-
tion to overlying fracture development and surface
subsidence. Water-resisting layer was not obvious
before breakage of key strata, while after break-
age of key strata, horizontal and vertical fractures
extended rapidly which meant existence of key
strata had vital function to protect water-resisting
layer.
With alternate occurrence of key strata and
secondary-key strata in coal seam No. 5, water-
resisting layer eased and weakened overlying strata
fracture development when key strata was broken
as the water-resisting layer was with low strength.
Water-resisting layer weakened key strata fracture
development obviously during upper layer recovery
while weakening effect significantly reduced dur-
ing lower layer recovery as this layer had intense
mining influence.
6 CONCLUSIONS
1. With the caving of upper layer strata in coal
seam No. 5, the fractures in surrounding rock
experienced a sharply rising under the whole
8/27/2014 6:00:53 PM
 process. However, the fractures will be clogging
when the key layer and upper strata sink and
break. The area near by the cut-open (approxi-
mately 50 m) is likely to become new fractures
for water flowing, and it also will not exist until
the deadline of the caving work.
2. The range of the fractures emerging in upper
strata increased significantly while the second-
ary breaking of key layer which play an control
action for underground take place. The area
belongs to the water flowing fractured zone
range from 50 to 150 m next to the open-cut and
within the scope of 25 m near by the stop line.
3. The key layer plays an irreplaceable role in the
protection of the stability for aquifuge which
suppress and weaken the role of the internal
fractures overlying key layer strata. When the
next slicing, the role of aquifuge is significantly
reduced for the strong impact by underground
mining.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We acknowledge the financial support for this work
provided by the Research projects of Autonomous
region Universities (No. XJEDU2012S09), the
Open Projects of State Key Laboratory of Coal
Resources and Safe Mining, CUMT (No. 11KF01),
the Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang
uygur autonomous region (No. 2013211B08) and
the National Innovation Training Program of
University student (No. 201310755018).
326
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 326
REFERENCES
Cui, X.M. 2008. Development Report of China Energy.
Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press.
Development and the reform committee of Xinjiang
uygur autonomous region. (2014, March 15). The
twelfth Five-Year plan development of Xinjiang coal
industry. Retrieved June 27, 2012, from http://www.
xjdrc.gov.cn/content.jsp?urltype=news.NewsContent
Url&wbtreeid=11309&wbnewsid=206412.
Gao, M.B. 2006. Exploration Report of Tuoweileke Coal-
fields in Chabuchaer County of Xinjiang. Shandong:
Shandong geology and minerals bureau.
Li Z.J. 2011. Study on shallow coal seam mining overbur-
den strata movement and water disaster evaluation in
the condition of semi-cementation and low strength
surrounding rocks. PhD thesis: Shandong University
of Science and Technology.
National development and the reform committee. (2014,
March 15). The Twelfth Five-Year plan develop-
ment of coal industry. Retrieved March 22, 2012,
from http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbghwb/201203/
t20120322_585489.html.
Qian M.G. & Shi P.W. & Xu J.L. 2010. Underground
pressure and rock stratum control. Xuzhou: China
University of Mining Technology Press.
Zhang, D.S. & Liu, H.L. 2013. Prospects for the Con-
notation and Application Research of Aquifer-protec-
tion Mining on Yili Mining Area of Xinjiang. Journal
of Xinjiang University (Natural Science Edition)
30(1):1318.
8/27/2014 6:00:54 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Modeling the Lean Limitation Criteria as a key factor for making

a decision about abandoned mines in Iran

S.P. Mirmoini, M. Osanloo & M. Rahmanpour

Mining and Metallurgical Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: The characteristic of future mining is an essential struggle of todays world which is
formed of three divisions (lean mining, green mining and giant mining) with innate affiliation to each
other. Because the mineral products are one of the major needs for todays living, we suppose to concen-
trate on lean mining as a new challenge to maximize mineral exploitation at the first blush and green min-
ing to minimize environment damages which have been reported in abandoned mines at the second blush,
giant mining will be realized by accretion of other division. This study attempts to disclose the importance
of lean mining by defining the Lean Limitation Criteria (LLC) which is related to grade, thickness, and
depth factors. The LLC level indicates the potential of activation or abandoning and reclaiming the mine
site. Data collected from 2209 Irans abandoned mines in order to achieve a Theoretical Index (TI) that
reflects the legitimate probability for reactivation or reclamation of mine. Results of the modeling illus-
trate that LLC value for inactive mines is less than 2 and for active mines is more than 2.

1 INTRODUCTION the world to run out of high grade minerals that

The origin of lean principle is introduced by
Toyota production system (Dunstan et al., 2006;
Womack & Jones, 1996; Andi et al., 2009). The dif-
ferences and resemblances of automotive industry
and mining industry have been illustrated that lean
production concept is applicable to mining opera-
tions. Lean principle wastes have been identified
(Klippel et al., 2006) by applying lean management
to a fluorite mine in Brazil. Lean concept has been
applied to operations like standby drillers team,
sharpening bits, increasing quantity and quality of
tools and conducting necessary training reduced
useless operations significantly. As a Consequence
of the elimination of the wastes, productivity was
increased and mining costs were decreased impres-
sively (Andi et al., 2009; Klipper et al., 2009).
The mineral consumption per capita in devel-
oped countries is more than 1700 tons and the
population of the world has been forecasted to be
about 8.3 billion in 2030. This prediction estimated
that mineral consumption in 2030 will be 27% more
than 2006 (Osanloo, 2011). If the foresaid num-
bers are considered to remain constant, the min-
eral consumption will have reached 3600 billion
tons by 2030. Therefore worlds mineral demand
in 2030 lead to exploitation of 12.5 billion tons of
ore from deep mines (Osanloo, 2011). More con-
sumption must be supported by more production
but the increase of mineral production has caused
are located near the surface. It is foreseeable that
mining activities will be concentrated on extrac-
tion of underground deposits, with low grade and
narrow thickness which are located in depth. In
this study these condition of ore deposit is named
lean deposit and mining of this deposit is called
lean mining.
In this study Irans abandoned mines especially
premature ones were studied with concentration
on characteristics of lean-ore deposits. The Lean
Limitation Criteria (LLC) is designed to maximize
mineral production as well as minimizing the envi-
ronmental damages. Statistical data from active
and inactive Zn-Pb mines in Yazd province in cen-
tral of Iran are used as case studies.
2 LEAN-ORE DEPOSITS
Ore deposits formed in veins, layers or masses of
low grade minerals with sparse thickness which
located in depth are named lean-ore deposits.
Lean-ore mining characteristics are: a) higher
stripping ratio and removal of waste material,
b) producing large volume of tailing in mineral
processing stage, c) higher depth of mining opera-
tion, consequently higher risk of operation, d) the
distance of transportation of the mined material is
lengthy, e) more lands are disturbed, h) the recla-
mation cost is high.

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 3 MODELING
Logical values which obtained from the relation
of grade, thickness and depth, define the mineral
exploitation potential. The Lean Limitation Cri-
teria (LLC) is introduced to indicate the grade,
thickness and depth of ore body. LLC will theo-
retically and practically help decision makers to
implement a sustainable operation method. The
relationship between LLC and its parameters are
defined as follow:
G T
LLC
D grade cause the decreasing of LLC.
where: G is the Lean-ore average grade (%), T is
the Lean-ore thickness (m) and D is the Depth of
lean-ore deposit (m).
In order to change the relation to an equation
the lean factor (Lf) is applied. This index considers
the conditions of the mines and prices fluctuation
which has effect on LLC value, so the following
equation developed to calculate LLC.
G T
LLC = L f
D ers which are located in depth are categorized as
The results of sensitivity analysis of the LLC
equation with regard to grade, thickness and depth
variations are shown in Figure 1.
According to Figure 1, positive variation of
grade and thickness lead to positive LLC variation.
The impacts of grade and thickness are almost the
same and have important role on estimation of
LLC value. Positive depth variation along with
negative LLC variation is remarkable and also the
interrelation of parameters and the influence on
LLC calculation must be considered. The param-
eters that influence the value of LLC with regard
to mining operation are.
3.1 Lean-ore average grade
The grade of mineral deposits is decreased by
the development of mining operation; it means
lean-ore mining must be considered. According
to historical data the average grade of copper has
decreased since 1730 and its predicted that it will
reach to less than 0.15% in 2030 (Fig. 2) (Osanloo,
2011). According to Figure 1 decreasing in ore
(1)
It can be seen from Table 1 that some mines in
Kerman province of Iran are continuing their pro-
duction in different ores with low grade compared
to abandoned mines (inactive mines of region), so
it is expected that lean mining can be a solution to
prevent premature mine closure of lean deposit in
that province.
3.2 Lean-ore thickness
(2) By decreasing cut-off grade, narrow veins and lay-
minable resources. The thickness reduction trend
of mining operation is shown in Figure 3 and
decreasing in ore thickness causes the decreasing
of LLC.

Figure 2. Copper average grade reduction (Osanloo,

2011).

Table 1. Grade of Kerman province mines.

Type of Condition Grade

Name mineral of mine (%)

Deh Siahan Lead and Zinc Inactive 1.57

Gojahr Lead and Zinc Active 2.3
Markesh Copper Inactive 0.3
Dareh Aloo Copper Active 0.5
Meydook Copper Active 0.84
Figure 1. Results of the LLC sensitivity analysis.

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Figure 3. Ore thickness reduction of mining operation
[19632013] (from Department of Industry, mine and
trade database of Yazd province, 2010).
lean-ore deposits, mining scales and ultimate des-
ignations must be reformed.
Transportation of wastes and minerals from
depth to surface causes an increase in number
of loading and hauling machines in order to
approach stable production. This is the time for
giant mines with revised dispatching system and
automation with a human touch [Jidoka] (Andi
et al., 2009).
3.4 Lean factor
Lean factor (equation 3) is described as a coef-
ficient to reduce error in LLC estimation which
affiliate to reactivation or reclamation of mines.

Lf ( AOI )n e MPG (3)

where: AOI is a point that indicates situation of

active or inactive mine, MPG is the minerals price
growth (100%), n describes the activity condition of
mine (+1 for active mine and 1 for inactive mine).

3.4.1 Active Or Inactive (AOI)

In this study mines are classified as inactive and
active mines. The collected data from Irans mines
show that 2209 of 7600 Iran mines are abandoned
Figure 4. Accretion of mining operation depth
(inactive) for different reasons (NGDIR, 2013).
[19302030].
Table 2 summarized closure proofs of 1000 Iran
abandoned mines up to year 2014.

3.3 Lean-ore depth

Table 2. Percentage of abandoned mines of Iran based
With the increased volume of mine production the up on closure reasons.
world encounters a depletion of high-grade depos-
its located near the surface and mining opera- Sustainable category Closure reasons %
tion for low grade deposits is continued in depth
(Fig. 4). By increasing the depth of operation the Economic Lack of market 33
stripping ratio increases. Insufficient investment 13.8
The depth of open-pit mining by 2030 will have Decreasing of price 22.5
reached to 1.5 km and the future depth for under- Efficiency and Exploration faults 12.5
ground mining will have reached to 4.5 km. Depth technical
factor as one of the important characteristics of Environmental and Official bureaucracy 8.2
community Licensing problems 10
lean-ore deposit has an essential role in evaluation
of mining methods. Along with this parameter Total 100
overall stripping ratio and stripped waste volume
is increased. Predictions show that 25 billion tons
of wastes must be removed for production of Table 3. MPG values for some metals
50 million tons of base metals in 2030 (Osanloo, [19942013] (http://www.indexmundi.
2011), which certify that the overall stripping ratio com/commodities/, 2013).
and stripped waste are increasing. Grade and thick-
ness as two main parameters of Lean Limitation Metal MPG (100%)
Criteria (LLC) are not within miners jurisdiction
Pb 3.9
because geological conditions and metallogenic
Ni 2.4
potential affects these parameters. Depth factor Cu 3.2
is increased with the development of mining and Zn 1.9
related technologies. According to Figure 1 by Sn 4.1
increasing the depth the LLC will decrease. For

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 Figure 5. Prices fluctuation of lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) and Tin (Sn) (http://www.indexmundi.
com/commodities/, 2013).

Base on Table 2, 33% of mines are closed for lack Table 4. AOI values for active and inactive mines.
of market, 22.5% for decreasing of price, 8.2% for
official bureaucracy, 10% for licensing problems, n AOI Active or Inactive reason
13.8% for insufficient investment and 12.5% for
1 12.5 Exploration faults
exploration faults. One of the reasons for prema- 8.2 Official bureaucracy
ture closure of mines is exploration faults. Gath-
13.8 Insufficient investment
ered data from abandoned mines shown that lack
10 Licensing problems
of awareness about the real potential of deposits
is a result of insufficient budget allocation. These 22.5 Decreasing price
results are considered to rate AOI for a specific 33 Lack of market
mine site. 1 33 Sufficient market
22.5 Increasing price
3.4.2 Mineral Price Growth (MPG) 13.8 Sufficient investment
Price fluctuation has direct effect on Lean Limi- 8.2 Solution of official bureaucracy
tation Criteria (LLC). The positive mineral 12.5 Sufficient exploration studies
price growth increases LLC and negative growth 10 Solution of licensing problems
decreases LLC value. In order to achieve LLC
values an exponential function is used for MPG.
MPG values for Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni and Sn from 1994
until 2013 are shown in Table 3. Negative MPG 4 CASE STUDY
is an issue which threats mines future. Mineral
price fluctuation should be predicted in order to The great percent of the mine closure in Iran
improve investigation reliability in this industry. occurred in the mines premature stage. Considering
Figure 5 shows the price fluctuation of mentioned grade reduction along with mine depth as two
metals. essential properties of lean-ore deposits, many
of abandoned mines can be reactivated by price
3.4.3 Condition index (n) growth and mining methods revision. Collected
Condition index is shown by n, describes a mine data from Iran ministry of industry, mine and trade
is active or inactive, if n = +1 it means the mine is and related departments show that the number
active and if n = 1 the mine is inactive. The effect of abandoned mines from 2007 until 2013 has
of AOI in equation 3 depends upon the mines increased 1.6 times. Table 5 illustrates that 50.46%
condition index. The AOI rating is obtained of these mines are building materials, 4.24% are
from dissipation percentage of closure causes of metal mines and 21.18% are dimensional stone,
1000 Irans abandoned mines which are shown in also industrial minerals shared 24.12% of closure
Table 2. AOI values for active and inactive mines mines (NGDIR, 2013; Mansouri et al., 2013;
are shown in Table 4. Gheisari, 2013).

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 Table 5. Irans abandoned mines in year 2007 and 2013 (NGDIR, 2013).

Group Dissipation Number Dissipation Number Increase Decrease

percent (%) (2007) percent (%) (2013) (%) (%)

G1 20.97 285 50.46 1114 290.87

G2 12.8 174 4.24 94 45.97
G3 22.52 306 24.12 533 74.18
G4 43.71 594 21.18 468 21.21
Total 100 1359 100 2209 41.69

4.1 Target ore: Zn-Pb

Low dissipation of metal abandoned mines
(Table 5) has made the authors to consider metal
ores as the main target of this study. Iran is one
of the greatest producers of Zn-Pb in Middle
East and one of 25 leading countries with notice-
able Zn-Pb resources. Four Zn-Pb mines of Yazd
province have been studied to determine LLC. The
environmental and social factors affecting these
four mines are the same.

4.2 LLC calculation for Zn-Pb mines

Yazd province has 131575 Km2 area and is located
in the center of Iran with 677 Km distance from
Tehran. The collected data illustrates that 43% of
Yazd abandoned mines are dimensional stone quar-
ries, 41% are industrial materials, 13% are metal
mines and 3% are building materials. Four Zn-Pb
mines of Yazd with different activity conditions have
been studied. The identical geological situation and
similarity of ores are preferred for the selected mines;
Figure 6 shows geographical location of the selected
mines. Considering activity conditions of Gijarkooh,
Dareh zanjir, Kooshk and Tajkooh mines, condition
index have been obtained for them. Condition index
of Gijarkooh and Dareh zanjir mines that are active
is +1. Condition index of Kooshk mine is 1 because
this mine has been abandoned after depletion of
mineral resources. Tajkoohs mine condition index Figure 6. Geographical location of selected mines
is 1 because this mine has been abandoned since (Lead-Zinc mines in Yazd).
1963 and is inactive at the time of study (2014) (from
Department of Industry, mine and trade database of
Yazd province, 2010).
In order to calculate LLC we apply the follow- 12 6 ( 23)+1 e 2.5
ing equation: CDarezangir =
LLC = 67.25
300
G T ( AOI )n e MPG 8 15 ( 23)1 e 2.5
Ci =
LLC (4) Ckooshk =
LLC = 0.37
D 170
Based up on equation 4 the LLC of four men- 7 4 (10 )1 e 2.5
tioned Zn-Pb mines are: CTaajkooh =
LLC = 0.20
170
18.38 4 ( 23)+1 e 2.5 The essential parameters of the selected
CGijarkooh =
LLC = 257.50
80 mines for evaluating LLC are shown in Table 6.

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 Table 6. Essential parameters of the selected mines (from Department of Industry, mine and trade database of
Yazd province, 2010).

Mines name Mineral n AOI MPG D (m) G (%) T (m) LLC

Gijarkooh Zn-Pb +1 23 2.5 80 18.38 4 257.50

Darezangir Zn-Pb +1 23 2.5 300 12 6 67.25
Kooshk Zn-Pb 1 23 2.5 170 8 15 0.37
Tajkooh Zn-Pb 1 10 2.5 170 7 4 0.2

tion Criteria is evaluated for the selected mines in

Figure 7. Zn-Pb LLC cycle.
LLC values of selected mines are ranked from top
to down 257.50, 67.25, 0.37 and 0.20.
Zn-Pb LLC cycle is shown in Figure 7. In this
figure, mine age is considered clockwise and activ-
ity condition for each mine is classified from one
sector to the other one that is obviously affected
LLC values. It can be seen that Gijarkooh mine
that has been actived from 1963 until 2013 gained
the greatest LLC value while Tajkooh Zn-Pb mine
which has been abandoned in this period gained the
least value for LLC. The other two mines that were
inactive for some interval gained values between
Gijarkooh (upper limit) and Tajkooh (lower limit)
LLC values. Figure 7 shows that if four mines with
different activity condition are considered, the
maximum value for LLC is always between two
active sectors and lowest value for LLC is between
two inactive ones.
5 DISCUSSION
Up to year 2014, 2209 abandoned mines have been
identified in Iran and AOI rating has been done
according to different closure causes. Lean Limita-
order to approach practical interval for lean mining.
Grade, thickness and depth parameters of
the mines are considered and Tajkooh mine with
LLC = 0.20 is introduced as the lowest value of
LLC for selected mines. According to the calcula-
tion, LLC values for inactive mine is always less
than 2 and for active mine is more than 2. The LLC
for Tajkooh and Gojahr in different activity condi-
tions is calculated as well (Table 7). With regard to
Figure 7, if condition index for Tajkooh is assumed
to be +1 the LLC value certifies that this mine has
potential for reactivation and if condition index
for Gojahr mine is assumed to be 1 the obtained
value for LLC shows that the mine must be closed
and designed for reclamation plans.
AHP is a powerful tool for mining method selec-
tion in case of lean-ore deposits. In this paper four
mining methods are suggested for lean-ore deposits.
Hierarchy diagram of lean-ore extraction as a target
is shown in Figure 8. Because of flexibility of block
caving for extraction of low grade mineral with low
mining cost and high production rate, this method
is suggested as the best method for lean mining, also
long wall is another alternative that is applicable for
narrow veins and layers located in depth.
Open-pit mining with a revised transportation
and leaching can be useful for lean-ore deposit.
High costs of lean mining can be compensated by
applying lean management which has increased
productivity.
6 CONCLUSION
In this study Grade, thickness and depth of ore
deposit have been considered as main parameters
for lean mining, then the conditions of 2209 Irans
abandoned mines are studied and the main closure
causes are highlighted. A Lean Limitation Criteria
(LLC) is introduced to indicate the grade, thick-
ness and depth of ore body. Then its value for
some selected mines of Yazd province are calcu-
lated. The results of study show that:
1. 33% of closure reasons are for lack of market,
22.5% for decreasing price, 8.2% for official

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 Table 7. Different activity condition of Tajkooh and Gojahr mines.

Mines name Mineral n AOI MPG D (m) G (%) T (m) LLC

Gojahr Zn-Pb +1 8.2 2.5 300 2.3 6 4.60

Gojahr Zn-Pb 1 8.2 2.5 300 2.3 6 0.07
Tajkooh Zn-Pb +1 10 2.5 170 7 4 20.07
Tajkooh Zn-Pb 1 10 2.5 170 7 4 0.20

Figure 8. Hierarchy diagram of lean-ore mining.

bureaucracy, 13.8% for insufficient investment
and 12.5% for insufficient exploration studies.
2. The LLC values calculated for selected mines
show that Tajkooh with LLC = 0.20 is bottom
line value. The results show that LLC value for
inactive mines is always below 2 and for active
mines is more than 2.
3. Suitable mining methods considered by AHP
are: (1) Block caving, (2) long wall, (3) modified
Open-pit methods and (4) leaching, which ful-
filled lean mining in exploitation of low grade
ore from depth with sparse thickness.
REFERENCES
Andi, R., Wijaya R. & Kumar, U. 2009. International
Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selec-
tion. Banff, Canada, Implementing Lean Principle into
Mining Industry Issues and Challenges.
Department of Industry, mine and trade database of Yazd
province. 2010. Dareh zanjir, Tajkooh, Gijarkooh &
Kooshk mines reports.
Dunstan, K., Lavin, B. & Stanford R. 2006. International
Mine Management Conference, Melbourne, Vic,
1618 October, The Application of Lean Manufactur-
ing in a Mining Environment: 145157.
Gheisari, N., Osanloo, M. & Esfahanipour, A. 2013.
Proceeding of 22nd MPES conference, Dresden-
Germany, 14th19th October, Closure Risk Assess-
ment in Atashkooh Stone Quarry Using Risk Matrix:
14281436. Drebenstedt: Dinghal-Raj.
Klippel, A.F., Petter, C.O. & Antunes Jr. 2006. University
of Rio dos Sinos, Lean Management Implementation
in Mining Industries: 8189. Brazil: Dyno-Ano.
Mansouri, M., Osanloo, M. & Gheisari, N. 2013.
Proceeding of 22nd MPES conference, Dresden-
Germany 14th19th October, Establishing a Sus-
tainable Model to Reduce the Risk of Mine Closure:
791802. Drebenstedt: Dinghal-Raj.
Minerals prices are available at http://www.indexmundi.
com/commodities/.
NGDIR (National Geosciences Database of Iran), Irans
Abandoned Mines Database. 2013. http://www.ngdir.
ir/SiteLinks/Abandoned_mines/.
Osanloo, M. 2011. 23rd Annual General Meeting of Min-
ing Professor. Wroclaw, Poland, Future Challenges in
Mining Division, are we ready for these challenges? Do
we have solid educational program?
Womack, J.P. & Jones, D.T. 1996. Lean thinking: banish
waste and create wealth in your corporation: New York:
Simon & Schuster.

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

The method of delineation of methane release zonation

on grounds of rock fabric

R. Khojayev, R. Gabaidullin, T. Khojayev & E. Khojayev

GeoMark Research and Engineering LLC, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The studies in the field of outburst prevention and forecasting are outlined in the article.
As a result of the studies it was specified that desorption kinetics of methane from coals of different con-
ditions of ground characterizes the geodynamic condition of a coal bed. It is known that the methane des-
orption kinetics, more specifically outgassing rate, depends on condition of ground to a large extent. The
latter is, in its turn, stipulated by the effect of tectonic forces which cause mechanical destruction of coal
accompanied by formation of significant amounts of fine fraction. Consequently, knowledge of kinetics
of desorption processes of coal is one of the components of identification of a sheet deposit fault zone.
The present methodology is based on the theoretical studies of outgassing of a coal mass with respect to
size composing that mass and specifying its condition of ground.

Outburst hazard of coal layers are characterized
by a number of specific signs. Among which the
most representative experts note: mining geological
conditionsa depth, layer power, quantity of coal
packs and strength of the least weak packs, struc-
ture of containing rocks of layer and soil and their
physical and mechanical properties; physical and
mechanical properties of coal packs of layer, con-
dition of ground especially in zones of geological
faults of various character; number of gas-methane
which has accumulated in a free and sorbed state
in local zones of coal layer, pressure of gas and gas
emission speed from coal when dumping pressure.
Quantitative or quality indicators of signs on
the first two groups will be determined by pros-
pecting wells. Initial speed of gas recovery, settle-
ment and measured pressure of gas in coal layer
are defined in compliance on instruction require-
ments in the course of performance of special blow
out actions when carrying out developments on
outburst prone layer.
However, these quantitative indicators of signs
can characterize degree of an outburst hazard of
coal layer only near a road head. Regular process-
ing of this information for the purpose of allocation
of a linear or spatial trend can be to some extent
used for forecasting the outburst hazard of zones
in the directions of carrying out developments.
When forming programs of mining operations
and for increase of efficiency of decontamination
on the outburst prone layers it is necessary to have
in advance at least settlement quantitative indi-
cators of gas-dynamic activity of separate sites
of layer. In total with other data of signs, these
settlement indicators will promote improvement of
quality of the forecast of an outburst hazard.
It is known that the kinetics of desorption of
methane, namely gas emission speed, in many
respects depends on degree of a fracturing of coal.
The last, in turn, is caused by influence of tec-
tonic forces owing to which action coal is exposed
to mechanical destruction with formation of a
significant number of the fine powder fractions.
Therefore, the knowledge of kinetics of stripping
processes of coal is one of components of recogni-
tion of zones of tectonic faults of layer, including
it is possible and in the form of sharp change of
power of layer.
The method is based on theoretical researches of
gas emission from coal weight taking into account
the sizes of the fractions composing this weight
and characterizing degree of fault of layer of coal.
The coal massif of layer from the point of view
of the theory of filtration currents of gases repre-
sents the jointed and porous environment in which
generally the chaotic system of cracks breaks the
massif into separate blocks. In similar environ-
ments the speed of filtration movement of gases or
liquids is subject to Darcy law:
V = (k/) grad P (1)
where kpermeability of the environment, m2/s;
kinematic viscosity; grad Pchange of pressure
of gas in the direction of a vector of speed to V.
Use of this ratio in practical calculations of gas
emission from coal filtration streams encounters
need of calculation of values of permeability and

335

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 335 8/27/2014 6:01:04 PM

 pressure in the points of environment, determined
by a method of the numerical decision. Besides, the
mass consumption of gas (m3/s) which is the main
indicator of gas recovery, is defined by a ratio:
q = / (2)
in which dimensionless size , characterizing the
jointed and porous environment, is connected with
a specific surface of cracks and with permeability,
that is rather difficult for definition in any part of
coal layer.
Taking into account the stated difficulties, in
this technique the model of the environment put
from sphere like fractions of various diameters
is accepted. Confirmation and justification of
acceptance of such model are experimental stud-
ies of gas emission from coals of various degree
of fault, conducted in the Skochinsky Institute
of Mining. Results of these experiments showed
that gas emission process on such model is well
described by the diffusion equation from a uni-
form spherical body:
dc/dt = D (d2c/dt2 + (2/r) (dc/dr)) (3)
where r = coordinate in the direction of radius, cm;
c = concentration of being adsorbed gas, g/cm3;
t = time, s; D = coefficient of diffusion, cm2/s.
Absolute value of coefficient of diffusion of D
is changed with change of pressure, and for coals
of the broken structure makes from 0,6 104 cm2/s
to 66 104 cm2/s. More precisely, the coefficient
of diffusion D depends not only on pressure, but
also on permeability of coal (for coal layers of the
Karaganda basin not unloaded from mountain
pressure 0,060.25 mD), on system of cracks, etc.
Computing formulas for definition of dynamics
of gas emission and gas pressure in a collector (it is
understood as some volume of the coal layer consist-
ing of coal with changed structural properties), given
further, are based on the solution of the differential
equation (3) and on a certain set of basic data.
The following basic data are necessary for per-
formance of calculations of gas emission and gas
pressure in a potential gas collector:
fractional composition of coal on a certain site
of layer (it is possible according to the sieve
analysis of core samples from prospecting or
additionally drilled wells, according to analyses
from excavations, etc.), presented in the form of
classes of fractions diameter Di and the corre-
sponding percentage of each fraction, bi;
asorption capacity of coal (limits of sorption
of methane in coal, m3/t), is defined on sorption
installation or is accepted according to Table 1
of the Appendix;
porosity of coal (m3/t), is defined from the
true and seeming specific weight of coal or by
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 336
data from prospecting wells; in the latter case
size is settled on a formula
= /100 (4)
where = porosity of coal according to pros-
pecting wells, %; = the volume weight of coal
according to wells, t/m3; m = total power of coal
packs of layer according to wells, m; mi = power
i coal pack in layer, m; Vk = the volume of a gas
collector, m3; Sk = the collector area in the plan,
m2; P = pressure (kg/cm2) of gas in coal layer at
a depth of the H, determined by an approximate
formula:
p = 0.1 (H H0)
where H = depth from a surface to layer, H0 = the
upper bound of a methane zone, m.
Calculations of quantity of methane which can
be allocated from the volume of the broken coal of
a collector of gas, and gas pressure in a collector of
layer are made in the following sequence.
1. Quantity of the methane (m3/t) which is in a free
condition in cracks and pores of coal depending
on porosity and a ratio of pressure:
Q0 = p / p0 (5)
where p/pp0 = the initial pressure of methane in
the coal, referred to atmospheric; = degree of
compressibility of methane.
2. Dimensionless coefficient of adsorption of
methane on coal:
A a / Q0 (6)
3. Dimensionless characteristic of a desorption of
methane from the coal, depending on coefficient
of diffusion, the sizes of fractions and time:
Di
r =2 t (7)
Ri2 A
where Rithe radius of fraction, cm; t = gas
emission time from coal at its destruction, s;
D = the coefficient of diffusion of methane in
coal, cm2/s, is calculated on an approximate for-
mula depending on pressure (kg/cm2):
D = 3,575 106 Exp(0,094 p).
4. The reference of quantity of gas, stripping dur-
ing t to the sorption capacity of coal:
6 1 2 r
( ) 1 e
2 =1 2
(8)
where an index of the member of a row.
336
8/27/2014 6:01:04 PM
 5. Quantity of methane, stripping from ton of
the coal put by particles with average radius of
Ri, m3/t:
qi (t ) a (9)
6. Quantity of gas (m3/t) which can be allocated
from one ton of coal of i-pack of layer at its
destruction and simultaneous falling of gas
pressure upon surfaces of the destroyed coal
from initial to atmospheric:
Qi =
qi bi (10)
100
7. Quantity of methane which can be allocated
from coal layer in contours of the formed gas
collector at layer destruction taking into account
packs making layer:
Q miQ
QV
iVug
g mi (11)
where Qi = quantity of methane, stripping from
ton of coal of each pack with the power of mi,
m3; mi = the power of separate packs of the coal
composing layer, m; Vug = the volume of strip-
ping coal in contours of a collector, m3; = the
volume weight of coal, t/m3.
The full quantity of the methane emitted
from destroyed coal, taking into account the gas
which was in a free condition:
Qob Q + Q0 (12)
where Q0 = the volume of the free gas which is
allocating from coal, is calculated in a formula
(5), m3.
The volume of free Q0 gas can be also accepted
to equal 1015% of a potential methane capac-
ity (at p = 5,0 MPa).
Pressure of the gas causing a desorption of
gas-methane from broken coal of a collector
and accumulating in pores and cracks, is calcu-
lated on a formula:
P = 3,66 104Q T/( mi SK ) (13) Gas pressure in a collector taking into
where mi = the power of a coal pack (layer), m;
SK = the area of a gas collector in the plan, m2;
= porosity of a pack of coal, m3/t; = the vol-
ume weight of coal, t/m3; T = temperature of
layer of coal, K.
8. To take the got settlement size of gas pressure
in basic data for initial pressure and to repeat
calculation from item 1.
9. After the end of iterative process the expected
speed (intensity) of gas emission of dQ = Q/t, m3/s
which is used when determining zones of the layer
dangerous on sudden emissions is calculated.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 337
Pressure of stripping from coal layer of gas P
and accumulating in formed cavities of gas col-
lector depends on quantity of the emitted Qob gas,
and also on the total volume of cavities (pores and
cracks) V in contours of a gas collector.
For calculation of pressure of free gas in a
collector the equation uniting gas laws of Boyle-
Mariotta and Gay-Lussac is used:
PV PV
= 0 0
T T0
where V0 = the volume occupied by gas with a pres-
sure of P0 = 101,325 103 MPa and temperature
T0 = 273K, V = the volume occupied by gas with
a pressure of P and temperature T, we will accept
T = 303K.
Volume of V0 methane under normal conditions
(P0 and T0) is calculated on Mendeleyev-Klapeyron
equation:
m
PV = RT
M
where m = the mass of substance, kg; m = m0Qob,
m0 = the volume weight of gas at P0. T0, m0
CH4 = 0,717 kg/m3; M = molar mass of substance,
MCH4 = 0,016 kg/mol; R = universal gas constant,
R = 8,314 J/molK.
Thus, V0 m mRT
RT
T0 MPP0 , m3.
Having substituted in the equation known
sizes, we take dependence of volume V0, occu-
pied by methane under normal conditions, on its
quantity Qob:
V0 = 1,004 Q , m3.
At further calculations in coefficient 1,004 it is
possible to neglect, assuming that V0 = Qob. On the
settlement volume of coal in contours of a gas col-
lector of Vug, we find the volume occupied by free
gas, i.e. volume of pores and cracks V. Porosity
of the broken, prepared coal can make to 0,1 m3/t
and more. The specified values of porosity can be
determined by data of prospecting wells.
account the above assumptions is calculated on
a formula:
P = 3,66 104Qob T/P m S , MPa.
REFERENCES
Biryukov, Yu. M., Pimenov, A.A., Khojayev, R.R. Prob-
lems of the technogenicgasdynamic phenomena.
Kaliningrad: KSTU, 2005200 pages.
Khojayev, R.R. Theoretical bases of the forecast and pre-
vention of the gasdynamic phenomena in coal mines.
diss. doc. tech. sciences. Karaganda, 2009298 pages.
337
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Research and implementation of efficient mining filling for integration

technology in coal mines of grassland area

C.H. Liu, J.J. Xia, Y.H. Zhao & D.Y. Bian

The Etuokeqianqi Great Wall Coal Mine Co., Ltd., China

ABSTRACT: The area of Inner Mongolia has a quite large amount of coal equivalent, which is dis-
tributed to different areas widely. However, the environment is really delicate so that the energy resources
are vulnerable to be damaged. If the traditional method of coal mining is continued to be adopted, the
consequence will bring about the waste of energy and other terrible geological catastrophes. Therefore,
a new coal mining approach and technology is required to be taken when it comes to the wholesome
and environment friendly development of coal industry. This paper analyses the properties of traditional
comprehensive mechanical coal mining and backfilling and gob-side entry retaining. Taking into con-
sideration of the geological environment and the condition of production technology, it aims at making
research of those technologies of high efficiency mining technology, mullock backfilling technology, gob-
side entry retaining technology, and trying to propose a new idea of integrated technology, together with
the whole plan of efficient and environment-friendly production. And, This paper is tying to provide new
technological experience for the security and high efficiency of the production in Inner Mongolia, which
attached great importance to the revelant approaches and technonlogies, together with the successful
application of 1902s.

The improvement of coal mining method and
technical is theme of mining disciplinary devel-
opment. With the innovation and development
of coal technology, modern coal mining technol-
ogy has acquired the remarkable progress on high
yield, efficient, high security and high reliability.
At present, the trend of efficient coal mining tech-
nology is to make coal mining technology to com-
bine with modern advanced technology, in order
to develop comprehensive mechanization and
automation packaged technology and equipment.
Meanwhile, it is using waste filling technology and
gob-side entry retaining technology that improve
coal production efficiency and coal recovery rate.
In our country, long-well coal mining method
has been ripe. The application on comprehensive
mechanized coal mining is extending constantly,
and application level and theoretical research
depth and range is improving continually. With the
improvement of coal mining technological level,
filling technology got developed and filling in our
country has achieved world advanced level. Min-
ing with filling is not only recovery much of three
descend coal to improve coal output, but also
control ground depression effectively and decrease
the pollution of coal gangue on water, atmosphere
and pedologic. It has high economy, ecology and
social benefit. In order to simplify manufactur-
ing technique and improve working efficiency,
gob-side entry retaining can be applied. Gob-side
entry retaining, recycling safeguard coal pillar used
in tradition mining technology, is a great change
in coal production technique, meanwhile it can
improve U type ventilation pattern and has signifi-
cant on coal mine safety production.
Based on background, this paper raise the inte-
grated technology of efficient coal mining and
filling and lane left. By means of the practical
industrial test in the Great wall mine, it can realize
the high yield and high efficiency intensive produc-
tion, give full play on the potency of people and
technology equipment. It also offers reference
on efficient coal mining technology with similar
conditions.
1 THE OVERALL TECHNOLOGY
OF EFFICIENT COAL MINING
AND FILLING AND LANE LEFT
1.1 Technology principle
The overall technology of efficient coal mining and
filling and lane left is to apply efficient coal mining
on comprehensive mechanized coal mining, taking
advantage of waste to fill bashing without influence
of coal mining and coal transportation in main road-
way and finishing waste filling operation, applying
gob-side entry retaining to finish timbering in trans-
portation crossheading with driving of coal face,
and making transportation crossheading remould to

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 339 8/27/2014 6:01:10 PM

 return air crossheading for next coal face so that fin- could be taken full advantage, with little roadway
ishing protecting lane without coal pillar, improving maintenance and no ventilation problems.
coal recovery coefficient and economic benefit. Working face adopts coal cutter to drop coal
and coaling. Face conveyor transports coal. The
1.2 Technological difficulty coal is sent out by reversed loader and rubber belt.
The equipment and materials required by working
The key point to implement the technology of effi-
face are transported by tramcar and winch and are
cient coal mining and filling and lane left is high yield
sent to working face by return airway. Working
and high efficient for coal face. In order to ensure
face production system is shown as Figure 1.
the interaction and joining of all type machine and
realize to product as an integral whole, the tradition
coal mining equipment need to be model selection 2.2 Coal mining craft
newly and optimization design, so that the equip-
2.2.1 Equipment layout
ment is suitable to the comprehensive mechanized
The integrated technology of efficient coal mining
coal mining. Therefore, how to develop the new effi-
and filling and lane left mainly includes coal cut-
cient coal mining technology and production deci-
ter, hydraulic support, scraper conveyer, reversed
sion is became one of difficulties of the technology
loader, wheel crusher, contraction band ribbon
of efficient coal mining and filling and lane left.
conveyer used in upper and lower gangway, filling
When adopting waste to fill, the roof is restricted
scraper-trough conveyer, auxiliary equipment and
facture deflection by filling waste into goaf, so that
so on. The arrangement is shown as Figure 2.
the movement of overlying rock and subsidence
decreased are controlled effectively. When filling,
2.2.2 Coal mining craft
the key of the effective of waste filling is to judge
The working face coal mining craft is comprehen-
fracture level of gob stratum. Therefore, how to
sive mechanized coal mining and the manufactur-
fill waste into gob timely before roof collapsing
ing technique is fully-mechanized waste filling craft.
is became two of difficulties of the technology of
The working face adopts double-ended machine to
efficient coal mining and filling and lane left.
drop coal and load coal. The web of coal cutter is
Because the activity routines of overlying rock
0.6 m. The back roll is 69 m. And curve section
of gob-side roadway can not be controlled, espe-
of scraper conveyer is no less than 15 m. Scraper
cially, the appearing rule of gob-side roadway
conveyer is used to transport coal and the fill-
rock pressure, so it is impossible to control road-
ing type hydraulic support is used to timber roof.
way deformation absolutely. And, in the exploita-
Working face waste-filling adopts rear overhang
tion process, the lateral pressure is carried by the
scraper-trough conveyer used in special filling
timbering of gob-side roadway, and the lateral
hydraulic support to transport waste. The bottom
pressure is infliction to the timbering of gob-side
of chute has unload hole that can be opened and
roadway continuely by the process of combination
closed along the chute moving direction under the
of gob roof and waste. Therefore, how to control
function of jack and the mine-fill is unloaded in
the roadway shape and maintain the roof and lat-
every filling site. Construction sequence: cut coal,
eral wall integrity, and improve carrying capacity
slide support, slide conveyor, fill gob.
is became three of difficulties of the technology of
efficient coal mining and filling and lane left.

2 THE EFFICIENT COAL MINING

WORKING FACE ARRANGEMENT
AND COAL MINING CRAFT

2.1 Working face arrangement

This paper chooses the long-arm work face of dip
within 2326 as the main working face. Because
of the interaction effect of production and filling
and low production efficiency, a single direction
long-well retreating method is adopted in fully-
mechanized filling working face and the whole cav-
ing method is adopted to manage the roof, in order
to decrease the influence from the above factors.
The retreating method does not need to leave the Figure 1. The sketch map of working face production
coal pillar to protect the roadway, and the resource system.

340

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 340 8/27/2014 6:01:10 PM

 Figure 2. Working face equipment layout.
1. feed way of coal cutter
The feed way of coal cutter is up and down tip
self-open gap, beveling feed. The feed segment
length is no less than 23 m, and the depth is no
less than 0.6 m. Specific operation as follows:
a. After coal cutter cutting the end of coal wall
down (up), scraper conveyer is passed by the
order of top-down (bottom-up). The curve
section of scraper conveyer is no less than
15 m. Then, up and down place of two roller
is exchanged to begin cutting up (down).
When coal cutter passes the curve section,
coal cutter cuts the rib gradually. The normal
cut depth is 0.6 m. The scraper conveyer is
passed by order of top-down (bottom-up) to
make conveyer to be a straight line.
b. the place of two roller is exchanged again.
The triangle coal is cut down (up).
c. after cutting triangle coal, the up and down
place is exchanged. Coal cutter returns to
feed to enter the normal cut state with coal
cutter putting scraper conveyer.
2. cut method
The cut method is bothway cutting, that cut
twice at round trip. Coal cutter cut triangle
coal down or up from feed place and cut top-
down or bottom-up by reversing the feed; after
cutting to the up and down exit, coal cutter
begins beveling. When the releasing coal is end,
the coal cutter begins next cyclic. When the coal
cutter is normal to cut coal, front roller cuts the
top-coal and back roller cut bottom-coal. When
341
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 341
Figure 3. The sketch map of bothway feed of coal cut-
ter telos for bevelling.
coal is cut, loading coal is completed at the same
time. The sketch map of feed cutting of coal
cutter is shown as Figure 3.
3 WORKING FACE ADOPTS COAL
CUTTER TO DROP COAL AND
COALING. FACE CONVEYOR
TRANSPORTS COAL.
3.1 Theoretical analysis
3.1.1 The basic law and characteristic
of overlying rock active of gob
After underneath coal seam exploited, mechanical
equilibrium of inner rock mass is broken. When the
gob area reaches a certain range, immediate roof
strata generates downward movement and bending
and has effect on surficial submerge, under the influ-
ence on gravity and overlying rock. Because of stope
face cutting from open-off cut, the air of hang in the
air of immediate roof is more and more large. When
reaching the span limit, the roof begins to stribe.
When working face is keeping carrying forward, the
immediate roof is free-dropped with prop drawing
caving. When strength of extension of upper roof
stratum is beyond the ultimate strength, upper roof
begins to appear first caving. With working face is
keeping carrying forward, upper roof drops sea-
sonal. When exploitation range is enough large, rock
strata movement develops to the surface. Sinking
8/27/2014 6:01:11 PM
 basin, be larger than gob, is formed on the surface.
According to rock strata movement and deforma-
tion behavior and stress distribution, rock stratum
is divided into three movement feature area after the
end of process of rock stratum movement: full min-
ing area, maximum curving area, rock compression
area. Full mining area is located on the middle of
gob. The movement characteristic is that the roof
is being tension state and curves to the direction of
gob, and is broken as the size of rock to inbreak and
fill to the gob. Then, stratum is being stratiform to
curve down with the phenomenon of separation
layer, fracture and breakage. The inbreak rock is
compacted gradually due to the submerge of curv-
ing stratum. When the movement process is end, the
sink rock is still parallel to its original position in this
area. In the area, movement vector of each point is
consistent with the normal, and the movement vec-
tor in the same layer is equality each other.
The rock compression area locates in the stra-
tum that is above the supporting pressure area of
gob border. It is not only exist stretcher strain from
lay normal direction, but also exist the compressive
deformation from lay normal direction.
3.1.2 The essential feature of face overlying
strata movement
After recover the coal seam, the gob roof and over-
lying rock appears destruction, but their deforma-
tion process is different. With the recovery of coal,
working face pushes ahead from open-off cut. The
transformation of gob roof firstly is rock deforma-
tion and level cracking. At this moment, if working
face keeps carrying forward, the stress of overlying
rock is exceed the extremity span of stope roof.
The roof begins to appear fracture and forms the
process of first caving and cycle caving.
Under the circumstance of full mining, over-
lying rock will appear entirety curving submerge
layer, separation layer, fault zone and caving layer
from top-down. Under the circumstance of exceed
full mining, the area of ground depression is larger,
and the overlying stratum appears entirety curving
zone, fissure zone and caving layer.
The bulk movement from overlying rock to sur-
face mainly appears as shown in Figure 4.
3.2 Working face waste filling project
3.2.1 The process of working face filling
After finishing once feeding, the filling begins to
work. This work is conducted by four workers
coordination, the craft process as follow:
according to standard circulation, one step coal,
moving support and pushing scraper-trough con-
veyer is finished. In the process of moving sup-
port, the support is moved by bracing wire, so as to
ensure the support on a straight line. to put the
342
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 342
Figure 4. Motion feature partition map of face overly-
ing strata.
A, B, CRib supporting influence area, separation layer,
a new compaction area.
I, II, IIICaving zone, fracture abscission zone, bending
deflection zone.
headpiece of scraper conveyer, middle trough, tail
in place and examine the intact condition of filling
system. The filling work will be started. firstly,
the filling conveyor is started. Then, filling reversed
loader and filling belt conveyor are started succes-
sively to begin to fill. the waste is filled from
head of scraper-trough conveyer to tail of scraper-
trough conveyer. Each filling is that 15 m or 20 m
a group fills to the gob behind support, according
to the waste quantity and size. When the proc-
ess is half way, the unload hole of two group is
started, shown as Figure 5. When the first hole fills
a certain height, the hole of first group is closed,
shown as Figure 6, and so on. Open the second
set of dumping holes after closing the first set,
and unload the materials to the opening dumping
holes, and so on. It is a repeating way until the fill-
ing of the working face is finished. Then the extra
gangue will be reached to the downward coal road
manually and be tampped. If the gangue is not
enough, reserve 23 holes on the first filling stage.
With the filling and tamping of the downward coal
road finished, the firet round of filling is end, as we
can see from the Figure 7. Then move the filling
conveyor a step from the head of the conveyor to
the end, and repeat the same process above. When
the process is end, close all dumping holes and fin-
ish the filling. Stop the goaf filling, and start the
sequence of coal mining, moving the supports and
the conveyor. After the sequence, it will reach to
the requirments, including the good straightening
level of the coal wall after coal mining, making the
supports straight after moving a step of 0.6 m.
With finishing the same sequence twice, adjust the
filling conveyor behind the filling supports, and get
ready for another filling process.
3.2.2 Filling method of the low tip
Before the filling, change the tendency of the
head beam, and make the rib which above the coal
seam contour line approach to the head beam by
8/27/2014 6:01:11 PM

Figure 5. The structure diagram of unloading hole.
Figure 6. The front view of first gangue filling.
Figure 7. The front view of gangue filling for certain
height.
the gangue bag, whose length along the dipping
direction is not less than 2 m. The sequence of
piling up the gangue bags is from bottom to top
and from goaf area to coal wall. With piling up the
gangue bags, withdraw the pillars. Its height is no
more than 1.4 m in contrast with the height of the
formal support. Realise the temporary support by
adding the structural steel between the formal sup-
port and the gangue bag, and the distance between
two frames is 0.7 m. Under the cover of the formal
support and the gangue bag, people can work safely.
Pile up the gangue bags to the structural steel, and
withdraw the structural steel, then continue to pile
up the gangue bags to the formal support by chucks.
The gangue band is composed of the gangue bags
that the length of it is 0.8 m, and the gangue lumpi-
ness is no more than 0.1 m. The length of filling is
no more than 0.6 m, and the length of the covers on
the gangue bags is no less than 0.15 m. Load the
gangue to bags manually, and the bag is strapped
tightly by iron wires. Carry the bags to the filling
position by two persons as one group.
343
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 343
3.2.3 Filling method of the high tip
When fill to the high tip, link the enameled
trough and the chute which carries the gangue to
realise the filling by manual. There are overlappings
between the enameled trough and the conveyor,
and use the screws to fix the overlappings. Adjust
the enameled trough by manual with stopping the
filling and ensure that there is enough support to
adjust. The segments of the transport conveyor
can link the enameled trough and the chute which
can carry the gangue. Piling up the gangue bags by
manual to support the roof, and make the rib which
below the coal seam contour line approach to the
head beam by the gangue bag, whose length along
the dipping direction is not less than 2 m. The
sequence of piling up the gangue bags is from bot-
tom to top and from goaf area to coal wall. With
piling up the gangue bags, withdraw the pillars. Its
height is no more than 1.4 m in contrast with the
height of the formal support. Realise the tempo-
rary support by adding the structural steel between
the formal support and the gangue bag, and the
distance between two frames is 0.7 m. Under the
cover of the formal support and the gangue bag,
people can work safely. Pile up the gangue bags to
the structural steel, and withdraw the structural
steel, then continue to pile up the gangue bags to
the formal support by chucks. The gangue band
is composed of the gangue bags that the length of
it is 0.8 m, and the gangue lumpiness is no more
than 0.1 m. The length of filling is no more than
0.6 m, and the length of the covers on the gangue
bags is no less than 0.15 m. Load the gangue to
bags manually, and the bag is strapped tightly by
iron wires. Carry the bags to the filling position by
two persons as one group. Strictly no working
before cleaning the float coal of the place where will
build the gangue band. There must be more than
two persons to work collaboratively when builds
the gangue band, and there is a specially-assigned
person to inspect the signs of roof weighting or
other abnormalities. If finding the abnormalities,
stop the work instantly until it is safe to work.
When build the gangue band, follow the regula-
tions seriously amd solve the problems in advance.
Meantime, change the pillars which are broken or
failure.
4 THE MECHANICS ANALYSIS AND
SUPPORT PLAN WITHOUT COAL
PILLAR ALONG THE EMPTY LEFT
LANE
4.1 The mechanics analysis
The location relationship diagram of along the
empty left lane and working face is shown in
Figure 8.
8/27/2014 6:01:12 PM
 Figure 8. The location relationship diagram of the
empty left lane and working face.

Figure 9. The mechanical model of the empty left lane.

With the mining working face and pushing for-
ward, the part under the working face end generated
arc destruction and form arc triangle because
of the Angle effect caused by rectangular solid 3. The weight of the basic roof is divided into two
state of the corner. Arc triangle had a great influ- groups along the direction of the vertical and
ence on the stability of along the empty left lane, parallel rock strata.
meaning the lane side supporting performance and 4. The soft rock above basic roof is homogene-
early supporting parameters were calculated with ously added to the basic roof.
the help of arc triangle structure. Generally, its 5. The basic roof rotates and inclines towards the
limit conditions are considered when the resist- mined-out area with regarding the coal elastic-
ance parameters of along the empty left lane sup- plastic junction as the axis of rotation.
port are designed, that the section of the roof to 6. The calculation formula of the coal support
dangerous conditions are regarded as cross section pressure y below the empty left lane and the
and the elastic foundation beam model is gotten. width Stress limit equilibrium zone x0 are:
With the mining surface, control scope was magni-
fied and cause the basic roof breakage and instabil- 2 tan 0
C0 P A C0
ity. The support resistance of the supporting body y = + x e MA (2)
beside the roadway made the bending moment of tan 0 A t 0
the basic roof along the side of supporting body
C0
beside the roadway maximizing to cut off the basic k cos H +
roof. Due to the support resistance in roadway is M A tan 0
x0 = ln (3)
far less than the support resistance on side, the sup- 2 tan 0 C0 P
+ x
port resistance inside lane can be ignored. Beside tan 0 A
the lane support system and the mechanical model
of roof interaction as shown in Figure 9, making a In the formula, 0 0 = The cohesive force
profile in the middle of the plate broken bolt. and angle of internal friction of the interface
Simplify the above model: between the coal seam and rock of roof and
1. The support gangue to structure of the block floor; = Dip Angle of coal seam; Px = The
AC is zero, the shea gob-side entry retaining red resistance of the support of coal wall; A = Lat-
in gob side is Nc and the thrust along the direc- eral pressure coefficient; M = Mining height;
tion of rock is Tc: H = Mining depth; = The average unit weight
of the overburden; k = Stress concentration
L q cos factor.
TC = (1)
2 (h SC )
4.2 Solve the support resistance beside lane
In the formula, = dip Angle of coal seam; According to the Figure 9, the mechanics equation
L = the length of the rock AC; q = The weight of bolck AB, BC was established with the balance
of pei unit length of rock AC; h = The thickness method.
of the rockAC; Sc = The sink of the C When Block BC, Perpendicular to the dip direction,
rock AC is cut off. F
Fn = 0, response:
2. The shear force is considered to be zero because
of the separation between the immediate roof NB q cos e Nc = 0 (4)
and the basic roof above the mined-out area
and between the soft rock above basic roof and Parallel to the direction, F
Fs = 0, response
upper layers. equation:

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 344 8/27/2014 6:01:13 PM

 TB TC + q sin e (5) e = The length of block BC, the calculation
formula:
M
M B = 0, response equation:
2
2b b L
e= 100 + 102 m x0 c d;
1 b
ML q cos e 2 Nc e TC ( h SC ) 17 Lm
2
h b = The step distance of the basic roof with
+q i e SC = 0 (6)
2 pressure; Lm = The length of the working face.

4.3 The top control height of the supporting

M L TC ( h SC ) body beside lane
h
NC = + q i e SC e (7) The top control height of the support beside lane
2 should meet at least the requirements that the roof
1 block cut off by the support can fill the mined-
2 q cos e
2
out area. On one side of the upper block can get
support in the mined-out area when it bends and
breaks. On the other side of the block can get the
Block AB, M
M A = 0 , response equation: support of the coal wall, so as to strike a balance.
As shown in Figure 10.
d It can get the following formulas by the geomet-
Pq x0 + c + + M TB ( h SB )
2 ric relationships in the figure:
h
+q i (x0 + c d) SB m

1
2 Hm hi (10)
(q + q ) cos ( x + c + d ) i =1
2
2 m
M
NB (x + c d ) M L
x0
y ( x x ) dx
d =0 hi = K (11)
0 i =1 p 1

(8) So response equation

Solve to get response equation: M
Hm = (12)
Kp 1
Pq [ M L + ( NC q cos e )( x0 + c d )
1 In the formula: Hm = The top control height of
+ ( q + q0 ))cos
cos ( x0 + c + d )2 the support beside lane, m; hi = The layered thick-
2 ness of the roof strata, m; M = Mining height, m;
(TC q sin ))(( B) Kp = The hulking coefficient of the gangue fell
M 0 q sin ( x0 + c + d ) from the roof rock.
h
)dx ] x0 + c +
x0 d
SB y ( 4.4 The technical proposal of gob-side entry
2 0 0 2 retaining
(9) 4.4.1 Design of timbering section
The gob-side entry retaining adopts concrete filled
In the formula: = Dip Angle of coal seam;
steel tube to support. Bar-mat reinforcement or
c = Roadway width; d = The width of the support-
ing body beside lane; h = Basic roof strata thickness;
Pq = The resistance of cutting the top of the sup-
porting body beside lane; ML = The limit bending
distance of the basic roof rock; M0 = The residual
bending distance of the basic roof; q = The weight
of unit length of basic roof and upper soft rock;
q0 = The weight of unit length of immediate roof;
SB = The subsidence of the front of basic roof
when caving,

x +c+d e
S
SC SB ; Figure 10. Height control model near along the lane for
x0 + c + d support.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 345 8/27/2014 6:01:17 PM


Figure 11. Support cross-section diagram of gob-side
entry retaining.
rhombus is hanged on the outside of pier stud.
Woven big is used to protect face sprag. Pier stud,
be perpendicular to the roof, is used to support.
Meeting mountain is 35, fracture surface of road-
way support arrangement is shown as Figure 11.
so as to share and relieve the support load; When
the immediate roof is hard or it has a periodic pres-
sure, the support beside the lane can cut off the
roof to avoid the roof fracture along the roadway
roof coal wall and support the dynamic load when
the roof direct or periodic falls off at the same time;
In order to avoid the serious deformation of the
support inside the roadway, the roof subsidence at
the junction between the roadway and mined-out
area is limited by the support beside the lane with
small drop-off, and the mined-out area is isolated
or closed by the support beside lane.
The support beside lane works with reinforced
concrete pier and the support method of repairing
and forging anchor cable. The piers are installed
in the side above wall of transportation lane with
1 meter space. A row of anchor cable is always
installed in the above wall along the direction of the
lane towards, and the anchor spacing is 3 meters,
and the position of anchor beam that its length is
0.6 meter and teel belt is flush. The space between
pier and the mined-out area is filled with the wall
of gangue bags, using the gangue bags protect the

4.4.2 Support pattern in the lane

Gob-side entry retaining goes through the influ-
ence of periodic weighting and strata behaviors
appears obviously. Surrounding rock of roadway
deformation is large. Ordinary support is difficult
to adapt the surrounding rock large deformation.
Support destruction is seriousness and roadway Figure 12. The section schematic diagram of the sup-
maintain effect is poor. For gob-side entry retain- port beside lane along the empty left lane.
ing, anchor rope net support in the lane has better
effect on preventing roof inferior stratum separa-
tion layer and diastroghism, and preventing part
roof fail, reinforcing the surrounding rock surface
layer of gob-side entry retaining, improving roof
strength, maintaining inferior stratum stabilization,
and suiting a large of submerge and translational
motion for roof. The other effect is to reinforce the
coal, improve shear capacity of coal within anchor-
ing area and prevent diastrophism of breaking coal
from plane of weakness. In addition, after rock bolt
reinforcing the coal, the coal plasticity is stronger,
and monolithic stability is improved greatly in the
deformation process. The coal could maintains
strength stabilization within the larger scope of
deformation and improves support strength of the
coal for roof and participation strength, and control
intensity displacement of the coal to the roadway
during gob-side entry retaining.

4.4.3 Supporting method beside the lane

The role of the support beside the lane is to sup-
port the roof pressure of the falling area edge with Figure 13. The plane support along the gob-side entry
the high resistance of the support beside the lane, retaining.

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 above wall and isolate the mined-out area, and lay-
ing metal mesh and tarpaulins for sealing so as to
prevent goaf air leakage. The section schematic dia-
gram of the support beside lane along the empty
left lane is shown in Figure 12, the plane support
along the empty left lane is shown in Figure 13.
5 THE ENGINEERING APPLICATION
5.1 The general situation and equipment
matching of the working face
of the efficient mining filling
5.1.1 Working face situation
The mining area, located in the south wing + 920
level in the second section, is the Great Wall + 920
level of coal mine 1902s fully mechanized work-
ing face. The working face is 538 meters long in
the north and south direction and 130 meters wide
in the east-west direction and its area is 69940 m2
while its depth is 266 meters. The design mining of
the working face is 9 coal layer under the coal lay-
ered. According the geological data analysis, 9 coal
layer under the coal layered structure is relatively
simple thick, on average 3.5 meters, the density is
1.4 t/m3 and coal seam dip Angle is 26.4.
5.1.2 The main matched equipment
1. Coal cutter: type: MG300/700-WD, mining
height: 3.5 m, diameter of cylinder: 2000 mm,
web: 630 KW, clipping power: 2 300 KW.
2. Hydraulic support: type: ZC9900/20/38, work-
ing resistance: 9900 KN, setting load: 7854 KN,
support height: 20003800 mm, support
breath: 1420/1590 mm, supporting intensity:
0.750.78 MPa.
3. Scraper conveyer: type: SGZ730/400, power:
2 200 KW, transportation capability: 700 T/h,
scraper chain type: double center chain.
4. Reversed loader: type: SZZ-730/200, power: 2
200 KW, transportation capability: 1000 T/h,
transportation length: 40 m.
5. wheel type crusher: type: PLM-1000, power:
110 KW, outlet granularity: 150300 mm, crush
capacity: 1000 T/h.
6. Extensible belt conveyor: type: DSS2 125,
motor power: 2 125 KW, belt wide: 1000 mm,
transportation capability: 630 T/h.
7. Filling scraper-trough conveyer: type:
SGZ630/264, motor power: 264 KW, transpor-
tation capability: 450 T/h, scraper chain type:
double center chain.
5.2 The analysis of application effect
5.2.1 Working face mining effect
1902s face daily output of 1960 t, filling bottles
quantity 2947.5 t, coal recovery rate of 95% or
347
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 347
more, a fully mechanized mining team equivalent
to the output of the past four or five coal pillar
robbing group, make the production by the last
surface, raise head, toughening person to lose face,
reduce people and equipment, shorten the produc-
tion line and improve the yield.
High efficiency mining technology simplifies
the production process. Because of the fully mech-
anized mining, large mining height, good sealing
ability and strong stability of support, in a certain
range, it can implement incline long-wall mining
and lifted up mining, and can mine the special
thick coal seam with caving mining, and can also
mine 4.5 m or 5 m thick coal seam mining overall
height at a time.
5.2.2 The effect of filling technology for gangue
recycling
The gangue filling experiment was carried out in
1902s working face. After a test running, it con-
stantly overcame the problem, improved the fill-
ing process and filled all gangue generated by the
working face into the mined-out area of the work-
ing face according to the principle of decided by
filling mining. It can basically achieve the purpose
that the gangue is not lifted out the mine, recy-
cle the coal resources, and ultimately achieve the
goal of zero gangue piled up on the ground with
remarkable economic and social benefits.
5.2.3 Along the effect for coal mining filling
technology
The new along the empty left lane process is
employed in 1902s working face. It cancelled the
protection of coal pillar and improved the eco-
nomic benefit. Along the technology protected the
along the empty left lane with Concrete pier and
Coal gangue bag wall. Combined with mining fill-
ing technology in coal mining, it can complete the
construction along the empty left lane in the proc-
ess of mining and the filling operation. Its process
is simple and work efficiency is high, it can success-
ful mine the protective coal pillar that it cant be
mined by the original wall mining method and can
protect the roadway without coal pillar.
6 CONCLUSION
1. Compared with the traditional theory of coal
mining technology, adopting efficient mining
filling the integration technology for coal mine
can effectively increase the resources recovery
rate, save coal resources, solve the problem of
surface subsidence due to underground mining,
achieve zero discharge of mine solid wastes,
avoid the waste rock on the ground environ-
ment pollution, try best to protect vulnerable
8/27/2014 6:01:25 PM
 grassland ecological environment and realize
green mining.
2. The mining, filling, gob-side entry retaining
parallel operation way used by the efficient
mining integration technology improved the
resources output, simplified the production
process, reduced the production labor intensity,
shortened the working face moving time and
improved the safety of mine. Its significant to
successfully use efficient mining filling the inte-
gration technology on the Great Wall 1902s
face for improving the level of mine equipment,
speeding up the construction of intrinsically safe
mine, promoting mine safety levels, reducing
labor intensity, reducing workers, reducing pro-
duction cost, increasing the output of raw coal
and improving the economic benefit.
Note: this paper is supported by the Open
Project of State Key Laboratory Breeding Base
for Mining Disaster Prevention and Control
348
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 348
(Shandong University of Science and Technology)
(NO. MDPC2012KF01), and The Qingdao post-
doctoral researcher applied research programmes:
Control Technology Research on coupling rela-
tionship between coal and support equipment for
thick coal seam mining face.
REFERENCES
Kajetan Dobyrn. 2012. The stabilization of the rock
mass of the wieliczka salt mine through the backfill-
ing of the witos chamber with the use of injection
method. Archives of mining sciences 57(1): 93105.
Nong Zhang, Liang Yuan, Changliang Han et al. 2012.
Stability and deformation of surrounding rock in
pillarless gob-side entry retaining. Safety science
50(4):593599.
Qiang Zhang, Nan Zhou, Yanli Huang et al. 2011. Impact
law of the bulk ratio of backfilling body to overly-
ing strata movement in fully mechanized backfilling
mining. Journal of Mining Science 47(1):7384.
8/27/2014 6:01:25 PM
 Part 5: Solid wastes and AMD treatment

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Study on the spatial distribution regularities of coal gangue

accumulation in the coal mining area of northern Germanytaking
coal gangue accumulation area of Ibbenbueren for instance

C. Huang & L.J. Xu

Faculty of Surveying and Mapping, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan, China

H. Meuser & R. Anlauf

Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Landscape Architecture, University of Applied Sciences Osnabrck,
Osnabrck, Germany

ABSTRACT: Mines in northern Germany are mostly open-pit mining, which causes many coal gangue
hills. German people treat the gangue hills as reclamation object so that they can be developed into wood-
land suitable for people to relax. For directly describing the effect of coal gangue to the physical-chemical
properties of the soil in the accumulation area of coal gangue accumulation, as well as to support the
former theoretical foundations, which are about the study on using coal gangue as substrates to reclaim
the subsidence in coal mining area, this paper has taken the accumulation area of coal gangue in the
north of Germany for instance. It has been known after sampling in different layers and fields as well as
analysis of the soil samples that after the effect of some natural factors such as weathering for a long time
and some human factors such as new coal gangue piling up steadily, some physical-chemical properties
of the surface soil in accumulation areas of coal gangue has changed. For example, the surface soil in
Ibbenbueren has the bulk density, the average value of which is more than 1 g/cm3. The average value of
saturated hydraulic conductivity in the area is lower than 1 cm/sec. And some negative situations appeared,
which are pH exception (pH < 4 or pH > 8), the poor nutrient contents (the content of available potassium,
available phosphorus and total nitrogen are all lower than the standard values, which are 5 g m2 a1,
1.31.7 g m2 a1 and 56.5 g m2 a1). The results of those experiments show that it is less effective on the
plants in life recreation area such as woodland after reclamation though the physical-chemical properties of
the soil in coal gangue accumulation area renders the negative trend in the growth of crops with the years
increase. Appropriately increasing manual intervention could improve the nutrients level of the soil in coal
gangue accumulation area, which will be more conducive to the growth of the forest vegetation.

1 INTRODUCTION areas, this paper comprehensive evaluated the soil

spatial distribution regularities in Ibbenbueren
1.1 Study area coal mining area. Based on the systematic analy-
sis on vegetation composition in sampling area
Ibbenbueren is one of the mining areas for
and the work of H. Meuser (2012), some conclu-
anthracite coal, which is located in the north of
sion can be given that Ibbenbueren coal mining
Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany (Fig. 1). The field
area used appropriate vegetation to cover coal
investigation showed that: 1, an old coal gangue
gangue heap slope such as Betula pendula, Pinus
heaps Ibbenbueren Althalde (IA followed) in this
sylvestris australis, etc. Therefore, coal gangue
area has a accumulation period of more than
accumulation area can be transformed to forest
10 years, which are mainly composed of coal
or meadow fitting for local people to leisure (Wu
gangue with rich pyrite as well as massive sulphide
et al. 2009).
(Liang Liuke et al. 2002). 2, new coal gangue accu-
mulation Ibbenbueren Halde (IH followed) has
a short stacked year, which has the component
2 MATERIAL SOURCES & METHODS
of fresh coal gangue. 3, the soil in Ibbenbueren
Spuelfeld (IS followed) is formed by coal mining
2.1 Material preparation
waste sludge producing in coal washing process.
Depends on the experimental ideas about par- The samples collected in a period with fine weather,
tition stratified sampling and analysis in above which ranged from early March to mid-March.

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 Figure 1. Regional distribution of the sampling areas (three states in northern Germany) and the profile.

Table 1. The soil samples (single sample for each) texture and sampling depths in different soil layers.

Depth CaCO3 Substrate composition Soil

Sites [cm] Texture [HCl] Color [amount] moisture Remarks

IA1T 1020 Gr5/G3/X1 Low 7.5YR 2.5/1 Coal mining waste Moist Iron 2%
IA1B 3545 Gr3/G3/X2 Free 2.5YR 2.5/2; Coal mining waste Moist Hematite
2.5YR 3/6
IA2T 1020 Gr5/G3/X1 Free Grey1 3/N Coal mining waste Moist Iron oxide
IA2B 3545 Gr3/G3/X3 Low; s 10R 4/8 Coal mining waste High Pyrite
IHT 1020 Gr1/G5/X2 Low; s Grey1 2.5/N Fresh coal gangue High
IHB 3545 Gr1/G6/X1 Low; s Grey1 2.5/N Fresh coal gangue High
IST 1020 Sandy loam Low; s Grey1 2.5/N Coal mining waste sludge Wet
ISB >20 Sandy loam Low Grey1 2.5/N Coal mining waste sludge Wet

IA1T: Ibbenbueren Althalde 1 Top soil; IA1B: Ibbenbueren Althalde 1 Bottom soil; IA2T: Ibbenbueren Althalde 2 Top
Soil; IA2B: Ibbenbueren Althalde 2 Bottom Soil; IHT: Ibbenbueren Halde Top soil; IHB: Ibbenbueren Halde Bottom
soil; IST: Ibbenbueren Spuefeld Top Soil; IST: Ibbenbueren Spuefeld Bottom Soil; s: containing hydrogen sulfide;
Gr = grus; G = gravel; X = angular stones; O = rounded stones (as following); = no value.

The sampling points were been chosen in IA1, Table 2. Different physical & chemical properties and
IA2, IH and IS. Specific sampling methods are measure methods.
followed:
Properties Physical & chemical methods
Begin, all the sampling points were lain relied on
the mesh point method. A sampler had been used Field capacity ISO 11274 (2009-08-00), 2009
to punch and sample so that the different soil lay- Bulk density DIN 11540
ers in this coal mining waste accumulation could Available water capacity
be determined based on different soil texture and Air capacity
the procedure ZT-VV81, Germany. The detail Particle density Flint & flint (2002)
information are shown as follow:
Saturated hydraulic ISO/TS 17892-11 (2004-10),
Second, we used cutting rings with the diam- conductivity 2004
eter of 5 cm and the height of 5 cm to do strati- Oxygen diffusion Rolston & moldrup (2002)
fied sampling work within those above mentioned coefficient
sampling area. All the samples should be sealed to pH-value DIN ISO 10390:2005
save. Electrical conductivity DIN ISO 11265:1997
And finally, to ensure the accuracy of the Available phosphorus VDLUFAA 6.2.1.1
experimental results, this paper collected loose Available potassium VDLUFAA 6.2.1.1
soil in each sampling point of those areas and Total nitrogen DIN ISO 13878:1998
produced artificial cutting ring samples for Total organic carbon DIN ISO 10694.1995
comparison.

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 2.2 Detection
The soil physical properties includes soil water
retention curve (pF-curve), particle density (DF),
saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kf), and oxy-
gen diffusion coefficient of the soil, as well as the
chemical properties included pH-value, electri-
cal conductivity, available phosphorus, available
potassium, total nitrogen and total organic carbon.
The analytic methods are given in Table 2 and the
steps of each analysis are given below.
3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
3.1 The analysis of soil physical properties
It is easy to see that Ibbenbueren Althalde bottom
has the largest quantity of soil with the particle
size of 16 mm, which is 98.5%. The Mean Weight
Diameter (MWD) was calculated as:
n otherwise the soil from Ibbenbueren Spuefeld is silt
MWD = (X i Fi )
i =1
Xi is for the mass retained on the sieve divided
by the total medium mass. Fi is for the average par-
ticle size. N is for the number of classes (Kemper
and Rosenau, 1986).
Ibbenbueren Halde top has the highest values
of bulk density 1.36% (as well as Ibbenbueren
Halde bottom) and air capacity 42.35%. Ibben-
bueren Halde bottom has the lowest values of
saturated hydraulic conductivity (pF 4.2) and
field capacity (pF 1.8) which are 2.37% and 2.65%.
Ibbenbueren Spuelfeld has the lowest value of air
capacity 6.55%. Ibbenbueren Althalde bottom has
Figure 2. The histogram of major physical properties of soil in Ibbenbueren sampling areas.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 353
the lowest value of available water capacity 0.03%.
For the particle density, there is no evident dif-
ference in the particle capacity among these sub-
strates are not so evident. Most values are around
2.50 g cm3.
The analyzed reason for this situation is that the
main soil of Ibbenbueren Althalde and Ibbenbueren
Halde is made of coal gangue with large soil
size so that it is difficult to keep soil water. And
Ibbenbueren Spuefeld has the soil mainly content-
ing silty sand and sandy loamy soil, both of which
have small soil size and with high viscosity. Thus, it
can keep soil water well.
For the oxygen diffusion coefficient, Ibbenbueren
Althalde 2 bottom (3545 cm) has the highest value
which is 0.030 cm2 sec1. In Ibbenbueren Halde
(both top soil and bottom soil), the oxygen diffu-
sion coefficient is nearly 0.000 cm2 sec1. Due to
the soil samples with large soil pore from new accu-
mulation of coal gangue in Ibbenbueren Halde,
(1) with higher carbon content and has smaller pore,
the measure methods of the oxygen diffusion coef-
ficient needs further discussion. Thus, there is no
value of this soil physical property for those two
sampling areas.
3.2 Chemical parameter results
The pH-value describes the acidity and alkalinity
of soil. Different plants have a different tolerance
of acidity and alkalinity. Most plants can be grown
well at the soil pH range of 5.2 to 8.0 (soil-pH.
pdf, 30.06.2013). And there is detail information
about the optimum pH value of soil referred to in
Fachkunde fuer Grtner. The range of pH-value
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8/27/2014 6:01:28 PM
 is from 5.56.5. If the substrate is light soil, oth-
erwise the range is from 6.57.5. However, some
special kinds of plants have the tremendous toler-
ance range which is from 4.0 to 8.5. Synthesize the
above data, we can conclude that only are the pH
value of Ibbenbueren Spuelfeld and Ibbenbueren
Halde possible for planting some shrubs and that
are not optimum soil. The soil in Ibbenbueren
Althalde 1, Ibbenbueren Althalde 2 are too acet-
ous (pH < 4). All these sites need take some meth-
ods to improve the pH condition even the sites
of Ibbenbueren Spuelfeld and Ibbenburen Halde
if we want a good optimum pH value for plant
growth.
Electrical conductivity indicated the total
concentration of soluble salts in the soil. If the
value of electrical conductivity is more than
0.5 ms cm1, plants like shrubs will not grow
well (H. Meuser 2012). And there are no plants
surviving under the electrical conductivity are
more than 1.0 ms cm1 (H. Meuser, 2010). Soil
which has a excessively high EC value will dam-
age plant roots and ultimate plants. From Table 3
we see clearly that the sites of Ibbenbueren have a
very high EC value. The values are all more than
1.5 ms cm1. In substrates with this value, no
plants can grow.
Based on the standard values of available phos-
phorus content and available potassium content
showed in Table 4, the available phosphorus con-
tent of all soil samples is lower than the standard
value and in the lever of Particularly low. The
available potassium content of all soil samples is
range from High lever to Particularly high
lever, except that that of the soil from Ibbenbueren
Spuefeld is lower than 125 mg cm1.
3.3 Correlation analysis about different soil test
Selecting the function COVAR and CORREL for
analyzing (showed as formula (2) and (3)), this
paper analyzes the correlation between different
physical chemical properties of the soil from differ-
ent sampling areas. Except that the negative correla-
tion is showed between oxygen diffusion coefficient
as well as total carbon content and other soil test,
others are positive correlation. Especially the field
capacity and available water content have the coef-
ficient of correlation in 0.9699, which illustrates
that there is a close contact existing between that
vegetation absorb required moisture from land and
field capacity.
1 n
v (X ,Y ) (xi x )( yi y ) (2)
n i 1
Cov (X ,Y )
x y = (3)
x y
Cov(X,Y) is function COVER of data-group X
and Y; n is the data number of data-group X and
Y; xi is No.i data in group X; yi is No.i data in
group Y; x is the expected value of the data in
group X;
y is the expected value of the data in group Y;
x,y is function CORREL of group X and Y; x
is the variance of group X; y is the variance of
group Y.

Table 3. The test results of soil relevant chemical properties.

EC w (TOC) w (TN) w (K) w (P)

Site pH value [ms/cm] [%] [] [mg kg1] C/N [mg kg1]

IA1T 3.2 0.10 8.4 0.30 200 280 7

IA1B 3.6 2.26 1.90 0.39 230 49 4.6
IA2T 3.5 2.28 5.1 0.11 210 464 5.2
IA2B 4.8 1.77 0.60 0.19 210 32 12
IHT 7.9 2.41 12 0.44 170 273 3.9
IHB 9.1 3.70 12 0.42 220 286 17
IST 8.2 1.99 16 0.58 130 276 11
ISB 7.8 1.63 18 0.54 120 333 10

Table 4. Soil nutrient level standards.

Item (mg cm1) Particularly high High Medium Low Particularly low

Available phosphorus content 90 90-60 60-30 30-15 <15

Available potassium content 155 155-125 125-100 100-70 <70

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 354 8/27/2014 6:01:29 PM

 Table 5. The correlation between different soil physical-chemical properties.

Available Oxygen Available Available

Field water diffusion phosphorus potassium Total
capacity pF 4.2 content coefficient pH content content carbon
Item [%] [%] [%] [cm2 sec1] value [mg kg1] [mg kg1] content [%]

Field capacity [%] 1 0.8522 0.9699 0.7503 0.5674 0.5192 0.0578 0.4393
pF 4.2 [%] 0.8522 1 0.6991 0.6987 0.2586 0.1438 0.3477 0.2751
Available water 0.9699 0.6991 1 0.6939 0.6566 0.6429 0.2397 0.4692
content [%]
Oxygen diffusion 0.7503 0.6987 0.6939 1 0.4460 0.4543 0.0453 0.0342
coefficiet
[cm2 sec1]
pH value 0.5674 0.2586 0.6566 0.4460 1 0.2803 0.2124 0.2933
Available 0.5192 0.1438 0.6429 0.4543 0.2803 1 0.5137 0.2337
phosphorus
content [mg kg1]
Available potassium 0.0578 0.3477 0.2397 0.0453 0.2124 0.5137 1 0.3501
content [mg kg1]
Total carbon 0.4393 0.2751 0.4692 0.0342 0.2933 0.2337 0.3501 1
content [%]

4 CONCLUSION More than 5 g m2 a1 alkaline earth-nitrogen,

In order to maximize the values of the areas accu-
mulated with coal mining waste or other kinds of
wastes (e.g the waste from fire power station), effec-
tive measures should be taken at first to improve
the substates quality depending on the analysis of
the samples from the different contaminated areas,
some improved advice could be proposed:
Ibbenbueren Althalde 1&2 (coal mining waste): we
advise to add more quantity of sandy loam or clay so
that field capacity and available water capacity can
be improved. The substrate is strong acid. We can
use the same way to lower the pH value. The way is to
add lime. The soil has a high electrical conductivity
except the first layer of Ibbenbueren Althalde 1. In
the first layer of Ibbenbueren Althalde 1 the electrical
conductivity is so low because the soil is weathered.
Most salts have already leached out to the deeper soil.
High salt concentrations cause problems by chang-
ing the osmotic potential of the substrate, causing
water to leave plant roots. Therefore, affected plants
will grow poorly since they are in essence suffering
from drought or water stress. To lower the high salt
concentrations, we can input more water. But too
much water is also not good for plant. Different
plants have a different tolerance to salinity. So we
can choose some species plants like Atriplex, hibis-
cus which have a high tolerance to salinity. So we can
find some special species plants which can grow in
these area. Because of the acid substrate, we choose
alkaline earth-nitrogen to fertilize. The C/N ratio
is very high. So if a special C/N ratio is wanted,
nitrogen fertilizer should be added more and more.
1.7 g m2 a1 phosphorus and 6.5 g m2 a1 potas-
sium should be fertilized.
Ibbenbueren Halde: At first we only can wait for
a period of time because of the very high electri-
cal conductivity. When the electrical conductivity is
lower, we can find some special plants like sea buck-
thorn after improved the negative conditions. We
suggest adding an amount of sandy loam or clay so
that field capacity and available water capacity can
be improved. The substrate is alkaline but the pH
value is not so high. Some special plant can grow in
the weak basic soil. And we can fertilize Ammonium
nitrogen to lower the pH value. This site still has a
high electrical conductivity. Some special plants can
grow on these sites. More than 5 g m2 a1 alka-
line earth-nitrogen, 1.7 g m2 a1 phosphorus and
6.5 g m2 a1 potassium should be fertilized.
Ibbenbueren Spuelfeld: the substrate is alkaline
but the pH value is not so high. Some special plant
can grow in the weak basic soil. And we can fer-
tilize ammonium nitrogen to lower the pH value.
This site still has a high electrical conductivity. We
can search some special species of plants to grow
at these substrates. From the Table 2 in appendix,
we can know that more than 5 g m2 a1 alka-
line earth-nitrogen, 1.7 g m2 a1 phosphorus and
6.5 g m2 a1 potassium are fertilized.
REFERENCES
Beier, Niesel. Ptzold. (2003). Lehr-Taschenbuch fr den
Garten-, Landschafts- und Sportplatzbau P:320.

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 Diffusion Coefficient of Growing Media. American
Journal of Plant Sciences, 2013, 4, 955963.
ISO 10390:2005. Soil quality-Determination of pH.
ISO 10694:1995. Soil quality-Determination of organic
and total carbon after dry combustion (elementary
analysis).
ISO 11265:1997. Soil quality-Determination of the spe-
cific electrical conductivity.
ISO 11274 (2009-08-00). Soil Physics: Water Retention
Curve: Soil quality.
ISO 13878:1998. Soil quality-Determination of total
nitrogen content by dry combust on (elemental
analyses).
Kemper and Rosenau (1986). Determination of the
water-retention characteristicLaboratory methods.
Klute A. (1986). Methods of soil analysis, part 1.
Lisa Al-Amoodi. (2002). Methods of Soil Analysis-Part
4-Physical Methods.
356
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 356
Meuser H. (2010). Contaminated urban soils. Mining
Waste. P. 98.
Meuser H. (2012). Soil remediation and rehabilitation.
Munsell Soil Color Charts (2000).
Schmitz, D.R. Anlauf & P. Rehrmann (2013). Effect of
Air Content on the Oxygen.
Soil-pH.pdf (30.06.2013) http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__
data/assets/pdf_file/0003/167187/soil-pH.pdf.
Tim-online (26.06.2013). www.tim-online.nrw.de.
VDLUFA-Verlag (2002). Bodenuntersuchung.
Wikipedia (10.06.2013). http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Helmstedter_Braunkohlerevier.
Wikipedia (10.06.2013). http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Ibbenb%C3%BCrener_Steinkohlenrevier.
Wu Xiaoli, Zhu Yu, Chen Guangren, Su Qing (2009).
Opportunity and Challenge for Land Reclamation and
Ecological Reconstruction in Mining Area. A Special
to S&T Review. 27(17), 1924.
8/27/2014 6:01:30 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Effect of distance and wind on the temperature of spontaneous

combustion coal waste piles

Q. Xia, Z.Q. Hu, Y.L. Zhao, Y.H. Fu & L.J. Xu

Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Reconstruction, China University of Mining and Technology
(Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: To improve temperature accuracy by infrared thermal technique in the surface tempera-
ture of spontaneous combustion coal waste piles, an experiment is designed based on two major factors,
distance and wind speed, to detect surface temperature. In this article, the effect of one single factor
distance or wind speed is respectively analyzed and a temperature compensation mathematical model has
been set up based on experimental data. The result affected by combined factors has been studied and
experimental data has been quantitatively analyzed by double-factor analysis of variance and correlation
analysis. The results show that both factors have significant effect on the temperature with significant
level = 0.01. The correlation index between distance and temperature or wind and temperature is 0.923
and 0.150 respectively. There is an inverse correlation while distance has a strong inverse correlation with
the temperature. The conclusion is significant for monitoring the real model of surface temperature and
improving temperature accuracy.

1 INTRODUCTION temperature information. It can provide theoretic

Coal is one of three important resources in the
world, coal exploitation has played an important
role in Chinas national economy, furthermore the
amount of coal waste are very high given by the
large coal exploitation and process. Long-term
air coal waste piles, which occurred spontaneous
combustion caused by wreathing, oxidation and
chemical reaction, give rise to hazards such as fire,
explosion and so on. It is accompanied by seri-
ous threats to the mine production and ecologi-
cal environment. Therefore, high attention should
be paid to warn and monitor surface temperature
on spontaneous combustion waste piles (Stracher,
G.B. et al. 2004, O. Carpentier et al. 2005, LIU Hui
et al. 2010).
When the infrared thermography is applied to
detect surface temperature, the accuracy reduces
to a great extent and the results will be influenced
if distance and wind speed impact on temperature
are unknown or not been fully considered. There-
fore, a single factor, distance or wind speed, impact
on temperature detection is studied and combined
effects are explored in this article. The temperature
compensation mathematical model of distance or
wind speed is put forward to make compensation
for experimental data in order to improve accuracy,
simultaneously, the optimal observation distance
is proposed, which will greatly improve accuracy
for temperature detection to reconstruct real
support and basic reference for infrared thermal
imaging technology to monitor surface tempera-
ture on coal waste piles (B. Lehmann et al. 2013).
2 EXPERIMENT METHOD
Infrared thermography with TH9100 MV/WV
which is 320 240 pixel has been applied in this
study. The instrument which imported from Japan
is a non-contact, high sensitive infrared thermal
radiation imager. The infrared thermography with
H9100 MV/WV is equipped with processing soft-
ware MikroSpec4, the temperature of any point in
thermal infrared image can be read by moving the
cross cursor in the software.
The experimental site is located in the northwest
of Wangzhuang coal mine in Changzhi, Shanxi
Province in China. The temperatures of the cracks
and high-temperature combustion site have been
detected by the geothermometer before experiment.
It has been found that the temperature of some
cracks and combustion sites is ranging from 573 to
673 K. The inflammable point of incense is close to
the temperature of local high-temperature combus-
tion zone in waste piles, so the incense is arranged
on waste piles as a target point. This approach aims
at highlighting the target point, easy to read the
temperature of fixed points and achieving more
precise results (LI Yun-hong et al. 2007).

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 357 8/27/2014 6:01:31 PM

 2.1 Impact of distance
Infrared thermography is erected vertically to the
objective and the target point is targeted by lens.
The meter ruler with the range from 0 to 50 meters
is paved on the line between the target point and
infrared thermography. Detecting the tempera-
ture of target point is from 1 to 20 meters in the
1 meters sampling interval and from 25 meters to
50 meters in the 5 meters sampling interval, meas-
ure five times for each distance and the final result
is means of five tests so as to reduce the effect of
accidental error. The true temperature of the target
point is 760.1500 K, which has been detected by
geothermometer (ZHANG Yong et al. 2011).
2.2 Impact of wind speed
The experimental site of wind speed is the same
with the distance experiment. Infrared thermogra-
phy is erected to detect the temperature of the target
point in the range from 3 meters to 19 meters with
2 meters sampling interval. Then use anemometer
with AM-4836 to detect temperature when the
wind speed is ranging from 0 to 4 m/s with 0.5 m/s
sampling interval. Each temperature measurement
has not been conducted until real-time wind speed
is sustained. Take the average of five measure-
ments in order to reduce the impact of accidental
error and increase the accuracy. Detected by the
geothermometer, the true value of the target point
is725.1835 K (LI Zi-jun et al. 2012).
3 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Processing and accuracy analysis
on distance measurement
Before extracting temperature value from thermal
infrared images, images should be imported to
software MikroSpec4. In software, some important
parameters such as ambient temperature, humid-
ity, radiation rate and so on are reset to make com-
pensation for infrared thermal images again so as
to reduce error affected by environmental factors.
Position the cross cursor where the intermediate
pixel of burning incense is and try to ensure in the
same location each time. And then temperature
value could be read by software MikroSpec4.
Take the average of five times temperature
measurements as the final temperature and deter-
mine the mean square error. Experimental data is
shown in Table 1. The distance-temperature curve
diagram is drawn according to the relationship
between distance and temperature.
We can draw the conclusion from Table 1:
1) From 1 to 7 meters, the temperature declines
rapidly with the increase of distance and the
358
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 358
temperature remains in an unstable distribution
situation. Temperature measurement is suscepti-
ble to be interfered by distance and not suitable
as detection distance. 2) From 8 to 20 meters, the
trend of temperature decreases slightly and then
maintains stable with distance increases. The tem-
perature measurement of adjacent range changes
very slowly and the highest temperature difference
is up to 28.7 K, so the range of this distance is suit-
able for waste piles to detect surface temperature
by infrared thermography. 3) From 21 to 50 meters,
the temperature has a downward tendency and
appears some fluctuating points with the increase
of distance. Meanwhile, due to the increasing dis-
tance, atmospheric refraction, ambient radiation
and other factors have great influence on tempera-
ture measurement. So it is inappropriate for this
range of distance to detect temperature.
Mean square error is also shown in Table 1. It can
be concluded that: 1) The Root Mean Square error
(RMS) is relatively large from 1 to 10 meters. The
largest RMS is 3.3789 K and the trend is dimin-
ishing, only some individual points which jump up
and down a lot and are not steady. It shows that
accuracy of temperature measurement is low and
the results fluctuate strongly in this range. 2) From
11 to 16 meters, the RMS decreases obviously
which has a float with 0.2 K. The RMS is stable.
It is illustrated that the measurement accuracy is
high in this range and it is suitable for tempera-
ture detection. 3) From 17 to 50 meters, the RMS
becomes large with the increase of distance and the
RMS stays at about 0.75 K. Accuracy of temper-
ature measurement decreases as distance increases.
It is largely caused by its surrounding environment.
Therefore, it is unsuitable to detect temperature in
this range.
Considering the trend analysis on temperature
measurement and accuracy above, we can con-
clude that from 11 to16 meters, amplitude of fluc-
tuation decreases and proves to be stable with the
increase of distance. Meanwhile, the largest RMS
is 0.2646 K and the high level of measurement
accuracy is suitable for waste piles to monitor sur-
face temperature by infrared thermography. There-
fore, the range of this distance is available for field
data observation and obtainment, it is optimal as
measurement distance range.
3.2 Temperature compensation model
Table 1 shows that the trend of temperature drops
sharply with the increase of distance and it even
appears hopping points. The farther the distance
is, the bigger error between the measurement
temperature and the real temperature. In order
to ensure temperature accuracy in a certain dis-
tance and restore the real surface temperature on
8/27/2014 6:01:31 PM
 Table 1. Temperature value and mean square error under the different distances.

First Second Third Mean square

Distance (m) observation (K) observation (K) observation (K) Average (K) error (K) Error (K)

1 760.95 760.75 756.05 759.25 2.6029 0.90

2 708.75 708.85 704.15 707.25 2.6851 52.90
3 665.05 664.85 663.05 663.65 2.2539 96.50
4 419.75 414.85 412.05 415.6 3.9357 344.55
5 373.05 372.15 370.95 372.1 1.0536 388.05
6 352.25 351.65 348.05 350.7 2.2712 409.45
7 338.95 338.25 336.65 338.0 1.1790 422.15
8 330.15 329.85 327.15 329.1 1.6523 431.05
9 323.45 323.15 321.65 322.8 0.9644 437.35
10 320.15 319.75 319.05 319.7 0.5568 440.45
11 310.65 310.65 310.95 310.75 0.1732 449.40
12 310.95 310.85 311.05 310.95 0.1000 449.20
13 311.05 310.85 310.65 310.9 0.2000 449.25
14 310.95 310.85 310.45 310.8 0.2449 449.35
15 310.95 310.55 310.45 310.7 0.2646 449.45
16 310.05 310.15 309.95 310.1 0.1000 450.05
17 307.35 307.25 306.55 307.05 0.4359 453.10
18 306.35 306.05 305.45 305.95 0.4583 454.20
19 306.15 306.05 305.35 305.9 0.4359 454.25
20 305.25 304.85 302.95 304.4 0.7810 455.75
25 302.25 302.05 300.65 301.7 0.8718 458.45
30 300.45 300.05 298.75 299.8 0.8889 460.35
35 299.05 299.05 297.85 298.7 0.6928 461.45
40 298.35 298.15 297.05 298.0 0.7106 462.15
45 298.15 297.75 296.75 297.6 0.7211 462.55
50 297.95 297.35 296.45 297.3 0.7550 462.85

waste piles, experimental temperature data should
be compensated. Focused on the optimal obser-
vation distance from 11 to 16 meters, distance-
temperature compensation model is proposed
according to the difference between the real tem-
perature and the temperature measured by infra-
red thermography:
y 0 01458x 4 0.7773x3 + 15.5104 x 2
137.2405x + 903.3785
The correlation index is R2 = 0.998, therefore
it is proved that the model formula is reasonable
with such high index. We can modify the error by
the application of the compensation model in con-
ditions of the optimal observation distance. The
results of temperature compensation are shown in
Table 2.
Temperature modified by temperature com-
pensation model is similar to the real temperature
of the target point and its maximum error is only
0.17 K (Table 2). It is sufficient to meet the need
of accuracy for surface temperature on waste piles
(Ming Fu Chiang et al. 2008).
3.3 Analysis on wind speed measurement
The preliminary data process of wind speed is simi-
lar to distance process. Considering the field actual
condition and the optimal observation distance
measured by infrared thermography, the trend of
wind speed-temperature has been mainly analyzed
under the conditions of close distance and the
optimal observation distance. The data are shown
in Table 3. Curve diagram is drawn according to
(1) the relationship between wind speed and tempera-
ture (Fig. 1).
We can conclude from Table 3 and Figure 1:
1) Longitudinal analysis: From 3 to 19 meters, what-
ever wind speed changes, temperature decreases
with the 2 meters increase of distance. When the
distance is 17 meters and the wind speed is 3.5 m/s,
the temperature is 504.8833 K which is higher than
the one in the same wind speed with 15 meters. By
analyzing and comparing with other regular data,
the data may be wrong due to artificial operator or
the effect of mutations in the surrounding environ-
ment at that time. Therefore, this point should be
neglected. 2) Lateral analysis: When wind speed is
0 m/s (without wind), the measurement temperatures

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 Table 2. Comparison measurement temperature and compensation temperature in optimal
distance.

Distance (m)/
Temperature (K) 11 12 13 14 15 16

Real temperature 310.75 310.95 310.9 310.8 310.7 310.1

Compensation 760.12 760.09 760.10 760.04 760.03 759.98
Difference 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.11 0.12 0.17

Table 3. Temperature in the different wind speed and distances.

Distance (m)/
Windspeed (m/s) 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19

0 714.3167 695.4500 649.2500 633.8833 605.4167 568.2167 524.8167 503.6500 482.1833

0.5 689.6167 649.4167 622.9167 600.2833 548.5500 535.0490 515.9167 491.9180 472.5167
1 671.9498 634.1180 612.9500 605.3833 568.5500 538.6480 538.5500 511.4500 493.8167
1.5 699.0500 671.1500 639.7167 612.4500 578.8833 559.7167 537.1167 519.9180 509.1370
2 678.0356 663.5040 642.9500 617.7167 592.4500 557.9480 544.0167 523.0290 511.4920
2.5 693.0500 672.8833 647.4167 613.1500 586.2500 562.8480 540.4833 524.8370 514.8080
3 710.4500 674.0260 648.9833 616.3167 579.9500 557.5420 529.0500 517.9460 504.4040
3.5 716.7833 669.8170 626.8500 600.5167 541.6167 523.0290 491.7500 504.8833 474.5167
4 676.1833 624.1280 560.5500 503.3833 485.0833 469.4500 455.3833 467.8960 461.0570

The temperature is stable in this range, it is suitable

for coal waste piles to detect surface temperature.
When wind speed is ranging from 3 to 4 m/s, the
relationship presents a reverse tendency once again.
The reason is that the combustion of coal waste
intensifies with the increasing wind speed. The bal-
ance is broken because heat loss is larger than heat
production, which leads to a decline in temperature
slightly. Therefore, this range is unsuitable to detect
surface temperature.

3.4 Wind speed compensation model

Figure 1. Temperature curve diagram in different wind
speed and distances.
are higher than the ones in conditions of wind.
When wind speed is ranging from 0 to 1.5 m/s, the
relationship between temperature and wind speed
presents a reverse trend and then changes into a
positive trend. It is caused by the intensification of
waste combustion with the increase of wind speed,
the balance between heat production and heat loss
has been broken. When wind speed is from 1.5 to
3 m/s, the temperature tends reposefully to a fixed
value. The reason is that after breaking the origi-
nal balance, the balance between heat production
and heat loss is restored with increasing wind
speed gradually. The temperature is closed to the
observed temperature in the absence of any wind.
From above analysis, we can conclude that with
the increase of wind speed, the temperature shows
downward and then upward trend. It turns to be
stable after falling. In order to reduce the impact
of wind speed on temperature measurement accu-
racy and reconstruct the real surface temperature,
observed temperature should be compensated. We
should control the error to the minimum. Distance
has great impact of temperature measurement accu-
racy and could not be ignored. Therefore, the wind
speed-temperature compensation model has been
put forward in the optimal observation distance
from 11 to 16 meters. Models are shown in Table 4.
The correlation indexs R2 are all greater than
0.99, it has been proved that the correlation between
the models and the measurement data is high and
the models are more reasonable. Modify the error
by the application of the wind speed-temperature
compensation model in concern of the optimal

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 Table 4. Wind-temperature compensation models.

Distance (m) Mathematical model

11 y = 2.4432x6 + 32.3259x5 166.0992x4 + 423.6890x3 547.8159x2 + 299.1235x + 118.8511

13 y = 1.4407x6 + 18.9206x5 95.9292x4 + 243.3321x3 319.3344x2 + 179.9457x + 156.6986
15 y = 2.8144x6 + 33.9739x5 155.3647x4 + 338.0105x3 346.0345x2 + 121.2282x + 200.2311

Table 5. Comparison real temperature with compensation temperature in the optimal observation distance.

Wind speed (m/s)/

Temperature (K) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

11 m Real value 605.41 548.55 568.55 578.88 592.45 586.25 579.95 541.61 485.08
67 00 00 33 00 00 00 67 33
Compensated value 724.26 723.56 726.18 720.55 728.27 721.29 725.4971 723.97 724.44
78 08 12 22 33 28 81 91
Difference 0.91 1.62 0.99 4.63 3.08 3.89 0.31 1.20 0.73
57 27 77 13 98 07 36 54 44
13 m Real value 568.21 535.04 538.64 559.71 557.94 562.84 557.54 523.02 469.45
67 90 80 67 80 80 20 90 00
Compensated value 724.91 726.87 720.84 730.70 722.24 724.38 727.2050 724.24 725.54
53 65 07 35 44 19 39 74
Difference 0.26 1.69 4.34 5.52 2.93 0.80 2.02 0.93 0.36
82 30 28 00 91 16 15 96 39
15 m Real value 524.81 515.91 538.55 537.11 544.01 540.48 529.05 491.75 455.38
67 67 00 67 67 33 00 00 33
Compensated value 725.04 723.81 727.78 720.79 727.85 724.20 724.3581 725.25 724.77
78 20 01 56 82 40 65 52
Difference 0.1357 1.3715 2.5966 4.3879 2.6747 0.9795 0.8254 0.0730 0.4083

observation distance and achieve the correction.
Temperature compensation is shown in Table 5.
Table 5 shows that the measurement temperature
modified by wind speed-temperature compensation
model is close to the real temperature of the target
point and its maximum error is about 5 K, its mini-
mum error is 0.073 K. The error is enough to meet
the need of temperature measurement accuracy by
infrared thermography. The interference from wind
speed on the temperature provides trend analysis
and theoretical model (Glynn C. Hulley et al. 2010).
3.5 Analysis on combined factors
The analysis above indicates that combined fac-
tors, distance and wind speed, have an impact
on the temperature to a certain extent by infra-
red thermography, but it is unable to analyze the
degree and significance of influence quantitatively.
Therefore, aiming at analyzing the temperature
detection affected by combined factors quantita-
tively, the test data is analyzed in the application of
double-factor analysis of variance. The results are
shown in Table 6.
From Table 6, we can see that p-value 1.20105e-042
and 6.25999e-016 is less than 0.01. It is illustrated
that combined factors, distance and wind speed,
have a noteworthy impact on temperature detec-
tion when significance level is 0.01.
For the sake of further exploring the correlation,
the test data is analyzed by correlation analysis
method based on SPSS17.0 software. The correla-
tion index matrix is shown in Table 7.
We can see a negative correlation respectively
between distance and temperature or wind speed
and temperature from Table 6 and Table 7. The
correlation index between distance and tempera-
ture is 0.923, and the correlation index between
wind speed and temperature is 0.150. It is illus-
trated that the distance is positively correlated
to temperature which is the dominant factor.
Temperature affected by wind speed could be
ignored with the requirement for low measurement
accuracy. According to Table 3, it is concluded that
the temperature decreases sharply with the increase
of distance and distance has great influence on the
temperature. The temperature expressed by differ-
ent color bands slightly rises and then descends,
at last, it tends to be stable with the increase of
wind speed. The temperature fluctuated largely
affected by low wind speed when distance is about
6 meters. The wind speed is from 2 to 3.5 m/s, the

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 361 8/27/2014 6:01:32 PM

 Table 6. Double-factor analysis of variance table.
Source Sum Square (SS) Degree of Freedom (df)
Distance 368150.1 8 46018.8
Wind speed 40324.2 8 5040.5
Error 14282.2 64
Total 422756.5 80
Table 7. The correlation index matrix.
Distance Wind speed Temperature
Distance 1.000 0.000 0.923
Wind speed 0.000 1.000 0.150
Temperature 0.923 0.150 1.000
color bands tend to be straight which proves less
influenced by wind speed. From 17 to 20 meters,
the temperature is obviously low and largely influ-
enced by the wind speed with color bands straticu-
late (X. Querol et al. 2008).
4 CONCLUSIONS
1. With the increasing distance, the difference of
surface temperature values increases gradually
and tends towards stability eventually. The opti-
mal observation distance is from 11 to16 meters
due to the RMS is stable with a high accuracy.
The distance-temperature compensation model
is proposed to modify the measurement temper-
ature. The results show that the maximum error
is only 0.17 K and this accuracy is enough to
meet the need of temperature detection accuracy
on coal waste piles by infrared thermography.
2. With the increasing wind speed, the surface
temperature detected by infrared thermal imag-
ing technology firstly presents a reverse trend,
secondly changes into a positive trend, thirdly
trends to be stable and finally decreases slightly.
Based on test data, the wind speed-temperature
compensation model is proposed to modify
the measurement temperature in the optimal
observation distance. The results show that the
maximum error is about 5 K. The temperature
accuracy is greatly improved and the real sur-
face temperature on coal waste piles is restored.
3. By means of double-factor analysis of vari-
ance and correlation analysis, we can quanti-
tatively conclude that distance and wind speed
have significant influence on temperature when
significance level is 0.01. Taking combined fac-
tors into account, we can come to a conclusion
362
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 362
Mean Square (MS) F value P value
206.21 1.20105e-042
22.59 6.25999e-016
223.2
that the temperature decreased sharply with the
increasing distance. There is a strong inverse
relationship between distance and temperature.
With the increasing wind speed, the temperature
firstly decreases and then increases and finally it
tends to be stable. There is a weak inverse rela-
tionship between them.
REFERENCES
Carpentier, O., D. Defer, E. Antczak, B. Duthoit. 2005. The
use of infrared thermographic and GPS topographic
surveys to monitor spontaneous combustion of coal
tips. Applied Thermal Engineering, 25, 26772686.
Glynn C. Hulley, Simon J. Hook, Alice M. Baldridge.
2010. Investigating the effects of soil moisture on ther-
mal infrared land surface temperature and emissivity
using satellite retrievals and laboratory measurements.
Remote sensing of Environment, 114(7):14801493.
Lehmann, B., K. Ghazi Wakili, Th. Frank, B. Vera
Collado, Ch. Tanner. 2013. Effects of individual cli-
matic parameters on the infrared thermography of
buildings. Applied Energy, 110, 2943.
Liu. H., Wu. C., Yang. F.Q., Li. Y.W. 2010. Detection
of spontaneous combustion of sulfide ores by infra-
red thermal imaging method. Science & Technology
Review, 28(2): 9195.
Li. Y.H., Sun. X.G., Yuan. G.B. 2007. Accurate measur-
ing temperature with infrared thermal imager. Optics
and Precision Engineering, 15(9):13361341.
Li. Z.J., Shi. D.P., Wu. C., Wang. X.L. 2012. Infrared
thermography for prediction of spontaneous combus-
tion of sulfide ores. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals
Society of China, 22, 30953102.
Ming. F.C., Po-Wei Lin, Li-Fong Lin. 2008. Mass Screen-
ing of Suspected Febrile Patients with Remote sens-
ing Infrared Thermography: Alarm Temperature and
Optimal Distance. Journal of the Formosan Medical
Association, 107(12):937944.
Querol, X., M. lzquierdo, E. Monfort, E. Alvarez, O. Font,
T. Moreno, A. Alastuey, X. Zhuang, W. Lu, Y. Wang.
2008. Environmental characterization of burnt coal
waste banks at Yangquan, Shanxi Province, China.
International Journal of Coal Geology, 75(2):93104.
Stracher, G.B., Taylor, T.P. 2004. Coal fires burning out
of control around the world: thermodynamic recipe
for environmental catastrophe. Coal Geol, 59, 717.
Zhan G.Y., Wang X.S, He M. 2011. Influence of Distance
on Temperature Measurement Accuracy of Infrared
Thermal Imager and Error Correction. Infrared,
32(2):2427.
8/27/2014 6:01:32 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Reclamation of mine tailings using natural peat

A. Mikhailov
National Mineral Resources University, Saint Petersburg, Russia

ABSTRACT: This work was carried out on tailings from the Greens Creek Mine, Alaska. Establishment
of vegetation on the Greens Creek Mine tailings deposit is planned to take place at closure of the mine,
using natural peat as soil. The Greens Creek Mine tailings are silt-sized and composed primarily of pyrite,
dolomite, quartz, and barite. Hecla Greens Creek Mining Company would place an engineered four-layer
soil cover over the tailings disposal facility to minimize the amount of air and water that might enter
the tailings after permanent closure. The closure plan for the tailings disposal facility at Greens Creek
prescribes an engineered soil cover specifically designed to reduce available oxygen below the cover in the
tailings. The cover is primarily designed to prevent diffusion of oxygen in a vapor state into the tailings.
The water-saturated layer incorporated into the proposed cover design is intended to limit the flux of oxy-
gen into tailings to that which can be dissolved in water and infiltrated. Ultimately, the rate of water flux
through the cover at closure would determine the rate of oxygen ingress to tailings, which in turn would
dictate the rate of pyrite oxidation. Peat from bogs represents a vast renewable source of organic matter.
Peat bog is near the tailings disposal facility of Greens Creek Mine. Peat cover materials are beneficial in
the provision of a top cover for the introduction and maintenance of a vegetative cover.

1 INTRODUCTION or collected surface waterin varying quantities

Reclamation planning may vary for northern sites
compared with sites in temperate climates. Design,
construction and schedules for mine operation and
reclamation may be affected by the location, ter-
rain, and climate of the given site. Northern mines
are often located in remote areas with restricted
accessibility; limited road access or seasonal access.
The degree of vegetation, boulder, and water cover
at a given site are other factors to consider in recla-
mation planning (Mine 2007).
Revegetation of all areas affected by mining
activities should be considered. This may involve
the establishment of media to support vegetation
growth:
re-establish the pre-mining ground cover, which
may involve encouraging self-sustainable indig-
enous vegetation growth;
provide wildlife habitat where appropriate and
feasible;
assist with providing physical stability of mine
components.
Tailings containment systems include: embank-
ments, such as dams or dykes that retain tailings
or non-compliant water related to the tailings
and slurry, surface paste, and dry stack facilities.
Impoundment areas may contain a variety of
materialstailings, waste rock, domestic sewage,
and chemistry.
Revegetation/reclamation of land areas dis-
turbed by man, primarily in exploitation of
natural resources and creation of transportation
corridors, has been an ongoing concern for over
fifty years.
Since the 1970s the use of native plants has
often been suggested as a potential answer to prob-
lems associated with revegetation of disturbed
sites. (Vaartnou 2000).
Possible benefits which may be achieved
through the use of native species include any of
the following:
aid in erosion and dust control;
provision of forage for wildlife and domestic
species;
improvement of aesthetic values;
improvement of soil through:
a) nitrogen fixation;
b) provision of organic matter.
This article assesses effectiveness of peat soil
from nearest bog for tailings disposal facility of
Greens Creek Mine for its sustainable and benefi-
cial use. The focus is on stabilization of the tail-
ings with vegetation, using natural peat using after
excavation. Peat cover materials are beneficial in
the provision of a top cover for the introduction
and maintenance of a vegetative cover.

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 2 BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM (Fig. 1). The current tailings system was permitted
DEFINITION in 2003 to last until 2025, but now is estimated to
fill to capacity by 2014.
The Hecla Greens Creek Mining Company The requested new expansion will, according to
(HGCMC) is the largest primary silver producer in the mine, will be adequate for 3050 years, which
the U.S. and one of the lowest-cost producers, and is the new estimated life of the mine. The mine
a growing low-cost gold producer. The Company has the right under its lease agreement to continue
owns two primary silver mines in Alaska (Greens mining until 2095, so further expansion beyond
Creek) and Idaho (Lucky Friday) and the Casa 50 years is probable.
Berardi gold mine in Quebec. Expected 2014 silver Tailings are the non-valuable waste product
production is between 9.5 and 10 million ounces of mineral processing. Approximately half of the
with expected gold production of 180,000 ounces tailings generated are backfilled into underground
(Greens Creek 2013). voids created by the mining process. The remain-
With an active exploration and development der of the tailings (about 180,000 cubic yards
program, the company has consistently grown annually), are filtered and then transported by
its reserve base for future production, with 2014 covered haul truck to the Tailings Disposal Facil-
reserves totaling 170 million ounces of silver and ity (TDF) for permanent disposal (Greens Creek
2.1 million ounces of gold reserves. 2013).
The Greens Creek Mine produces three main Tailings are placed into the TDF as a series of
types of toxic waste. The first type is the waste 1-footlayers (lifts) within discrete disposal loca-
product of the mines mill, which takes ore-bearing tions (cells) to provide for control over compac-
rock and processes it into a concentrated product. tion, drainage, and pore-pressure dissipation. As
The process produces very high amounts (well over part of site reclamation, an engineered soil cover
95%) of waste, which is known as tailings. The will be placed over the TDF.
tailings are finely ground, exposing sulfates within The TDF was designed and constructed with
the rock to the environment, which leads to pro- water management structures that intercept and
duction of sulphuric acid. In addition, the tailings divert surface water and groundwater (non-contact
contain heavy metals as well as chemicals used to water) away from the tailings stack. The tailings
concentrate the ore, such as diesel fuel, xyanthrate,
and cyanide. The mine produced 318,000 tons of
tailings in 2011 (Greens Creek 2013).
The second main type of waste produced by
Greens Creek mine is acid producing waste rock
that does not go into the mill because of low ore
content. Waste rock can still contain high amounts
of suphates and must be disposed of in a tailings
dump to reduce acid contamination of surface
waters. About 41,000 tons of waste rock was depos-
ited into Greens Creeks tailings dump in 2011.
The third and most significant from an ecologi-
cal stand point type of toxic waste produced by
the mine is contaminated water. This water comes
from a variety of sources, including water pumped
out of the mine, water removed from tailings prior
to dry stack disposal, and water that percolates
through the tailings pile. These waters contain a
wide variety of toxic metals (lead, mercury, cad-
mium, arsenic) as well as other contaminants. All
of these waters are pumped to a collecting pond
and treated by a special facility prior to disposal
into Hawk Inlet (Greens Creek 2013).

3 PROPOSED TAILINGS EXPANSION

Currently, Greens Creek is in the process of apply-

ing for a permit to expand their tailings pile by Figure 1. Greens Creek Tailings Facility (Greens Creek
15 million tons, covering 60 additional acres 2013).

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 364 8/27/2014 6:01:33 PM

 stack incorporated internal drainage structures to
promote low phreatic levels. Water coming in con-
tact with the tailings is collected and treated to meet
permitted water quality standards, and ultimately
discharged to the environment. Western Hemlock
and Sitka Spruce dominate the prolific rainforest
vegetation. Cool temperatures and high annual pre-
cipitation characterize the temperate coastal rain-
forest ecosystem (Innovative Tailings 2012).
Waste rock is rock that has metals concentra-
tions below those that can be economically proc-
essed. Waste rock must be removed to gain access
to the ore material. Waste rock excavated during
underground operations is either directly back-
filled underground into areas that have been mined
out or hauled from the mine to the surface and
stockpiled.
Co-disposal would reduce the rates of pyrite oxi-
dation and metal leaching from waste rock by sur-
rounding it with the tailings. The tailings provide
a fine-grained bedding material, which reduces
the amount of waste rock surface area exposed to
oxygen. The benefit of co-disposal of waste rock
with tailings at the TDF include:
lowering oxidation rates in the waste rock and
extending its acid neutralization capacity;
improving pore water chemistry relative to
that of tailings and waste rock disposed of
separately;
improved drainage quality at sites where waste
rock is removed; and,
Figure 2. Map of selected Alternative D modified
from the forest service record of decision for the Greens
Creek tailings disposal facility expansion (Greens
Creek 2013).
365
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 365
consolidation of waste sites reduces the overall
number of sites needing engineered covers.
The selected alternative authorizes Greens
Creek Mine to expand the existing tailings dis-
posal facility further south into Admiralty Island
Monument by about 18 acres, which adds approxi-
mately 2.1 million cubic yards of storage capacity
to the facility. An additional 8 acres is authorized
to be developed outside of the Monument for rock
quarry and reclamation material storage sites and
expanding an existing water management pond. At
the expected rate of tailings disposal, the expansion
extends the time at which the facility will reach its
capacity by approximately 10 years (Fig. 2) (Greens
Creek 2013).
The selected alternative avoids disposal of tail-
ings in the vicinity of Tributary Creek, a stream
that the Forest Service has designated as a fish
habitat. It also does not include a proposed second
tailings disposal facility in the Fowler Creek area
and removes a proposed expansion of the exist-
ing tailings facility by 7.2 acres northeast into the
Cannery Creek water-shed.
4 DESIGN CRITERIA
The closure plan for the TDF at Greens Creek
prescribes an engineered soil cover specifically
designed to reduce available oxygen below the cover
in the tailings. The cover is primarily designed to
prevent diffusion of oxygen in a vapor state into
the tailings. The water-saturated layer incorporated
into the proposed cover design is intended to limit
the flux of oxygen into tailings to that which can
be dissolved in water and infiltrated. Ultimately,
the rate of water flux through the cover at closure
would determine the rate of oxygen ingress to tail-
ings, which in turn would dictate the rate of pyrite
oxidation.
Hecla Greens Creek Mining Company would
place an engineered four-layer soil cover over the
TDF to minimize the amount of air and water that
might enter the tailings after permanent closure.
This cover design would be the same for all alter-
natives. The performance of the engineered four-
layer soil test cover at Site 23 (waste rock disposal
site near the 920 portal) has been monitored since
2000 and data from the program will be incorpo-
rated into the final cover design at mine closure.
The components and characteristics of the pro-
posed engineered four-layer soil cover (Greens
Creek 2013) over the tailings are as follows:
Lower Capillary Break: The first layer directly
on top of the tailings material would consist of
drain rock. Layers of rock through which water
can drain from the layers above create capillary
breaks. The small gaps between the rocks also keep
8/27/2014 6:01:33 PM
 water within the tailings from wicking up through
the cover by capillary action. This layer would
function as a lower capillary break to drain seep-
age from above layers and to remove water that
might pick up through the tailings. The rock used
for this layer would be mine waste rock, quarry
rock, or rock imported to the site from an off-
island source.
Compacted (Barrier) Layer: The second layer
would be composed of a clay soil. This layer would
be a compacted, low permeability barrier layer that
would minimize water and oxygen infiltration into
the tailings pile. This layer is designed to stay 85%
saturated to minimize air and water infiltration.
Upper Capillary Break: The third layer would
consist of another layer of drain rock. The layer
would function as an upper capillary break in a
similar fashion as the lower capillary break and
drain seepage from the growth layer.
Growth Layer: The fourth or top layer would
be composed of reclamation growth material.
This material would support vegetation, as well as
provide a small amount of recharge water to the
underlying compacted (barrier) layer to maintain
saturation. This material would support the for-
est vegetation, such as western hemlock and Sitka
spruce that would be allowed to naturally regen-
erate on the reclaimed tailings. The plant growth
layer would be between 0.6 and 0.9 m thick.
Figure 3 shows the engineered soil cover.
Soils on the basis of peat can be widely used for
mined land reclamation. The proposed soils are
biologically active; they contain nutrients in the
Figure 3. The engineered soil cover for reclamation
placed on a 3:1 slope.
Table 1. Excavation zone of peat.
Excavation Approximate
area length (m)
Pond 10 182.9
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 366
required quantity and ensure the creation of an
effective remediation layer with a porous structure
and well pleasing agro-physical properties for the
development of root systems of plants. As a result,
the surface of re-cultivating layer quickly grows
over and the plants form a solid sod surface layer.
The latter is particularly important in rehabilitation,
for example, dusting slime storage and waste heap.
Peat soils have porous structure, create good
conditions for the development of root systems,
and it does not contain pathogens. Practically all
types of peat are suitable for preparing the soil peat
soils: black, transitional, and low-mire. However,
the best for this purpose is grassy low-mire peat
and wood groups with slightly acidic (pH = 5 6),
with the degree of decomposition of H4-H5. Peat
can be obtained from a local source near the TDF
(Table 1). The stratigraphy of this peat deposit
consist by a 3 m thick layer. Figure 4 shows the
Excavation Zone of Peat (Pond 10).
Reclamation growth medium material (con-
sisting of peat) would be removed from the areas
disturbed by enlargement or construction of any
of the TDF structures and placed into stockpiles.
This material would be used for reclamation.
Figure 5 shows the Excavation Process.
Stockpiles would be protected from erosion;
the existing mitigation measures to prevent wind
erosion of the TDF and stockpiles include hydro-
seeding, the installation of wind breaks, surface
water diversions, and armoring of slopes with rip-
rap when necessary.
Peat sampled from three sites of Pond 10. Each
sample analyzed for type of peat, moisture con-
tent, pH, ash content and decomposition degree R
(Table 2).
Peat Soil. The creation of organic layer on tail-
ings surface could be beneficial in the suppres-
sion of tailings oxidation, in the following five
ways: 1) creation of a physical oxygen barrier,
2) maintenance of an oxygen-consuming barrier,
3) chemical inhibition, 4) chemical amelioration,
and 5) reduction of water infiltration due to com-
paction through decomposition.
Organic cover materials are beneficial in the
provision of a top cover for the introduction and
maintenance of a vegetative cover. The natural
cycling of vegetative growth and decay would assist
in the replenishment of the organic carbon content
of the cover layer. Peat from bogs, although not a
Approximate Area with Approximate
width (m) 15 buffer, (m2) volume (m3)
149.4 21 040 63 120
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8/27/2014 6:01:34 PM

Figure 4. Excavation zone of peat (Pond 10).
Table 2. Technical parameters of peat.
Sample Type of peat
SG8 02.5 m Low-mire grassy
SG9 04.2 m Transitional woody sphagnum
SG10 01.0 m Low-mire sedge-moss
waste material, represents a vast renewable source
of organic matter. Peat bogs are often found near
base metal and precious metal mines (Linda et al.
1996).
5 RATIONALE
Natural revegetation relies on the tendency of
vegetation to move into a disturbed area. Plants,
whether natural or manmade, will eventually rec-
olonize most disturbances. The conditions that
determine the length of time needed to produce a
cover of vegetation depend upon several factors,
including proximity of viable seed sources, surface
condition of the disturbed area, and local environ-
mental conditions.
With time, most disturbed sites will revegetate nat-
urally. However, very few landowners and managers
find this revegetation approach acceptable. Proper
surface preparation and fertilization can hasten the
establishment of native plants, but the process can
take many years. Also, prediction of the eventual
cover or species composition of an area designated
to be revegetated by natural processes is uncertain.
High organic peat soilsuggest fertilizer only. The
best we can do is help the natural processes recover
the species and processes that are appropriate for
the site being treated (Polster 2009).
Revegetation with native species provides
the advantages of better adaptation to the
367
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 367
Figure 5. Removal of peat and reclamation materials
ahead of foundation preparation for tailings placement.
Moisture, % pH Ash, % dry R, %/von Post
92.0 6 4.2 30/H5
89.7 5 8.0 25/H4
87.7 5 5.6 30/H5
environmental conditions and a more natural
appearance in their setting than introduced species.
In general, the use of introduced species for lawns
and playing fields is acceptable. Wright 1997, repre-
sents the large-scale trial of mosses in experience on
Shemya Island, Alaska of the revegetation process
on the peat during four years was determined that
a 9095% cover existed on the peat overlay. Species
composition increased to 31 species. The resulting
cover and rapid development of cover surprised the
observer. The method of restoration has been suc-
cessful and should be considered on future sites of
a similar nature on the Alaska.
Future users of this technique must also be
aware that the fill material used on the site was
taken from a more upland site. The fill was immedi-
ately excavated and replaced. The drastic difference
in species composition on the fill when compared
to the surrounding wetlands, is probably the result
of the original source of the fill. The material was
taken from an upland area. The species now grow-
ing on the fill are usually associated with more
upland sites. The peat fill will also have a different
hydrologic makeup than the surrounding wetlands;
factors also responsible for the composition dif-
ferences. The upland nature of the new vegetation
cover is also indicative of the more dynamic nature
of upland species. Upland species are, for the most
part, more aggressive invaders of disturbed sites.
The open wetlands is in the center of the project
area, and in the southwest corner of the TDF
8/27/2014 6:01:35 PM
 are bogs, that grade from open woodland bog
dominated by Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),
mountain hemlock, Labrador tea (Ledum groen-
landicum), crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), cloud-
berry (Rubus chaemamorus), and several species of
Sphagnum, to an open bog dominated by several
small Carex species, round-leafed sundew (Drosera
rotundifolia) (Greens Creek 2013, Wright 2007).
Use Sphagnum Mosses for revegetation
(Adams & Lamoureux 2005):
1. Successful natural pioneers. Mosses are amongst
the first natural colonizers of disturbed soils,
and overburden. Indeed, they frequently invade
many of the former North sites.
2. Initiators of the soil formation process. Moss
mats trap silt, spores and seeds, and decaying
moss tissue builds up humus, which all contrib-
ute to the initial stages of soil formation.
3. Able to improve vascular plants establishment.
In some situations, mosses have improved ger-
mination, emergence and survival rate of juve-
nile vascular plants.
4. Relatively successful in harsh environments.
Mosses can tolerate repeated cycles of drying
and re-wetting, and grow at altitudes above the
limits of vascular plants.
5. Tolerant of heavy metals. Many moss species
are common colonizers of metal contaminated
habitats (e.g. mine tailings) and survive in some
of the most toxic of micro-sites.
6. Tolerant of low pH. Many mosses have been
shown to have the ability to grow and develop
in very acid conditions.
7. Easily propagated using vegetative fragments.
Effective methods were already developed for
fast establishment of mosses from vegetative
fragments. Since these fragments are collected
locally, the gene pool and natural bio diversity
are preserved.
Indigenousspecies are preferable because they
are most likely to fit into fully functional ecosys-
tem and are climatically adapted (Chaney et al.
2007). Plant establishment at the peat soil usually
is fast and complete plant covers the peat surface
after 23 years (Mikhailov 2012). Stanley et al.
(2000) provide good methods and directions for
re-establishing bryophyte communities on sever-
ally degraded low pH rock communities. Further-
more, there is a substantial volume of Canadian
research in the re-establishment of Sphagnum
mosses (Quinty & Rochefort 1997; Rochefort
2000). Sphagnum typically grows on acidic condi-
tions, and many believe because of its high cation
exchange capacity that it may be a very suitable
plant for some of the northern wetland treatment
methods and tailing revegetation. Briefly, the tech-
niques used are based on 1) active re-introduction
368
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 368
of peatland plant diaspores (collected Sphagnum
plants), 2) the use of mulches to ameliorate the
otherwise harsh substrate conditions in which
diaspores are developing and 3) blockage of the
natural drainage to induce flooding.
6 CONCLUSION
Field-scale trials and retrospective studies will pro-
vide further information that may better inform
placement of reclamation material containing
indigenous peat. For elimination of negative tech-
nogenic impact on environment, it is recommended:
carrying out biological recultivation on the tailings
with application of agrotechnical receptions and
uses of local peat. Use of natural peat renders the
most effective result.
The revegetation must be carried out with the
plants selected on the basis of their ability to sur-
vive and regenerate in the local environment, and on
their ability to stabilize the soil structure. The most
effective way of fixing of tailings dams of various
origin is biological recultivation with use of local
populations of bog plants. The key issue at some
northern tailings may be a lack of sufficiently large
areas that have been reclaimed to sample, although
this may be beneficial as restoration strategies may
need to be modified to achieve success.
REFERENCES
Adams P.W. and Lamoureux S. 2005. The Use of Native
Northern Plants for the Re-Vegetation of Arctic Mine
Tailings and Mine Waste. URL: http://www.enr.gov.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Improving the quality of recycled fine aggregates by selective

removal of brittleness defects

T. Nawa
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan

H. Ogawa
Taiheiyo Consultant Co., Ltd., Sakura, Chiba, Japan

ABSTRACT: This study presents a method for improving the quality of recycled fine aggregate by
selectively removing these defects. Fourteen recycled fine aggregates were manufactured by three types of
processors including a jaw crusher, ball mill, and granulator. The influence of the recycled fine aggregate
on the fluidity and strength of the mortar was evaluated. The results showed that fluidity was mainly
affected by the filling fraction of the recycled fine aggregate and the content of components passing
through a 0.075-mm sieve. Both the compressive and flexural strengths of the recycled mortars were unaf-
fected by the filling fraction, but they were affected by the fraction of defects and surface smoothness.
Furthermore, the results clearly showed that polishing is effective both for increasing the filling fraction of
recycled fine aggregates and reducing the fraction of defects in the aggregate, thereby resulting in greater
fluidity and strength of the mortar.

1 INTRODUCTION In view of the above considerations, the use of

Large volumes of aggregate are produced and con-
sumed in the production of concrete and roads. In
Japan, approximately 278 million tons of aggre-
gate were used for concrete and approximately
112 million tons were developed into roads in
2009. This aggregate is used in general construc-
tion and to repair the infrastructure. However,
this also induces the destruction of nature and the
depletion of resources during the extraction of the
aggregate.
On the other hand, the demolition of overage
concrete structures generates large volumes of
concrete waste, which reaches to approximately
35 million tons per year in Japan and comprising
approximately 40% of all construction waste. Most
of this concrete waste is recycled as roadbed gravel.
However, demand for aggregate for road construc-
tion has declined since 1990 (Shibuya et al. 2008).
As a result, there is a growing awareness of other
uses of concrete waste in Japan.
An additional problem is insufficient space of
landfills. The annual volume of industrial waste
dumped is approximately 40 million m3 per year,
and the available landfill capacity is only 180 mil-
lion m3 and is steadily decreasing. The provision of
new landfill sites is extremely difficult due to pro-
tests by the neighboring communities. Moreover,
dumping concrete waste in landfills is undesirable.
recycled aggregate is one way to alleviate the various
problems, in that it helps reduce the consumption
of natural aggregate, promotes the effective use of
concrete waste and reduces the problems related to
the lack of landfill sites. Recycled aggregate made
from concrete waste would be an attractive alterna-
tive to virgin aggregate in new concrete. However,
most of the concrete waste worldwide is either
dumped in landfills or used as roadbed gravel; few
countries use recycled aggregate in concrete.
When recycled aggregate used as an aggregate
for new concrete, the properties of concrete is apt
to be degraded as compared with those used virgin
aggregate. Some researchers have reported the pos-
sibility of improving the performance of the recy-
cled concrete by reducing the adhered cement paste
rate of the recycled aggregate (Fumoto et al. 2002;
Kiji et al. 2003). However, if this rate was reduced
further, the performance of concrete is similar to
that of virgin aggregate (Abe 1997; Shima et al.
2005; Ishikura et al. 2004; Hayakawa et al. 2003).
Alternatively, a method for manufacturing recy-
cled aggregate in which most of the paste is not
separated from the recycled aggregates, but remov-
ing only the brittle parts of the recycled aggre-
gate particles (Nawa et al. 2006a). This could be
achieved by using an attrition mill, which is a type
of autogenous mill (Nawa 2005; Nishida et al. 2005;
Nawa et al. 2006b). A performance of concrete

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 with these recycled aggregates produced by new In this study, the authors focus on the recycled
method was similar to that with the virgin aggregate fine aggregate because the separation of the origi-
although the amount of adhered cement paste rate nal paste from the recycled fine aggregate is more
of the recycled coarse aggregate was higher than difficult than that from the coarse aggregate.
the traditional recycled aggregates; in particular, the
mechanical properties and chloride permeability of
the recycled concrete were equal or superior to those 2 EXPERIMENTAL
of the concrete with virgin natural gravel.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between the 2.1 Production of recycle fine aggregates
adhered cement paste rate of recycled aggregate
In order to manufacture recycled aggregate we
and (a) economy, (b) amount of by-product pro-
used three types of processors with various types
duced, and (c) environmental impact expressed as
of processing actions: jaw crusher, ball mill, and
the amount of emitted CO2. Separating a larger
granulator. Table 1 illustrates the relevant actions
amount of adhered paste increases the manufac-
of these three processor types. As for the jaw
turing cost (Morales et al. 2011), the volume of the
crusher the crushing action is dominant. When the
generated by-product powder, and environmental
recycled fine aggregate is crushed by a jaw crusher,
impact (Ogawa and Nawa 2012, Ogawa et al. 2011).
the grain sizes were reduced to a fraction of the
Therefore, retaining the cement paste adhered to
original sizes. On the other hand, for the granula-
the original aggregate instead of separating it dur-
tor, polishing action is dominant (Ogawa and Nawa
ing the production of recycled aggregate gives it
2012, Ogawa et al. 2007b). As shown in Figure 2,
a substantial advantage. Our new method was
grains rub against each other between the roller
termed as the Defect-Removal (DR) method. The
and the drum, and the grains are broken by the
DR method can selectively remove a portion of the
generated friction. The principle for the operation
brittle parts from the original paste of the recycled
of the granulator is similar to that of the eccentric
aggregate grains having cracks, pores, and voids
rotor type of the grinder (Yanagibashi et al. 1999;
without creating new defects. Thus, the quantities
Yanagibashi 2003). However, the granulator power
of recycled aggregates can become more than that
can be easily controlled within the range of the
of virgin aggregates theoretically.
weak force. We assumed that the brittle parts and
The recycled fine-aggregate grains crushed by
corners of aggregate grains are selectively broken
a jaw crusher have several brittle defects such as
off when the aggregate is polished in a granulator.
cracks, pores, and voids as found in the original
paste. Hence, it should be accurately determined the
relationship between the performance of concrete
and the defective portions in recycled aggregates. Table 1. Action of processors.

Kind of action Jaw crusher Ball mill Granulator

Crushing Strong Middle Weak

Polishing Weak Middle Strong

Figure 1. Concepts of the relationship between the

adhered cement paste rate of recycled aggregate and
economy, amount of by-product produced, and environ-
mental impact expressed as the amount of emitted CO2. Figure 2. Setup of granulator.

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 Ball mill has both actions as shown in Figure 3:
polishing by the rotation of the balls inside the mill
and the impact fracturing between ball particles.
Table 2 shows the specifications of each processor
used in this study.
The original concrete was produced using an
ordinary Portland cement and ordinary aggregate.
The fine aggregate in the original concrete was
land sand with a dry density of 2.65 g/cm3 and a
water absorption of 1.47%. It was manufactured at
a water/cement ratio of 0.55, and the compressive
strength at 28 days was 24 N/mm2. The original con-
crete blocks were exposed outdoor for two years at
Tomakomai-city, Hokkaido, Japan after remold-
ing until its use in the experiments. The original
concrete was crushed by a large jaw crusher into
grains sized 40 mm or less. The crushed material
was passed through a 5-mm sieve, and fine pow-
der not larger than approximately 0.15 mm was
removed by an air separator. The resulting recy-
cled fine aggregate was labeled as starting mate-
rial, R1. Next, the recycled coarse aggregate was
produced by screw grinding (Kimura et al. 2006)
the 5 to 40-mm crushed material remaining on the
5-mm sieve. The fine powder of the fine fraction
(5 mm or less) was removed after the manufacture
Figure 3. Processing action of ball mill.
Table 2. Specifications of processors used in this study.
Type Specification
Jaw crusher Width of board 8 cm
Frequency 260 rpm
Ball mill Size of iron ball Diameter 15 mm
Size of mill Diameter 15 mm
Width 60 cm
Frequency 30 rpm
Granulator Size of drum Diameter 70 cm
Width 30 cm
Frequency 200 rpm
373
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 373
of the recycled coarse aggregate, and this resulting
fine fraction was labeled as the starting material,
R2. R2 was subjected to partial polishing during
producing recycled aggregate. Subsequently, R1
and R2 were processed twice by the small-sized jaw
crusher (J), ball mill (B), and granulator (G) tabu-
lated in Table 2, and the powder generated by these
processes was removed. In order to examine the
age of original concrete, using one-year old con-
crete, the starting material, R3, was manufactured
in the same manner as that for R1.
The various types of recycled fine aggregates
were then processed one through four times in the
granulator to generate four types of recycled fine
aggregate with various amounts of adhesive paste.
Figure 4 shows the notation of the samples of the
recycled fine aggregate samples, and Table 3 lists
the sample symbols for the starting material (R1,
R2, and R3), the type of processor (J, B, and G),
and the number of times processed (from one to
four times).
2.2 Testing method of recycled fine aggregate
and recycle mortar
The characterization of the recycled fine aggre-
gate is determined by the fraction of defects in the
aggregate, filling fraction, and grain geometrical
characteristics, as well as water absorption, dry den-
sity, content of materials finer than the 0.075 mm
sieve, and grain size distribution, which are all con-
ventionally considered evaluation indexes.
Ordinary Portland cement was used in the recy-
cled mortar. The density of the cement was 3.16 g/
cm3, and its specific surface area was 3300 cm2/g.
The fine aggregate consisted of the recycled
fine aggregate prepared as explained in previ-
ous section. The land sand, which was the same
as that used in the fine aggregate of the original
concrete, was used for comparison. The recycled
mortar consisted of mixed cement, fine aggregate,
and water in the weight ratio 1:3:0.5, produced at
Figure 4. Notation of samples of recycled fine
aggregate.
8/27/2014 6:01:37 PM
 Table 3. Symbols for recycled fine aggregate.
Starting Type of
materials processor
R1 Jaw crushe
Ball mill R1-B-1
Granulator R1-G-1
R1 Jaw crusher
Ball mill R2-B-1
R3 Granulator
R1: Fraction (5 mm or less) from crushed concrete by large jaw crusher.
R2: Fraction (5 mm or less) from crushed material remaining after manufacture of
recycled coarse aggregate.
R3: After one year, R3 manufacture similar to R1 type.
a water/cement ratio of 0.50. The test specimens
of recycled mortar were prisms with cross sections
of 40 x 40 mm and lengths of 160 mm. The flow
value and compressive strength of the mortar were
measured according to JIS R 5201. The forms of
the fractures of the recycled fine aggregate grains
at the fracture plane in the recycled mortar due to
flexural stress were also observed.
In order to verify the validity of DR method,
another two types of recycled fine aggregate were
produced by ball mill. Starting materials was
crushed materials of concrete lumps generated
when demolishing existing concrete structures in
Tokyo area. Recycled fine aggregate L1 was pro-
vided by consisting of a material passing through
fraction of 0.15 mm sieve of the residues of 5 mm
or less in the manufacturing process of the recy-
cled coarse aggregate. Recycled fine aggregate L2
produced by grinding L1 using a ball mill and by
passing through 0.15 mm sieve again. In the same
way as L2, to obtain and recycled fine aggregates
of M, H1 and H2 were produced by twice, three
times and four times polishing and removing treat-
ments using L1 as starting materials.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Quality of recycled fine aggregates
The fraction of defects, such as cracks, pores, and
voids in the recycled fine aggregate is quantified
by impregnation of fluorescent resin and an image
processing for cross sections of cutting aggregate.
The fraction of defects was calculated as an area
ratio of the resin to paste in the cross section. The
adhered cement paste rate is defined by the loss
of mass when dissolved by hydrochloric acid after
being crushed. The fraction of defects, Da, in the
aggregate can be expressed as:
Da P Ar Ap
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 374
Number of processed
1 2 3 4
R1-J-1 R1-J-2
R1-B-2
R1-G-2
R2-J-1 R2-J-2
R2-B-2
R3-G-1 R3-G-2 R3-G-3 R3-G-4
where Da = fraction of defects in the aggregate (%);
P = adhered cement paste rate (%); and Dp = frac-
tion of defects in the original paste (%).
The macro shape and surface roughness of recy-
cled fine aggregate is quantified by digital image
processing for photograph of representative grains
with diameters of 2.55.0 mm under an optical
microscope. These grains were selected at random,
and the number of grains in the photographs was
between approximately 20 and 30 in each sample.
The degree of flatness, Fd, and surface smoothness,
S, of the grains were calculated by using Equations
(2) and (3), respectively.
Fd L/W , (2)
S Ag /Ae , (3)
where L = length of the major axis in the grain
image; W = width of the grain image, Ag the area
of the grain image; and Ae = area of the peripheral
envelope of the grain image.
Figure 5 shows the variations in the frac-
tion of defects in the aggregate. The fraction of
defects in the aggregate of the R1-J-2 crushed by
the jaw crusher changed only slightly, suggesting
that the brittle parts were not selectively removed
by the crushing. When polished once by the ball
mill or the granulator, the fraction of defects
decreased by approximately 1%; when processed
twice, the defects decreased by approximately 3%.
These results indicate that the fraction of defects
decreases by polishing.
Figure 6 shows the change of the fraction of
defects as a function of the adhered cement paste
rate when the R3 was polished by the granulator.
This shows that after processing once and twice,
the fraction of defects decreased as decreasing the
paste-adhesion rate, while after processing three or
four times, the adhered cement paste rate decreased
but the fraction of defects did not change further,
(1) This implies that the brittle defective parts of
374
8/27/2014 6:01:37 PM
 Figure 5. Variations in the fraction of defects in the aggregate.
Figure 6. Changes in the adhered cement paste rates
and the fractions of defects in the original paste.
recycled fine aggregate were selectively removed by
once or twice polishing, but few defects could not
disintegrate if polished three or more times.
Figure 7 shows changes in flatness and surface
smoothness of the recycled fine aggregate grains.
The flatness of the R1 sample was 1.41, indicat-
ing the presence of numerous slender grains. The
surface smoothness of the sample was 95%, indi-
cating an irregular surface. The flatness and sur-
face smoothness of the R1-J-1 and R1-J-2 samples
changed slightly. This suggests that the geometric
characteristics of the grains changed minimally
even if crushing was repeated. When polished
by the ball mill, flatness decreased and surface
smoothness increased, which indicates that the
grains became more round and the surfaces had
fewer irregularities. When polished in the granu-
lator, flatness decreased at the same tendency of
ball mill, but surface smoothness hardly improved.
Overall, the grains became more round, but the
surfaces remained irregular after treatment in the
granulator.
375
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 375
3.1 Fluidity of recycled mortar
The relationship between the characteristics of the
recycled fine aggregate and flowability was inves-
tigated by multivariate analysis. The regression
result shows by Equation (4) The filling fraction
and content of components passing the 0.075-mm
sieve were closely related to the flowability of recy-
cled mortar.
Mf 21 0 3 24 F f 0.867 P, (4)
where Mf = mortar flow value (mm); Ff = filling
fraction (%); and P = contents of components
passing the 0.075-mm sieve (%).
Figure 8 shows the relationship between the fill-
ing fraction and flow value of the recycled mortar.
This figure strongly suggests that the filling frac-
tion is a very good index for the flowability of the
recycled mortar. The filling fraction of the recycled
fine aggregate increased when it was processed by
the ball mill and granulator; therefore, the flow
value increased. However, when the fine aggregate
was processed by the jaw crusher, the flow changed
a little, and the filling fraction increased only
slightly. Fujii et al. (1996) reported that an increase
in the filling fraction by 1% has an effect equivalent
to an increase in flow value of 10 mm. Considered
together, these reports suggest that the relationship
between filling fraction and flowability was similar
for crushed sand and recycled fine aggregate.
3.2 Compressive strength of recycled mortar
The compressive strength of the recycled mortar
was measured, and the relationship between the
characteristics of the recycled fine aggregate and
compressive strength was examined through mul-
tivariate analysis. The variables included the frac-
tion of defects in the aggregate, filling fraction,
the degree of flatness, surface smoothness, water
8/27/2014 6:01:39 PM
 Figure 7. Changes in flatness and surface smoothness of the recycled fine aggregate grains.

Figure 9. Relationship between the defect rate of the

Figure 8. Relationship between the filling fractions and aggregate and compressive strength.
flow values.

where fc28 is compressive strength at 28 days

absorption, dry density, and the content of com-
(N/mm2), fc91 is compressive strength at 91 days
ponents passing the 0.075-mm sieve, which were
(N/mm2), Da is the fraction of defects in the aggre-
conventionally considered as evaluation indices for
gate (%), Den is dry density (g/cm3), and S is surface
the recycled aggregate.
smoothness (%).
The target variable was the compressive strength
Figure 9 shows the relationship between the
of the recycled mortar. Regression equations (5)
rate of defects in the aggregate and compressive
and (6) are the equations for compressive strengths
strength at 28 days. Overall, a negative correlation
at 28 and 91 days, respectively. The fraction of
exists between the rate of defects and compressive
defects in the aggregate as well as dry density and
strength. Furthermore, the figure clearly shows dif-
surface smoothness are included in these regres-
ferences in tendency according to whether crushing
sion equations:
occurred in the ball mill or granulator. When the
regression line for the ball-mill treatment is extrap-
fc28 = 165.1 2.88 Da + 17.2 Den 1.61S (5)
olated to a 0-% defect fraction in Figure 9, the
fc91 = 14.1 1.90 Da + 16.7 Den, (6) result is very similar to the compressive strength

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 (48.7 N/mm2) of the mortar of the ordinary fine
aggregate (original fine aggregate). Presumably,
this result suggests that the shape and surface char-
acteristics of the recycled fine-aggregate grains
became similar to those of the original fine aggre-
gate when repeatedly polished by the ball mill.
The compressive strength of the recycled mortar
with the aggregate polished in the granulator was
similar or superior to the strength of the mortar in
the original fine aggregate, even with a 1% to 1.5%
fraction of defects in the recycled aggregate. Such
high compressive strength was possibly attained
by irregularities in the grain surface. The strength
of the recycled R2-G-2 mortar was approximately
5 N/mm2 greater than that of the R1-G-2 and
R3-G-2 samples. Here, the starting material for the Figure 10. Flow of mortar with alone natural land
R2-G-2 sample was R2, whose feed was polished sand and recycled fine aggregates produced from con-
once while manufacturing the recycled coarse crete lumps of demolished actual concrete structures:
aggregate. Thus, the effects of the two polishing N-100 shows that only natural land sand (N) was used
processes were such that very fine brittle parts that as fine aggregate.
did not contribute to the fraction of defects in the
aggregate were completely removed.
Furthermore, the compressive strength of the
mortar composed of the starting materials was
approximately 14% to 21% lower than that of the
mortar composed of the original fine aggregate. In
addition, previous experiments reported a decrease
in the compressive strength. For example, the com-
pressive strength of the concrete with the recy-
cled fine aggregate was approximately 40% lower
than that of the concrete with the ordinary aggre-
gate, according to Fukube et al. (1997). Overall,
this study shows that the DR method is effective
because the compressive strength of the mortar
with the recycled fine aggregate manufactured by
DR was equal or superior to that of the mortar
with the original aggregate.
Figure 11. Compressive strength for 7 days, 28 days and
3.3 Verification of validity of DR method by 91 days old of mortar with alone natural land sand and
using recycled fine aggregate from concrete recycled fine aggregates produced from concrete lumps
lumps of demolished actual concrete of demolished actual concrete structures.
structures
Figure 10 shows a flow value of mortar used alone explained from the fact that the filling fraction of
recycled fine aggregate by comparison with natural aggregate that affects mainly the fluidity of mor-
land sand (N). Flow value of mortar used alone tar was almost the same as 68.7 to 71.3% in L2,
recycled fine aggregate L1 is 156 mm, were equiva- M, H1 and H2. Therefore it is confirmed that the
lent to those (157 mm) of mortar with N. On the increase of the number of processing by a ball mill
other hand, the flow values of mortars made with may reduce the defects in the aggregate, providing
alone recycled fine aggregates of L2, M, H1, and higher compressive strength of mortar.
H2 were in the range of 183 mm to 188 mm. These Figure 11 shows the compressive strength of
values were greater 26 mm or more than L1 and N; mortar used alone recycled fine aggregate. The
that is, the recycled fine aggregate produced with compressive strength of the mortar with recycled
DR method can improve the fluidity of mortal as fine aggregate L1 is clearly smaller than N (natu-
compared with natural sand. However, from the ral land sand), but L2 and M, which were treated
results of M, H1 and H2, grinding treatment of once and 2 times by DR method may improve
two or more times with a ball mill cannot improve dramatically the compressive strength than L1. It
significantly the fluidity of mortar. This can be is confirmed that the increase of the number of

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 processing by a ball mill may reduce the defects
in the aggregate, providing higher compressive
strength of mortar.
In addition, the compressive strength of mor-
tar with the recycled fine aggregates of H1 and H2
there was no significant difference compared with
that of the recycled fine aggregate M. The water
absorption of recycled fine aggregate decreased
with an increase of the number of processing by
a ball mill, and its oven dry density of the recy-
cled fine aggregate increased by repeating grind-
ing treatment, while the compressive strength of
the mortar with the recycled fine aggregate was
slightly improved with excessive processing as
shown in Figure 11. Thus, it is confirmed that the
improvement of quality of recycled fine aggregate
by DR method is effective only wit small number
of processing, such once and twice treatments
although he physical properties of fine aggregate
such as the water absorption and oven dry density
is inferior to natural aggregate.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This study investigates the DR method for improv-
ing the quality of the recycled fine aggregate. In
this method, the brittle defects of the recycled
fine aggregate particles such as cracks, pores, and
voids in the grains are selectively removed. This
study uses recycled fine aggregates manufactured
by three types of processors with various action
mechanisms including a jaw crusher, ball mill, and
granulator. The results are summarized below.
1. The fraction of defects in the aggregate crushed
by the jaw crusher changed slightly. The frac-
tion of defects decreased due to polishing using
the ball mill and the granulator.
2. The geometric characteristic of grains changed
slightly with repeated crushing by the jaw
crusher. On the other hand, ball-mill treatment
made the grains more round and the surface
more regular. The granulator treatment also
made the grains more round but retained the
original irregular shape.
3. Fluidity of the recycled mortar is governed
mainly by the filling fraction of fine aggregate.
The filling fraction of the recycled fine aggre-
gate increased in processing by the ball mill and
granulator, resulting in increased flow values.
4. A negative correlation existed between the frac-
tion of defects in the aggregate and the compres-
sive strength of the recycled mortar. The fraction
of defects in the aggregate reduced with an
increase of processing by the ball mill and granu-
lator, resulting in higher compressive strength.
378
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 378
5. Using recycled fine aggregate from concrete
lumps of demolished actual concrete struc-
tures the validity of DR method was verified
as compared with natural land sand. The flu-
idity of the recycled fine aggregate mortar and
compressive strength was improved by using
DR method, with an increase of the number of
processing. In addition, it was confirmed that
the quality of the recycled fine aggregate itself
such as water absorption and oven dry density
was improved with an increases of repeated
grinding treatment, but the strength and fluid-
ity of mortar with the recycled fine aggregate
did not show the improvement with the number
of processing.
REFERENCES
Abe, M. 1997. Recycled aggregate for concrete. Concrete
Journal 35(7): 4247. (in Japanese).
Fukube, S., Kasai, Y., Kaga S., Abe, M. and Watezawa,
M. 1997. Development of compressive strength and
static modulus of elasticity of recycled fine aggregate
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Pharmaceuticals in watersproblem and its solution

T. Vank, P. Soudek & P. Marsik

Laboratory of Plant Biotechnologies, Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Lysolaje, Czech Republic

T. Hudcova
Dekonta a.s. Detovice, Czech Republic

J. Syrovatka
Chramce Farm, Skrn, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT: Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) belong to the remedies with the
largest global sales volume. They are broadly used for the treatment of a wide scale of nonspecific
symptoms accompanying a number of diseases. Many of them also belong to OTC (Over The Counter)
distributed drugs, thus, they are easily available for broad masses of world population. The afore-
mentioned properties together with low production costs, high content per dose and relatively high
proportion of unchanged drug in human excretes have made several NSAIDs water pollutants of the
high importance. The most important drug of NSAID group on a global scale is the oldest industri-
ally produced remedy aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), which is substituted with ibuprofen in the recent
time due to its lower side effects. In the Czech Republic, ibuprofen has the largest sales volume of all
NSAIDs and is the second best-selling drug on the Czech market. Naproxen and ketoprofen are other
widely used NSAIDs in human medicine together with halogenated compounds such as diclofenac and
indomethacin.

1 INTRODUCTION Achieved result indicate the ability of the plant

In the recent time, the global production of the
human and veterinary pharmaceuticals strongly
increases together with their affordability not only
in developed countries, but due their availabil-
ity and decreasing prices also in the Third World
countries. Nevertheless, the most polluted areas
are developed and industrial countries with high
standard of living and population density.
One of the most significant problems is per-
sistence of the pharmaceutical residues and their
metabolites in the environment. Many of them do
not exhibit acute toxicity for water ecosystems, but
have a cumulative effect for non-target organisms
(Han et al. 2010, Sravananan et al. 2012).
Groundwater analysis showed, that the Non-
Steroidal Antiflogistics (NSAIDs, e.g. diclofenac,
ibuprofen and ketoprofen) together with paraceta-
mol and antibiotics were the most abundant phar-
maceuticals in the samples collected in Czech test
localities.
The laboratory experiments with in vitro
cultures of Arabidopsis thaliana, Melilotus offici-
nalis and Rheum palmatum proved presence of
several common metabolites of oxidation in cul-
tivation medium containing common NSAIDs.
cells to biotransform human and veterinary phar-
maceuticals, performing at least several detoxifica-
tion steps (Kotyza et al. 2010).
These results were verified in reed (Phragmites
australis L.) cells, tissues and whole plants and
finally tested in real scale in constructed wet-
land with combined vertical and horizontal flow
designed for agriculture waste waters cleaning.
The aim of this work was to prove the
possibility of utilization of constructed wetlands
for elimination of pharmaceuticals and their
degradation products from waste waters.
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 Plant material and chemicals
The seeds of reed (P. australis (Cav.) Trin. ex
Steud.) were obtained from wildly growing plants
in river bank in the area of central Bohemia. The
seeds were cleaned in 70% ethanol for 1 min and
sterilized by 1% sodium hypochlorite supple-
mented by 10 ml L1 of detergent TWEEN 20 for
a period of 10 min. After that they were rinsed
3 times in sterile water and put on hormone free
solid RH medium (Hoagland medium modified

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 for reed cultivation, Hoagland, 1920) with 2.4 HPLC analysis
40 g L1 sucrose. The germination started after
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
7 days. Callus culture was achieved from primary
with UV detection, was used for determination of
callus rising on stem segments of reed seedlings
the concentrations of selected pharmaceuticals. The
after replanting them on solid RH medium sup-
media (direct injection of 100 l of media) were
plemented by 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
analyzed with a HPLC using UV detection (SM
(2,4-D) and kinetin in concentrations (0.225 mg
5000, LDC Analytical, USA). Stainless steel column
L1 and 0.215 mg L1, respectively), used pre-
4.6 250 mm Platinum phenyl 5 m (Alltech USA)
viously for callus induction of other species
using acetonitrile-water (83:17) as the mobile phase
(Podlipn et al. 2008). Suspension cultures
under isocratic conditions at a flow rate 0.8 ml min1
derived from this callus were grown in the dark at
was used. Measurements were repeated 3 times.
24 C, on a rotary shaker at 100 rpm in 250 mL
Results were re-calculated using calibration curves
flasks containing 100 mL RH medium supple-
constructed for each compounds using standards.
mented with growth regulators 0.225 mg L1
The curve was linear in the range of 0.656.5 g for
2,4-D, and 0.215 mg L1 kinetin.
each compound. Clarity Chromatography Data Sta-
The Melilotus officinalis and Rheum palmatum
tion with Clarity software (DataApex, Czech Repub-
seeds were obtained from SEED SERVICE s.r.o.,
lic) was used for evaluation of calibration curve.
Czech Republic. Callus cultures were initiated
from the surface sterilized seeds setting on the
basal MS medium supplemented with 10 mg L1 2.5 UPLC/MS/MS analysis
2,4-D, 1 mg L1 BAP and 1 mg L1 kinetin and
For quantitative analysis system Q-Trap (AB
solidified with agar (0.7%). The callus culture
Sciex, USA) was used. Stainless steel column
was transferred into the liquid medium and culti-
Kinetex Phenyl-Hexyl 100 2.1 mm with particle
vated in Erlenmeyers flasks on horizontal shaker
size 1.7 um was utilized. As a mobile phase water-
in the dark at 25C to obtain suspension cultures.
methanol mixture under gradient conditions was
The suspension culture was subcultured at
used using flow-rate 250 l min1. Compounds of
2-week interval. Ten g of aseptically filtered cell
interest were determined using specific MRM pro-
mass was inoculated to 150 ml of fresh medium
file (Yu et al. 2006).
in every flask.

2.6 Statistics
2.2 Experimental design
The differences among treatments were tested by
At the beginning of incubation, each flask contain-
one-way ANOVA with Tukey HSD multiple com-
ing 50 mL of medium with cell suspension (10 g
parison test. Significance level P = 0.05 was used
FW) was supplemented with pharmaceuticals pre-
for both analyses. Each treatment was represented
dissolved in DMSO.
by four biological replicates. STATISTICA 8
The final concentration of DMSO in medium
(StatSoft, Tulsa, OK, USA) software was used for
was 0.1% (v/v) to prevent its harmful impact on
all the computations.
cells. The suspensions were incubated for 4, 8, 24,
48 and 96 h. Three flasks for each time point and
drug were used. After the incubation, medium
3 RESULTS
was taken up, placed into plastic tubes, frozen,
and stored at 80 C. The cell suspensions were
3.1 Analysis
repeatedly washed up, transferred into tubes and
lyophilized. In chemical blank samples, medium Using the above mentioned analytical conditions,
containing the pharmaceuticals but not the cell the contents of all selected pharmaceuticals were
suspension was incubated. In biological blank analyzed within 14 min (Fig. 1).
samples, the cell suspensions were incubated in a
drug-free medium.
3.2 Plant cell cultures
Accumulation of ibuprofene by Rhenum palmatum
2.3 Sample preparation
and Melilotus album is presented as an example of
The samples (1 ml) were filtrated through utilization of plants in model system of suspension
membrane filter (0.45 m), collected in 1.5-ml culture (Fig. 2).
Eppendorf centrifuge tubes and immediately The above mentioned results show that nearly
frozen in freezer (20C) to inhibit further 50% of starting concentration of ibuprofene is up-
degradation. After thawing, samples were directly taken from liquid medium during the first hours
injected to the HPLC. of experiment.

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 Figure 1. Selected pharmaceuticals.

Figure 4. Construction of experimental constructed

wetland.

Figure 2. Accumulation of ibuprofene by Rhenum pal-

matum ( ) and Melilotus album ( ).

Figure 5. Experimental constructed wetland.

Figure 3. Degradation/accumulation of ibuprofene by

Phragmites australis under hydroponic conditions; stand-
ard deviation is represented as S.D. (n = 4).

3.3 Hydroponic conditions

The same results were achieved using Phragmites
australis uder hydroponic conditions, in this case
degradation products were identified.

3.4 Real conditions

Experimental constructed wetland was built
during 20122013. The wetland has been used Figure 6. GC/MS analysis of ibuprofene in waste-waters.

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Figure 7. Degradation/accumulation of ibuprofene in
constructed wetland. Scale Z represent different sampling
points.
from autumn 2013. Beginning of construction is
ilustrated in Figure 4, final instalation in Figure 5.
Analysis of selected pharmaceuticals in real waste-
waters were performed using GC/MS (Fig. 6).
The analysis of ibuprofene (Fig. 7) showed that
starting compound was not present at the out-flow
from the constructed wetland system. Its detailed
fate is now under investigation.
4 CONCLUSIONS
All tested pharmaceuticals can be accumulated
and/or degraded by suitable plants. Results
384
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 384
achieved in laboratory conditions both during in
vitro and hydroponic experiments were verified in
real conditions in constructed wetland.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Grant Agency of the
Czech Republic project No. 14-22593S and by the
Technology Agency of the Czech Republic project
No. TA01020573.
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Han S., Choi K., Kim J., Ji K., Kim S., Ahn B., Yun J.,
Choi K., Khim J.S., Zhang X., Giesy J.P. 2010.
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latipes) and freshwater cladocerans Daphnia magna
and Moina macrocopa. Aquatic Toxicology 98:
256264.
Hoagland, D.R. 1920. Optimum nutrient solutions for
plants. Science 52, 562564.
Kotyza J., Soudek P., Kafka Z., Vank T. 2010.
Phytoremediation of pharmaceuticalspreliminary
study. International Journal Of Phytoremediation 12 [3]:
306316.
Podlipn, R., Fialov, Z., Vanek, T. 2008. Toxic effect of
nitro esters on plant tissue cultures. Plant Cell Tiss.
Org. 94 (3), 305311.
Saravanan M., Usha Devi K., Malarvizhi A., Ramesh M.
2012. Effects of Ibuprofen on hematological, bio-
chemical and enzymological parameters of blood in an
Indian major carp, Cirrhinus mrigala. Enviromnmental
Toxicology and Pharmacology 34: 1422.
Yu J.T., Bouwer E.J., Coelhan M. 2006. Occurrence
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Utilization of coal mine solid waste by phosphate-solubilizing bacteria

and its application in reclamation

J. Wang
Agricultural Resource and Environment Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
Nanning, China
College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing),
Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Coal is the major energy in China, coal gangue and Fly Ash (FA) are two major solid
wastes generated from coal-mining which brought about not only the problem of plenty of land occu-
pation, air, water, soil environment and heavy pollution, but also made a lot of resources for the long-
term completely exposed to the atmosphere waste. Coal gangue and FA containing phosphorus (P) are
an essential macronutrient for plant growth and development, if these resources can be recycled, it will
reduce environmental pollution effectively, promote the agricultural production and ecological restora-
tion in mining areas. The Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) are a rhizospheric microorganism which
solubilizes the insoluble P to soluble forms of P for plant growth and yield. With the rapid development
of modern biotechnology, PSB is more and more widely used in agricultural production and the envi-
ronmental protection areas. This paper introduced the harmfullness of coal mine solid waste in China,
summarized the mechanism of solubling P, utilization of coal mine solid waste by PSB, application in
ecological restoration with PSB and the application prospect.

Keywords: phosphate-solubilizing bacteria; solid waste; coal gangue; fly ash

1 INTRODUCTION to ecological environment and human survival envi-

It is well known that China is a country with the
biggest production and consumption of coal in the
worlds, coal is one of the most important energy
in China for it accounts for about 74% in primary
energy consumption (Hu and Wei, 2003). On the one
hand, coal has contributed a lot to the development
of national economic development, on the other
hand it also brought about serious ecological envi-
ronment problems. Approximately 30.61 billion tons
of industrial solid wastes were produced in China
in 2011, but only 60.01% was reused (NBSMEP,
2012), that means the utilization rate of the coal
waste still remains on a low level. Coal gangue
and FA are two major coal mine solid wastes, coal
gangue is one of the most industrial solid residues
in our country for it accounts for about 10%20%
of carbon production in waste residue emissions. As
an industrial solid residues it was discharged when
coal was excavated and washed in the production
course of coal mine, well FA is a by product of coal
combustion from power industries for generation
of electricity. With the development of society and
economy, production and emission of coal gangue
and FA continue to increase, and then coarsely
stored in dumps which brings about great harmful
ronment nearby coal mine areas.
2 THE HARMFULNESS OF COAL
SOLID WASTES
2.1 A great of land resources occupation
The coal mine solid waste dumps occupied a large
amount of land, such as arable land, forest land
and grassland, caused the waste of land resources
and desertification. China is a country with more
people and less land, arable land is only 0.11 hm2
per capita, less than 1/2 of the average level in the
world, the decreasion of land resources day by day
with the storage of coal mine solid waste, which
further intensified the contradiction between peo-
ple and land (Fan et al., 2010). According to statis-
tics, there are more than 1600 gangue hills (Zeng,
2010), including 4.5 billion tons coal gangue waste
(Shi, 2005), covering about 20000 hm2 land areas,
with 1.52.0 million tons of gangue waste increased
each year mainly stored in dumps, which covers
600800 hm2 areas annually according to the compu-
tation of 100 million tons gangue covers an area of
400 hm2 (Chen et al., 2006). There about 1.3 billion
tons of fly ash and 180 million tons coal waste are

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 produced annually in China with the comprehensive
utilization rate only 30% (Zheng et al., 2007), these
accumulative storage cover an area of 33300 hm2
(Zhang, 2002), increases at the speed of 2000 hm2
each year so far (Zhang & Zhang, 1998).
2.2 Soil quality deterioration
A variety of heavy metal elements such as Cu, Pb,
Sn, Hg, As, Cr, which associated with coal gangue
and FA exposed to atmospheric conditions will
infiltrates to the soil with the rain and accumu-
lation, which are then absorbed by growing crop
plants causing seriously health related issues of
human beings around coal mining areas.
2.3 Atmospheric pollution
In the process of the long-term piled up in the open
air, the surface of coal gangue gradually broken
down into particulate matter and dust. FA is super-
fine particles, both of these particles waste kicked
up into dust or gray under high winds, increase aer-
osols in the air, reduce visibility (Yao, 2010), cause
air pollution. Combustible such as pyrite, organic
sulfur, coal and carbonaceous mudstone contained
in coal gangue, may ignite spontaneously for a long
time exposed to the air, which will produce large
poisonous and harmful gas such as SO2, H2S, CO,
CH4, C2H2, NH3, N2, H2, which can pollute the
atmospheric environment, later threaten the health
of the residents in the nearby and plant growth
and development. Large amounts of sulfur gases
emission increase the occurrence rate of acid rain,
make the pollution areas further expands.
2.4 Water pollution
The results show that coal mine solid waste dumps
can be a long-term source of water contamina-
tion. Particles of coal gangue and FA which were
brought into the rivers and lakes after the rain
washing out or the wind blowing into, later raised
the water pH, polluted the water by the harmful
heavy metals like Cu, Cr, Pb, Hg contained in it,
and ultimately further caused seriously damage
to the human survival environment. Furthermore,
method of wet ash discharge consumes more than
100 million t water each year in China (Yao, 2010),
which caused a great waste of water resources.
2.5 Lead to geological disasters
In China, coal mine wastes always been dumped
in cone-shaped heaps that will easily lose stabil-
ity under the effect of artificial excavation and
rainfall leaching, which will induce collapse, land-
slide, debris flows, explosion, and other geological
386
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 386
disasters, and threat safety of the residents nearby.
The explosion of coal gangue is the common geo-
logical disasters in coal mines, which has been
caused a large number of deaths and injuries and
huge property losses (Huang, 2004; Zeng, 2010).
3 THE MECHANISM AND EFFECT
OF PHOSPHATE-SOLUBILIZING
BACTERIA (PSB)
3.1 The definition of PSB
All these problems mentioned above suggest that
effective actions must be taken to utilize these wastes
for the production of value-added products. Though
coal gangue and FA has disadvantage to the environ-
ment, these waste contains phosphorus (P) element
which is necessary to plant growth, P is regarded as
the second key element next to N (Hameeda et al.,
2008). It has been reported that P absorption by
plant was in positive correlation with the biomass
and yield. P deficiency is a primary constraint to
plant production. 74% of the farmland appears P
deficiency in China (Zhang & Li, 1998), 95% of P
in the soil is invalid form, a great number of solu-
ble phosphatic fertilizer put into soil in order to get
high yield meet current demands of food production
each year. The utilization efficiency of fertilizer is
only 5% to 25% for the phenomena of rapid fixa-
tion and precipitation of Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ and A13+
(Zhao & Lin, 2001). It is well known that there is a
considerable number of microorganisms, which has
the ability to convert the insoluble P to soluble P, so
it termed as Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB).
The existence of PSB could improve P nutrition and
increase crop yield (Rodrguez & Fraga, 1999; Zhao
et al., 2000; Tian et al., 2007; He et al., 2012; Wang,
2014; Zhao et al., 2014). If PSB to be applied on
the ecological remediation of mining regions, offers
a potentially viable utilization of the industrial by
product, protects the environment, as well as solves
the shortage of P resource in the mine area.
3.2 The mechanism of PSB
It is generally known that the mechanism of phos-
phate solubilization by different PSB species is
different. There are mainly two mechanism: one
mechanism is mainly attributed to the production
and release of organic acids by microbes (Kim
et al., 2005), which play a major role in decreaseing
pH value, and also combing with iron, aluminum,
calcium, magnesium, plasma, then dissolving the
insoluble P. PSB can secrete malic acid, propionic
acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, citric acid cultured
6 days later (Lin et al., 2001), phosphate-solubilizing
fungi can secrete oxalic acid, malic acid, lactic acid,
acetic acid, citric acid etc., there was a big difference
8/27/2014 6:01:48 PM
 between bacteria strains. But many scholars have
found that the correlation was weak among the
phosphate-solubilizing quantity and pH value of
culture (Illmer & Schinner, 1992). Another mecha-
nism is that mineral phosphate solubilization is
mainly due to the secretion of protons in the meta-
bolic process such as respiration, these protons raise
the acidity of culture medium (that means reduce the
pH of the medium), make the rock phosphate disso-
lution (Illmer & Schinner, 1995). Other mechanisms
have been considered, such as the production of
phytase enzyme, nucleic acid and phosphatase by
PSB which can hydrolysis organic P to inorganic P
(Whitelaw et al., 1999). For example, Brevibacterium
P10 strains mainly produce higher activities of acid
phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase when dissolve
phosphate rock powder (Zhong & Huang, 2005).
3.3 Effect of dissolving P by PSB
Bacterias, fungis and actinomycetes are the most
powerful PSB reported currently, but different
strains has different effects in solubilizing phosphate
rock and insoluble phosphate. In 1935, Bacillus
Megaterium Phosphaticum which was isolated from
soil by Meng Na who is the former Soviet Union
researchers can effectively decomposed the nucleic
acid and lecithin (Li et al., 2012); Penicillium F4 strain
can dissolve Ca3(PO4)2 best (Zhong & Huang, 2005),
Penicillium F4 strain and Bacillus Megaterium
P17 strain can dissolve phytic acid calcium effectively,
Brevibacterium P10 strains can dissolve AlPO4 best,
Yeast Y3 strains can dissolve FePO4 best. Different
PSB has vary difference in soluble ground phosphate
rock. In dissolving ground phosphate rock Penicil-
lium is better than Bacillus Pulvifacieus Katznelson
and Pseudomonads fluorescent (Chi et al., 2005).
Pseudomonas and Erwinia has strong ability to dis-
solve the ground phosphate rock (Lin et al., 2001),
and fungi has higher dephosphorizing capability
than bacteria. Kucey et al. reported that the ability
of dissolving P fungus was more than 10 times that
of bacteria (Kucey et al., 1989).
4 THE UTILIZATION OF COAL MINE
SOLID WASTES BY PSB
Since large scale land reclamations have been car-
ried out, numerous studies have been conducted
to recycle the coal waste. Research has shown
that coal mine solid wastes are kinds of available
natural resources if not being deposited in the
open air what can be caused the resources waste.
Use of these waste material in generate electric-
ity, building materials (such as coal gangue brick,
building ceramics, cement), chemical materials
(such as crystalline aluminum chloride, polymeric
387
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 387
aluminium chloride and aluminium sulphate) and
used as materials of land filling accounted for
reduce wastes. Although these traditional methods
have effects on reducing coal gangue and FA stor-
age, there is the possibility of secondary pollution.
Once we turn waste into microbial fertilizer by
PSB, it will be significant effect on economic ben-
efits, social benefits and environmental benefits.
Studies have shown that coal gangue was an ideal
isotopic carrier to carry azotobacter, PSB, potas-
sium bacteria and other microorganisms for certain
amount of organic matters containing in it, and
also one of the important raw materials of micro-
bial fertilizer production. Comparing with other
fertilizers production, the process of coal gangue
microbial fertilizer is simple, only about 10% invest-
ment and 5%10% energy consumption of the same
scale chemical fertilizer plants. The best feature of
the whole production process is that coal gangue
was brougt into the factory, then left the factory in
the form of fertilizers with no sludge discharge. As
reported, coal gangue microbial fertilizers has been
widely used for it can increasing crop yield, improv-
ing crop quality, lasting fertilizer effect (Zang et al.,
2010), suitable being applied to all over the country
(Zhu & Xie, 2007; Zeng, 2010). Beijing forestry uni-
versity, Shanxi luan mining industry group mining
group and LuAn vocational and technical college
developed coal gangue microbial formula fertilizer
dedicated to green pepper, millet together in 2004.
Results showed that the application of coal gangue
microbial specific fertilizer in the green peppers,
corn, millet can increased yield by 9.3%, 0.4% and
10.3% respectively, vitamin B1 content increased by
103.1% when compared with the ordinary fertilizer
(Shi, 2005).
5 THE APPLICATION OF PSB IN
ECOLOGICAL RECLAMATION
It has been reported that microclimate of coal waste
piles was hot and dry, the soil pH value declined
after gangues ignited, status of gangues surface
nutrient was bad, species and quantity of gangue
microorganism were small (Wang et al., 2008),
the contents of Pb, Cr and Hg were increased in
layer of 020 cm soil quality scores (Fan et al.,
2010). The way of covered soil used in reclamation
lead a third area occurred spontaneous combustion,
the plant began to decline after 3 years, the survival
rate of Acacia came to 60% eight years later, and
the survival rate of Seabuckthorn was less than 5%
(Fan et al., 2010). Therefore, bad soil structure,
higher content of soil heavy metal, the lack con-
tents of organic matter and necessary nutrient ele-
ments for plant growth, these conditions go against
to the growth of plants, so ecological restoration
8/27/2014 6:01:49 PM
 is difficulty. Soil microbial system can be recov- of 2 years reclamation, yield, chlorophyll, Vc and
ered and rebuild of reclamation area where the reducing sugar content of rape in treatment with
soil microbial activity lost by microbial fertilizer or microbial inoculum was increased compared with
microbial inoculum, which can increase soil biolog- the control, treatment with the bacterium B2 effect
ical activity, accelerate the soil quality improvement best among the treatments (Yang et al., 2010).
and the process of natural soil transform to the
agricultural soil, convert immature soil to mature
6 OUTLOOK
soil, improve the soil fertility, so it has important
theoretical and practical significance in introducing
In China, scientists have been studied PSB for many
soil microbial into land reclamation and rebuiltion
years, although most studies focused on indoor iso-
(Bi et al., 2008). Microbial reclamation technology
lating and screening high-efficiency PSB, However,
has been developed quickly overseas, especially the
the effect of most strains was not ideal in field trials,
industrial application of microbial fertilizer in the
studies on P solubilization in coal mine solid waste
reclaimed soil improvement.
especially less unknown. The main reason may be
In a pot experiment which with the medium
that there are many PSB species in different plants
of FA and the plant of Alfalfa (Bi et al., 2008),
or under their different rhizosphere and environ-
the results showed that plant growth was signifi-
mental conditions, mechanism of solubling P is
cantly promoted in the treatment of PSB as inocu-
complexity and researches are not deep enough.
lants, insoluble P absorption and utilization were
The work of coal mine ecological restoration is
increased, The high levels of pH in FA agent was
one of the important work of modern ecological
decreased and the quantity of bacterias and fungus
construction. The future research on PSB should
in the rhizosphere of plant were increased simul-
pay more attention to the following aspects: 1) We
taneously. Dry weight of Alfalfa using Pantoea
should pay attention to isolate and screen efficient
Stewartii strain was 45.1% higher than that of
PSB from the mine wasteland, study on the activ-
control (Bi et al., 2008), may be for the reason that
ity, the dynamic change of growth and decline,
the P content and conductivity in filtrate of FA
effect and mechanism of action in the ecological
significant increased after adding PSB inoculation
restoration after it pulled into the soil; 2) Research
on plant (Bi et al., 2009), more P and nutrient ions
and develop more coal gangue microbial fertilizer
absorbed by the plant. Studies have shown that
suitable for different crops in different ecological
Pantoea Stewartii strain inoculation can increase
environment, reduce the use of chemical fertilizers,
plant biomass of sorghum, significantly decrease
increase the content of available P in soil, improve
pH, increase the content of available P, as well as
soil environment, reduce the pollution of the envi-
acid phosphatase activity in FA more than the
ronment and promote agricultural has the rapid
same amount of P fertilizer (Guo & Bi, 2008).
and healthy development speed in mining areas.
Bio-fertilizer which mixed with PSB, nitrogen-
fixing bacteria and potassium bacteria inocu-
lated to the mine reclamation land soil (Li et al., ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
2010), enhanced the intensity of soil biochemi-
cal effect obviously as well as improved the soil The project was funded by the Development
enzyme activities. When the content of bacterial of Science and Technology Fund of Guangxi
manure exceeds 40 mg kg1 (soil), significant dif- Academy of Agricultural Sciences (2013JQ17).
ferences were observed between the treatment and
control in the urease and sucrose activity, bacte-
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Water quality simulation to predict the Acid Rock Drainage (ARD)

potential in an underground mine

G.J. Kusuma, D. Permata, R.S. Gautama & D. Firgiani

Department of Mining Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: The exploration of a hydrothermal lead-zinc deposit has indicated abundant sulphide
minerals both in the ore body as well as in country rocks which means that the potential of Acid Rock
Drainage (ARD) generation occurs when this deposit will be mined using underground mining method.
A study has been conducted to quantify the ARD generation potential and to simulate the future mine
water quality when the mine will be opened. Leaching test is conducted to confirm the ARD potential
characteristics resulted from static test and to obtain the chemistry of leachates. The mine water quality
simulation is conducted using PHREEQC ver. 2 software based on the groundwater quality data, leach-
ate chemistry as well as mineral composition of the rock sample identified by XRD method. Various
scenarios have been simulated representing different configuration of mine openings such as opening in
the country rocks and in the ore body. The results of simulation on those scenario show that the mine
water with near neutral pH will be produced as reaction result of groundwater when it is contact with ore
as well as host rocks.

1 INTRODUCTION water quality in which can be generated due to

It has been known for long time that mining activ-
ity always cause environmental deterioration,
especially mining activity which contains sulphide
minerals, in which acid mine water/acid rock
drainage can be major problem of it. The rock
dominated by sulphide mineral in Pb-Zn deposit
area can generate acid rock drainage. Acid rock
drainage is formed when sulphide mineral, espe-
cially pyrite, in the rock contact with air and water
(Lottermoser, 2010).
Generally, the potential test of acid rock drain-
age generation should be done during explora-
tion period based on geochemical characteristic
of the rock using static test which consist of
total sulphur content, pH paste, Acid Neutraliz-
ing Capacity (ANC), dan Net Acid Generation
(NAG). In addition to static test, kinetic test
which simulated rock leaching process and used
to determine the oxidation rate of sulphide min-
erals, to predict leachate quality, and to verify the
result of static test (Gautama et al., 2013), is also
needed.
Rock geochemical characteristic test either
static or kinetic test for Pb-Zn deposit area have
been done previously and the result showing low
oxidation rate of Pb-Zn rock samples, even though
those samples contain high concentration of sul-
phide minerals around 40% (Gautama et al., 2013).
That result needs further study to predict the mine
underground mining activity.
Therefore, in this research, further study of acid
rock drainage generation in Pb-Zn deposit area is
necessary to be conducted. The objective of this
research is to predict the mine water quality of var-
ious reaction and mixing scenario of mine water
by considering the geochemical static and kinetic
test result as well as mineralogy analysis by using a
simulation software.
2 MATERIALS AND METHOD
2.1 Samples description
The rock samples used in this research are ore and
host rock from Pb-Zn deposit area. The samples
are massive sulphide deposit rock type (exhalative
sediment) which are rich in Pyrite, Pb, and Zn.
Most of sulphide mineral in this area had under-
gone recrystallization process which cause the sul-
phide is more massive so it is difficult to react with
air and water. In addition, the host rock of these
mineral sulphides is dark dolostone associated
with quartz and carbonate mineral which have the
ability to neutralize acid. The samples tested in this
research can be divided into 3 types:
Host rock, dolostone rock type,
Ore-1, massive pyrite, and
Ore-2, sulphide mineral in shale carbonate.

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 2.2 PHREEQC modeling Forming (PAF) material. Ore-2 sample, although
classified as uncertain (UC) sample due to an
In this research, PHREEQC ver. 2 software was
inconsistency between NAPP and NAG criteria, is
used to simulate inverse geochemical modeling and
considered to be categorized as NAF material.
forward modeling. Inverse modeling was used to
reconstruct geochemical process which was hap-
pened during leaching test, while forward modeling 3.2 Kinetic test result
was conducted to verify leachate quality between
Kinetic test was conducted using free drained
inverse geochemical modeling simulation result
leach test and the result has been detail reported
and laboratory kinetic test result. Besides that, for-
in Firgiani, 2012; Gautama et al., 2013. The pH of
ward modeling was also conducted to predict mine
leachate water along the test is shown in Figure 1.
water quality.
In Figure 1, it could be seen that almost all the
The data of geochemical characterization test
leachate have pH range approximately 47, except
result of rock samples either from static test,
ore 1 which have pH range 37. It proved that ore 1
kinetic test, and XRD test was used as input in
has the potential to generate acid higher than other
PHREEQC simulation model using llnl.dat data-
rock samples (in line with the static test result pre-
base. Uncertainty in this research was set 2%.
viously). Additionally, it could be seen that pH
leachate from all those rock samples in the end of
experiment have pH value above 5.
3 DATA AND MODEL VERIFICATION The result in Figure 1 showing different result
with static test result, especially for ore 1. From
3.1 Static test result
The static test result of ore and host rock sam-
ples of Pb-Zn deposit area is shown at Table 1.
It could be seen that the host rock has low total
sulfur content and high Acid Neutralizing Capac-
ity (ANC). This condition result low Maximum
Potential Acidity (MPA) give negative value of
Net Acid Generating Potential (NAPP) as subtrac-
tion between MPA and ANC. This result is con-
gruent with the Net Acid Generating (NAG) pH
which give high NAG pH for 8.57. Opposites, the
Ore-1 and Ore-2 contain a high sulfur content for
33% and 11.4% each. However, the higher ANC
on Ore-2 compare to ANC of Ore-1 has resulted
higher NAG pH of 6.11 in Ore-2 sample and NAG
pH 2.2 in Ore-1.
Based on static test result, the host rock sample is
categorized as Non Acid Forming (NAF) material
and Ore-1 sample is categorized as Potentially Acid Figure 1. The kinetic test result.

Table 1. Static test result.

Sample code TS* (%) MPA** ANC** NAPP** ANC/MPA

Host rock 0.11 3.37 244.6 241.2 72.6

Ore-1 33 1,009.8 27.3 982.5 0.02
Ore-2 11.4 348.8 78 270.8 0.22
NAG**
Geochemical
Sample code NAG pH pH 4.5 pH 7.0 classification

Host rock 8.57 NAF

Ore-1 2.20 83.4 256.1 PAF
Ore-2 6.11 102.7 UC (NAF)

*Based on Sobek et al., 1978; **Based on Sobek et al., 1978; Unit in kg H2SO4/ton rock.

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 static test result, ore 1 showing high total sulfur Table 2. Leachate quality of the final week of kinetic
percentage, 33%. However, from kinetic test result simulation test.
(Fig. 1), the leachates pH in the week17 of ore
1 showing the pH result of 5.7. Gautama et al. Sample
(2013) stated previously that oxidation rate of Parameter Host rock 1 Ore 1 Ore 2
the samples from Pb-Zn deposit area is relatively
low, even though those samples have high total pH 5.5 5.7 6.4
sulfur percentage, 40%. Similar condition is also T (C) 26.6 26.6 26.9
occurred for sample ore 2. Ore 2 also has high total As (mg/l) 0 0.001 0.002
sulfur content but the final pH of kinetic test lea- Co (mg/l) 0.001 0.001 0.001
chate has value above 5. This could be due to the Ni (mg/l) 0.001 0.001 0.001
type of mineralization and sedimentation of the Cd (mg/l) 0.025 0.329 0.001
area where the rock samples come from, namely Cu (mg/l) 0.001 0.001 0.001
the massive sulphide deposit area of primary rock Pb (mg/l) 2.74 4.12 1.17
which is less reactive as a result of the recrystal- Zn (mg/l) 2.46 3.37 1.64
lization process. Besides the lack of reactivity of SO4 (mg/l) 481.75 413.5 410.95
sulphide mineral in the area, the area is also domi-
nated by the host material in the form of dolomite
rock, a carbonate rock which is able to neutralize
Table 3. Mineral data input on inverse modeling.
acid.
Unlike those ore samples, country rock sample XRD test result
has low total sulfur value, 0.11% and high pH NAG Host
as well as high ANC. However, the pH value of the Mineralogi Formula rock 1 Ore 1 Ore 2
host rocks leachate in the final week of kinetic test
showing the value of 5.5, whereas from mineralogy Quartz SiO4 * * *
perspective, country rock should contain a lot of Muscovite KAl2(F, OH)2 * * *
carbonate minerals which is able to neutralize the Calcite CaCO3 *
Barite BaSO4 *
acid formed. Therefore, from the result obtained,
Pyrite FeS2 *
it can be concluded that host rock 1 also contains
Galena PbS * *
sulphide minerals which are able to generate acid
Anglesite PbSO4 *
but the amount is not significant when being com-
Sphalerite ZnS * *
pared with carbonate minerals. It is also consistent
Cerrusite PbCO3 *
with the description of host rocks mineralization Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 *
which is mentioned as dolomite breccia, where
the breccia may contain sulphide minerals such as Add. Min. for PHREEQC
Galena and Sphalerite. Thus, the pH behaviour of Host
the samples from Pb-Zn deposit area which lies in Mineralogi Formula rock 1 Ore 1 Ore 2
the neutral pH range (69) showing that sulphide
Pyrite FeS2 *
minerals in the rock samples are not reactive sul-
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 * * *
phide minerals.
Arsenopyrite FeAsS * * *
In addition to pH, other chemical parameters of
Galena PbS *
leachate quality of kinetic test were also used as Sphalerite ZnS *
PHREEQCs input (shown in Table 2). It can be Cerussite PbCO3 * *
seen that the metal content in the leachate of All Smithsonite ZnCO3 * * *
samples is low, except for the associated metal Pb Greenockite CdS * * *
and Zn. Considering this result, it can be estimated Calcite CaCO3 *
that all of the rock samples tested do not contain Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 *
minerals that contain elements Co, Ni, and Cu or
if it contains the elements, it can be estimated that
the concentration must be small.
by secondary references data on a common min-
eral found in sediment exhalative and their asso-
3.3 Mineralogy data
ciated minerals. Those addition were conducted
List of minerals that will be used as the input min- since there is possibility that during XRD test
erals on modeling is shown in Table 3. The input not all of minerals were recorded and only several
minerals are not only coming from XRD mineral minerals which have fairly large percentage were
test result, but also from distribution mineral spe- recorded. From Table 3, it could be seen that the
cies of PHREEQC modeling which is strengthened minerals of XRD test result in host rock 1 consists

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 of carbonate minerals, while the XRD test results Tabel 6. Representative model of ARD generation for
for minerals contained in the ore samples consist ore-2.
of sulphide minerals and also carbonate minerals
for ore 2. Phase mole transfer Redox mole transfer

Transfer mole Transfer mole

3.4 Inverse modeling and verification Mineral (mole) Element (mole)

Inverse modeling was based on mole balance or Dolomite 6.55E-05 As (3) 1.34E-09
mass balance principle. Several inputs that need Sphalerite 4.22E-04 As (3) 1.34E-09
to be put on PHREEQC program to perform O2 (g) 8.55E-04 Cu (1) 1.57E-09
inverse modeling are initial solution input which CO2 (g) 3.99E-04 H (0) 1.98E-08
is aquadest (assuming pH neutral 7 and no heavy Chalcopyrite 1.58E-09 O (0) 1.71E-03
metals content), final solution input (Table 2), min- Arsenopyrite 2.67E-09 S (2) 4.27E-04
eral input (Table 3), uncertainties, and balances. Pyrite 3.25E-06
The inverse modeling using PHREEQC result- Cerussite 5.66E-07
ing several models of acid rock drainage generation Smithsonite 4.19E-04
in which in this research it is similar with the leach- Greenockite 8.90E-10
ate of kinetic test result. Acid rock drainage gen- Calcite 2.08E-05
eration-models consist of a set of reacted minerals
along with their own transfer moles. The selection
of the representative model was conducted based
Table 7. Verification of representative models.

pH
Table 4. Representative model of ARD generation for Error
host rock-1. Sample Laboratory test PHREEQC (%)

Phase mole transfer Redox mole transfer Country 5.510 5.858 0.348 6.32
rock 1
Transfer mole Transfer mole Ore 1 5.670 5.936 0.266 4.69
Mineral (mole) Element (mole) Ore 2 6.390 6.29 0.1 1.56
Dolomite 6.42E-05 As (3) 6.55E-11
Calcite 2.04E-05 As (3) 6.55E-11
O2 (g) 9.82E-04 Cu (1) 1.53E-09 on forward modeling (verification) result, in which
CO2 (g) 1.93E-05 H (0) 4.49E-10 when the pH of the leachate resulted from forward
Pyrite 3.19E-06 O (0) 1.96E-03 modeling is approximately similar with the pH of
Chalcopyrite 1.54E-09 S (2) 4.91E-04 the leachate resulted from laboratory kinetic test,
Arsenopyrite 1.31E-10 then the model can be used as representative model
Galena 1.30E-06 of acid rock drainage generation.
Sphalerite 4.84E-04 The representative model of acid rock drainage
Greenockite 2.18E-08 generation from inverse modeling for each samples
can be seen in Tables 46, whereas the result of
verification is shown in Table 7 with the pH error
percentage for each samples are in the range below
Table 5. Representative model ARD generation for ore-1. 10%. Detail steps and analysis in this stage was
Phase mole transfer Redox mole transfer described in Permata, 2014.

Transfer mole Transfer mole

Mineral (mole) Element (mole) 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Pyrite 2.93E-06 As (3) 4.81E-10 4.1 Prediction of water quality

Galena 3.82E-04 As (3) 4.81E-10
O2 (g) 7.74E-04 Cu (1) 1.41E-09
Forward modeling was used to predict under-
Chalcopyrite 1.42E-09 H (0) 1.44E-09
ground mine water quality, as a result interaction
Arsenopyrite 9.61E-10 O (0) 1.55E-03
among the groundwater with surrounding rock,
Cerussite 3.80E-04 S (2) 3.86E-04 includes ore and host rock, which being exposed
Smithsonite 3.80E-04
due to mine operation. Therefore, it is important
Greenockite 2.64E-07 to predict how the mine water quality in the future
will be look like, so that if there are potential

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 occurrence of low quality mine water a mitigation This scenario is represented the water quality in the
effort can be conducted at the first chance. drainage level and sump as a result of mixing of
In underground mine water prediction, ground- groundwater-ores leachate with groundwater-host
water is one of the important factors that need to rock leachate.
be considered. The quality of groundwater that is The prediction result of those three scenario is
used in this research can be seen in Table 8 which shown in Table 10. It could be seen in Table 10 that
show that the groundwater has neutral pH of 6.87. the leachates pH from leaching process of ground-
In addition, the dissolved metal content in the water with ore-1 and ore-2 are 5.94 and 6.19, con-
groundwater is also quite low. secutively (scenario-1) whereas leaching process of
Mine water prediction was conducted using sev- groundwater and host rock resulting the leachates
eral mixing scenarios among groundwater, ores, pH of 6.04. It could be seen that pH mine water of
and host rock samples (Table 9). Scenario-1 of mixing result scenario 3 showing that the pH value
mine water quality prediction was conducted by of 6 and 6.13, consecutively. Generally, it can be
reacting groundwater with minerals in ore sam- conclude that all leaching process has resulting a
ples. This scenario-1 of mine water could possibly near neutral leachates. Details result of dissolved
occur in stope which close to ore in underground metal predicted in these simulation can be seen in
mining where the groundwater can react with the Permata, 2012.
ore rocks. Scenario-2 was conducted by reacting
ground water with minerals contained in host rock.
4.2 The relationship among laboratory
Mine water prediction scenario-2 is represented
geochemical test, rock mineralogy,
the reaction that possibly occurred in the access
and PHREEQC simulation result
road of underground mining where the ground-
water can react with host rock which mostly are The earlier explanation about the result of geo-
carbonate minerals. Scenario-3 was conducted by chemical laboratory of static test, it can be con-
mixing the leachate from scenario-1 with the lea- cluded that the samples taken from the Pb-Zn
chate from scenario-2, with mixing fractional 1:1. deposit in the study area has a potency to produce
acid rock drainage. However, according to the
kinetic test result which is conducted to investigate
Table 8. Groundwater quality. the acid generation rate of the samples as well as in
order to confirm the static test result has shown an
Parameter Unit Value opposite result. The kinetic test result indicate that
the samples is categorized as low acid rock drain-
Temperature C 22.94 age generation potential samples by considering
pH 6.87
the pH of leachate which is in the range above 5
Bicarbonate as CaCO3 mg/L 132
and can be classified as approximately neutral.
Sulphate, SO4 mg/L 21.8
Furthermore, the mineralogy analysis of those
Arsenic, As mg/L 0.0029
ore samples, especially on the sulphide mineral
Cadmium, Cd mg/L 0.0020
structure in which it has been known that the sul-
Cobalt, Co mg/L 0.0240
Copper, Cu mg/L 0.0100
phide minerals as the main factor of acid rock
Iron, Fe mg/L 1.8160
drainage generation, is in the form of massive
Lead, Pb mg/L 0.0188 sulphide minerals that has undergone recrystalliza-
Nickel, Ni mg/L 0.0220 tion process. These conditions has led to the dif-
Zinc, Zn mg/L 1.0506 ficultness of the sulphide minerals to react either

Source: Cassanova, 2012.

Table 10. The result of mine water quality
prediction.
Table 9. Mixing scenarios in mine water prediction.
Scenario pH
Real condition (Probability location of
Scenarios scenario mine water generated) Scenario 1
Ground water + ore 1 5.94
Scen. 1* On stope Ground water + ore 2 6.19
Scen. 2** In access road, shaft, adit, drift, raise, winze, Scenario 2
sublevel, main level, haulage level, ramp Ground water + host rock 1 6.04
Scen. 3*** Sump, drainage level Scenario 3
(GW + ore 1) mix (GW + host rock) 6.00
*Ground water + ore.; **Ground water + host rock; (GW + ore 2) mix (GW + host rock) 6.13
***Ground water + ore + host rock.

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 with air or water, or in other word, the sulphide
minerals are less reactive. Besides, the host rocks of
sulphide minerals are also categorized as carbon-
ate rock or dolostone which contains dolomite in
large amount. This reason causes leachate which
generated from the sample of the Pb-Zn deposit is
remain on near neutral condition.
As been described previously, the reactivity of
sulphide minerals is one of factors that can control
oxidation rate of those minerals. In the simulation
using PHREEQC ver. 2 software which was used in
this research, the low reactivity of sulphide miner-
als is accommodated by using the inverse modeling
approach in which the leachate quality of kinetic test
as an input in final solution. Hence, the low reactiv-
ity of acid rock drainage generation was shown by
the insignificant pH declining among in the initial
water (pH 6.87 of the groundwater) and the mixed
water as the water quality prediction result using
this software (in the range of 5.196.19).
5 CONCLUSION
The kinetic test result has indicated that the sam-
ples from the Pb-Zn deposit has a low rate of acid
generation which is shown the near neutral leach-
ate being produced along the test. It is due to the
mineral structure of the sulphide mineral which
in the form of massive sulphide minerals that has
undergone recrystallization process and led the
sulphide minerals to be less reactive.
Inverse modeling PHREEQC is able to produce
representative model which consist of several set of
minerals along with their transfer mole in simulat-
ing the leaching process of acid rock drainage of the
kinetic test, with highest error percentage of 6.3%.
396
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 396
Water quality simulation on several scenarios by
considering the kinetic test result, mole transfer of
minerals and elements which represent the possible
mixing condition within mine show that the pH
mine water for those all scenarios has a near neu-
tral pH value. This understanding is beneficial in
the development of appropriate mine water man-
agement during mine operation as well as for mine
closure plan.
REFERENCES
Casanova, B. 2012. Hydrogeochemical study and Poten-
tial Water Pollution due to Sulphide Massive Deposit.
Thesis of Master of Ground water Engineering. ITB.
Bandung.
Firgiani, D., 2012. The comparison study of Kinetic test
for mine water quality prediction in Pb-Zn deposit
area. Thesis of Bachelor of Mining Engineering. ITB.
Bandung.
Gautama, R. S., G.J. Kusuma, D. Firgiani, S. Mustakar,
Ekarini, P. 2013. Geochemical Characterization for
Prediction of Acid Rock Drainage Potential in Hydro-
thermal Deposit. Proceeding of the 22nd MPES
Conference, Dresden, Germany: Mine Planning and
Equipment Selection. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-02678-
7_75.
Lottermoser, B.G. 2010. Mine Waste (Characterization,
Treatment, and Environmental Impact) 3rd edition.
Springer: New York.
Parkhurst, D.L and Appelo, CAJ. 1999. Users Guide
to PHREEQC (Version 2)-A Computer Program for
Speciation, Batch-Reaction, One-Dimensional Trans-
port and Inverse Geochemical Modeling.
Permata, D. 2014. Simulation of Formation and Qual-
ity Prediction of Acid Rock Drainage on The
Pb-Zn Deposits, Thesis of Master of Ground water
Engineering. ITB. Bandung (in Indonesian).
8/27/2014 6:01:50 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Adsorption performance investigation of heavy metal copper

in acid mine drainage by the Klebsiella oxytoca

Y.J. Zhu, L.B. Zhou, Y.B. Zhu & L.P. Ju

Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (BGRIMM), China

ABSTRACT: The acid wastewater from nonferrous metal mine causes serious environmental pollu-
tion, and affect human production and life because of its low pH and high content of heavy metal ions.
A strain capable of adsorbing copper ion was isolated at the acidic condition through the domestication
and screening. It was identified as Klebsiella oxytoca. The results of single factor optimization test indi-
cated that the best carbon source of the strain was the mixture composed of 0.7 g L1 sodium acetate and
0.6 g L1 of xanthate and the best nitrogen source is 0.7 g L1 ammonium sulfate. Under the conditions
of best carbon and nitrogen source conditions, 4 g L1 strain concentration, 30C temperature and 4 had
sorption time, the optimal conditions influencing the copper removal rate were obtained at pH 3.0 and
100 mg L1 Cu2+, and the adsorption efficiency of Cu2+ reached 59.7%. The process of the strain adsorb-
ing Cu2+ is in line with Langmuir isotherm model which is priority to surface adsorption. Infrared spec-
trum analysis showed that the chemical changes happened in the groups of OH, NH and CONH2 in
the absorption process, while the adsorptions of CH, C=O, CO and CN groups on the bacteria were
the physical adsorption.

1 INTRODUCTION
In the process of the ore mining, the sulfide mineral
reacts with the air, water, and microbe, occurring a
series of physical and chemical reactions, such as
leaching, oxidation, hydrolysis, forming a low PH
sulfuric acid-high iron sulfate solution, and a vari-
ety of metal ions were released, which mainly con-
tent Cu2+ (40200 mg L1), Zn2+ (10200 mg L1), cation restricted (Di 2010). Therefore, the study
Pb2+ (130 mg L1) and Cd2+ (0.110 mg L1) etc. aimed at low pH and high concentration of cupric
The toxicity of heavy metals in wastewater not
only pollute the water seriously, effect the yield
and quality of crop, bur also enrich and expand
in the food chain very easily, finally do harm to
human health by accumulating in some organ
cause chronic intoxication. Therefore, seeking a
economic and practical method to eliminate the
harm based on the characters of the acidic min-
ing wastewater, guaranteeing the sustainable devel-
opment of mineral resources development has
received much attention from the government and
the society.
Compared with traditional methods such as
neutralization precipitation, and sulfide precipita-
tion, microbial method has many advantages like
low cost, high efficiency, wide pH range and small
secondary pollution, recyclable etc. Nearly a dec-
ade, the research of biological removal of metal
ions at home and abroad mainly focus on algae,
beer yeast and sulfate-reducing bacteria, the other
species is still rare. For the most microbes the best
PH of adsorption of Cu2+ is 56, and the removal
rate can reach 50%80%. When the PH = 23,
the removal rate reduced significantly, just about
20% (Donghee 2010). Sulfate-reducing bacteria is
strictly anaerobic bacterium, needs strict condi-
tions and is sensitive to pH changes, the growth is
held-up when the PH < 4, which leads to its appli-
ions in the acidic mining wastewater, through the
screening of strains, strengthen the resistance to
acid, copper and copper removal ability of bacte-
rial strain, a plant under the condition of strong
acid to remove copper ion has higher ability of the
strains come out, and analyzed the factors to affect
the strain of cooper removal efficiency. Through
biochemical identification and 16rDNA, primarily
explore the mechanism of the bacteria to remove
copper ion, provide theoretical support for the
microbial method.
2 THE MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 The materials
2.1.1 Bacterial source
The sludge used to screen strains taken from a
certain copper mine waste water.

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 2.1.2 Nutrient medium 2.3 Analysis method
Enrichment medium: beef extract 5 g L1, peptone
Biomass: measured by spectrophotometer bacte-
10 g L1, NaCl 5 g L1, pH 7.27.4.
rium liquid OD600, drawing the growth curve.
Selective medium: saccharose 5 g L1, (NH4)2SO4
Heavy metal concentration of Cu2+ was deter-
1 g L1, K2HPO4 2 g L1, Mg SO4 7H2O 0.5 g L1,
mined by double cyclohexanone oxamide two
NaCl0.1 g L1, CaCO3 0.5 g L1, CuSO4 5H2O
hydrazone determination. Evaluation index is the
0.39 g L1 (Cu2+ 100 mg L1), agar 20 g L1,
removal rate of Cu2+.
pH = 56.
Domesticated culture medium: saccharose
5 g L1 (NH4)2 SO41 g L1, K2HPO4 2 g L1, Mg
3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
SO4 7H2O 0.5 g L1, NaCl 0.1 g L1 yeast powder
0.5 g L1, agar 20 g L1 change the copper ion con-
3.1 Strain identification
centration in the medium by CuSO4 5H2O, adjust
medium PH by 0.1 mol L1 H2SO4 and 0.1 mol L1 3.1.1 Morphological observation of the strain
NaOH. The strain Z-1 was gram-negative, straight, both
ends are circular, single, in pairs or short chains
arranged, cell size is about 0.31.5 m 0.66.0 m;
2.2 Test method
colony diameter is about 0.51.5 mm, circular,
2.2.1 The configuration of the simulated milky white, translucent, moist, neat edge, the cen-
wastewater tral convex semi spherical.
According to the character of the mining
acid wastewater, the study design simulation 3.1.2 Amplification and analysis of 16SrDNA
Cu2+ 100 mg L1, pH = 3. sequence of the strain
Input the sequencing result of the 16SrDNA of
2.2.2 Bacterias separation the strain Z-1 into the GenBank, and campare the
Sludge in sterile water is collected after shocks, homology with the BLAST. Build the phylogenetic
take on the supernatant enriching, The Cu2+ con- tree of the strain showed in Figure 1. The strain
centration was 20 mg L1, 40 mg L1, 60 mg L1, Z-1 was identified as Klebsiella oxytoca.
80 mg L1, 100 mg L1 medium plate coating,
culturing 24 h, choose the train which can adapt
3.2 The efficiency on removal rate of Cu2+
to high concentration Cu2+. Purify and separate
of the carbon source and nitrogen removal
the strains obtained after preliminary screening,
of the strain
decreased the pH value of medium 7, 6, 5, 4, 3. By
measuring the residual concentration of the bac- Carbon and nitrogen provide body the energy
teria concentration and Cu2+ in liquid, the strain needed to sustain life activities in the microbial
that toleranced to low pH and has high copper growth process, and they were one of the essential
ion removal ability was selected out named strain nutrients of microbial. Different kinds of microor-
Z-1. ganisms is selective for carbon, nitrogen source, the
using ability is also different. Therefore the choice
2.2.3 Strain identification of carbon, nitrogen source is not only conducive to
The strain Z-1 was identified by morphological microbial growth, so as to improve the copper ion
observation and molecular biology. removal rate, and suitable carbon, nitrogen dosage
can effectively reduce the operation cost, and more
2.2.4 Single factor experiment strain beneficial to industrial application of microbial
culture conditions treatment in mine acid wastewater.
Through the single factor experiment, research
on the type and dosage of the carbon source and
nitrogen source of the strain and the other effect
elements. Cultivation wastewater was 100 mg L1
Cu2+, pH = 3, the certain conditions: carbon
source, nitrogen source, temperature 30 C, shaker
speed 140 r/min, inoculation amount 2 g L1, cul-
ture time 24 h.

2.2.5 Study on removal mechanism of copper

The Fourier infrared spectrometer (Lasat 1996)
on the bacteria were detected before and after
adsorption of copper ions. Figure 1. Phylogenetic tree.

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 1. The kinds of carbon sources.
Input 5 g L1 beef extract, sucrose, sodium ace-
tate and soluble starch separately, in the selected
cultures of 100 mg L1 Cu2+ and pH = 3, with,
inoculating 10% strain, under the conditions
of 30 C, 140 r/min and 24 h adsorption time,
measure the residual concentration of the bacte-
ria concentration and Cu2+ in liquid, the results
is shown as Figure 2.
As you can see from Figure 2, the strain can
use a variety of carbon sources. Among them,
them, sodium acetate is the easiest sources to
be used by the Z-1 to remove Cu2+. The removal
rate reaches 49.2%, so we choose sodium acetate
as the carbon source of the Z-1 strain.
2. The amount of carbon source.
Choicing sodium acetate as the carbon source.
And observe the effect of sodium acetate dos-
age on the growth of strain Z-1 and removal
rate of Cu2+. Inoculate 10% Z-1 strain into the
simulated wastewater of sodium acetate with
different concentrations, Under the condition
of 30 C, 140 r/min and 24 h adsorption time,
measure the concentration of the bacteria con-
centration and Cu2+ in the liquid, the results is
shown as Figure 3.
Figure 2. Effect of carbon source types on the growth
of the strain Z-1 and removal efficiency of Cu (II).
Figure 3. Effect of the mass concentration of sodium
acetate on the growth of the strain Z-1 and removal effe-
ciency of Cu (II).
399
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 399
As you can see from Figure 3, when the concen-
tration of sodium acetate increases, the growth of
the Z-1 strain and the removal rate of Cu2+ rises
as well. When the sodium acetate concentration
is 3 g L1 and 5 g L1, removal rate Cu2+ is 46.8%
and 49.2%. Considering the very small removal
rate difference and the operation cost, choose the
best concentration of sodium acetate is 3 g L1.
3. The kind of nitrogen source.
Choose 3 g L1 sodium acetate as the carbon
source, Put 1 g L1 peptone, urea, ammonium
sulfate, potassium nitrate into the solution of
100 mg L1 Cu2+, pH = 3 respectively, the results
are shown in Figure 4.
As you can see from Figure 4, the strain can
remove copper ion in wastewater by using vari-
ous nitrogen sources. The peptone and ammo-
nium sulfate are the most easily used by the cell.
Considering the cost of cost of nitrogen source,
we choose ammonium sulfate as the optimal
nitrogen source for the Z-1 strain.
4. The amount of nitrogen source.
Select ammonium sulfate to be the nitrogen
source, observe the effect of ammonium sulfate
dosages on the growth of the Z-1 strain and
removal rate of Cu2+. Inoculate 10% Z-1 strain
into the simulated wastewater with different con-
centrations of ammonium sulfate, Under the con-
dition of 30C, 140 r/min, and 24 h adsorption
time, measure the concentration of the bacteria
concentration and Cu2+ in the liquid. As shown
in Figure 5, with the increase of ammonium sul-
fate concentration, the removal efficiency of Cu2+
increases, when the concentration of ammonium
sulfate reaches 1.2 g/l, the removal efficiency of
Cu2+ reaches 47.6%. Therefore we choose the best
concentration of ammonium sulfate as 1.2 g L1.
3.3 Effect of pH on the strain ability
of adsorbing Cu2+
For most biological adsorption processes, the
pH value is the decisive factor to heavy metal
Figure 4. Effect of nitrogen source types on the growth
of the strain Z-1 and removal effeciency of Cu (II).
8/27/2014 6:01:51 PM
 Figure 6. Effect of pH on the growth of the strain Z-1
Figure 5. Effect of the mass concentration of ammo- and removal effeciency of Cu (II).
nium sulphate on the growth of the strain Z-1 and
removal effeciency of Cu (II).

adsorption. Due to the low pH of the mine acid

wastewaters, mostly less than 7, so the test set the
pH of the waste water at 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0,
and 100 mg L1 Cu2+, the inoculation amount of
the strain is 2 g L1, under the condition of 30 C,
140 r/min and 24 h adsorption time, results are
shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 shows that the strain concentration
increased with the increase of pH, the removal
rate of Cu2+ was also increased. When pH < 4, the
removal rate of Cu2+ increased obviously with the
increase of pH. When pH = 1, the Cu2+ removal
Figure 7. Effect of adsorption time on the biosorption
rate of strain Z-1 was only 29.6%, when pH = 4, the of Cu (II) with the strain Z-1.
removal rate increased to 51.2%, and when pH = 6,
the removal rate could increase to 55.1%. The rea-
son why this phenomenon appear can attribute to slowly, tends to be stable, and it can reach 46.2%.
this: when pH is relatively low, there is competition The possible reason is that the adsorption of the
of adsorption between hydronium ions and heavy Z-1 strain to Cu2+ is mainly by surface, and it
metals Cu2+, H+ occupy plenty of active adsorp- doesn't rely on cell metabolism but rely on the com-
tion sites of the strain, so that the Cu2+ and active bination of Cu2+ with amino, carboxyl, hydroxyl
adsorption sites can not contact, and the adsorp- and other chemical groups on cell wall. This proc-
tion rate decrease, low pH can affect the activity ess was rapidly (Wang 2006). Therefore, the best
of enzyme, so the bacterial metabolism is limited adsorption time of this experiment is 4 h.
and bacteria growth is affected at the same time.
With the increase of pH and beyond the bacterial
3.5 Effect of the strain inoculation on the
surface isoelectric point, the amount of negative
adsorption performance of Cu2+
charge on cell surface increased and the activity
of the active group on bacteria surface enhanced, In the wastewater that Cu2+ concentration was
which is good at the adsorption of Cu2+. 100 mg/L, pH = 3, change the inoculation to 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6 g/L, oscillate and adsorb in the condition
of 30 C, 140 r/min for 4 h, and drawing the inocu-
3.4 Effect of adsorption time on the adsorption
lation amountremoval rate curve in Figure 8.
performance of Cu2+
The results showed that, with the increase of
In the wastewater of 100 mg/L Cu2+, pH = 3, inoc- strain Z-1 concentration, the removal rate of Cu2+
ulation amount 2 g/L, 30 C, 140 r/min oscillat- increased. When the cell concentration was 6 g/L,
ing adsorption time are 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 h, the test Cu2+ removal rate was 62.6%, and the unit mass
results are shown in Figure 7. copper ion adsorption amount decreases, reduced
It can be seen from the graph, in the 4 h of the from 31.8 mg/g at 1 g/L to 10.4 mg/g at 6 g/L. This is
start of the reaction, the removal rate of strains due to the concentration of Cu2+ didn't change but
on heavy metal Cu2+ increased rapidly with time the concentration and active adsorption site of the
passed, and after 4 h, the removal rate increases strain increase, the chance of cell surface contacted

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Figure 8. Effect of inoculation amount of the strain
Z-1 on the biosorption of Cu (II).
with the metal ions also increased, so there must be
more Cu2+ adsorbed, accordingly, adsorption rate
of Cu2+ increased; but after beyond a certain range,
with the increase of strain concentration, the bind-
ing interaction between amphoteric groups in bio-
mass cell increase and occupy some of the effective
binding sites, so the range of Cu2+ adsorption by
strain decreased. When the inoculation amount is
less than 4 g/L, along with the increase of invest-
ment and the amount of bacterium, the removal
rate of strain Z-1 to Cu2+ increased obviously,
reached 59.7%, when the inoculation amount is
greater than 4 g/L, the removal rate of increase is
not significant. Comprehensive the removal rate
and the cost of treatment, inoculation amount to
4 g/L is good, so the unit cell adsorption capacity
is 14.93 mg/g.
3.6 Analysis of the isotherm model
of the adsorption process
Prepare the wastewater that Cu2+ concentration is
respectively different, adjusting the wastewater pH
to 3, inoculation amount to 4 g/L, adsorbing under
the condition of 140 r/min 30 C, and 4 h adsorb-
ing time, measuring the supernatant concentration
of Cu2+ after centrifugal separation, calculating
adsorption capacity q of the ion of unit cell, fitting
the experimental results with Langmuir equation
and Freundlich equation (Han 2005) respectively,
and the results were shown in Figures 9 and 10.
Comparing the correlation coefficient of two
charts, we can see that the process of strain Z-1
adsorbing Cu2+ is more aligned with the Langmuir
Isothermal Adsorption Equation, the adsorbate
stick to the surface of adsorbent in the form of mon-
olayer, it is a uniform absorbing process in surface
(Donat 2005). Preliminary speculation, the adsorp-
tion sites are almost Polysaccharide in extracellular
polymeric substance, Protein of hydroxyl, Carbonyl,
amide group and so on (Perelomov 2006).
401
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 401
Figure 9. Langmuir adsorption isotherm.
Figure 10. Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
Adsorption constant b can be used to meas-
ure the stability of the combination of adsorbate
and adsorbent, the bigger the b is, the bigger the
stability is. From the Table 1 we can see that the
adsorption constant of strain Z-1 adsorbing Cu2+
is 0.47 L mg1, it shows that the stability of the
combine of strain Z-1 and Cu2+ is stronger and
adsorption capacity is bigger. From Langmuir
model we can calculate that the maximum of
adsorption capacity of strain Z-1 adsorbing Cu2+ is
15.15 mg g1, it is nearly to the adsorption capac-
ity 14.93 mg g1, which is from the test.
3.7 The research of the copper removal
mechanism
The research uses the Fourier infrared spectrom-
eter to test the handled Cu2+ and untreated Cu2+,
the Table 11 and Table 12 is about the infrared
absorption spectrum of the handled Cu2+, which is
handled by strains Z-1 and untreated Cu2+.
Though comparing the Figures 11 and 12, after
Z-1 handled Cu2+, the Ir spectral peak didnt show
any obvious changes, just a drift, not a new band,
it shows that the Z-1 handled metal ions, its struc-
ture didnt have any changes.
Meanwhile, the transparency of all peak in
Table 12 has a significant increase to Table 11.
There into, the stretching vibration bar of the com-
bined action of OH and NH moved 18.95 cm1.
8/27/2014 6:01:52 PM
 Table 1. Constant of Langmuir isotherm. microorganism which can resistant of copper.
By selecting, separating and the concentration
Langmuir equation of Cu2+, the pH of wastewater domesticated,
select a strain Z-1 which can absorb Cu2+ effi-
Qmax/(mg g1) b/(L mg1) R2
ciently, through identifing the strains Z-1 as
15.15 0.47 0.9948 Klebsiella bacillus.
2. The test ensure the best carbon source of strains
Z-1 is sodium acetate, the best dosage is 3 g L1,
the best nitrogen source is ammonium sulfate,
the best dosage is 1.2 g L1.
3. In condition that the microbial is 4 g L1, tem-
perature is 30C, the time of absorption is 4 h,
The best absorption efficiency to waste water
for strains Z-1 is pH = 3, Cu2+ 100 mg L1.
This time, the removal rate of Cu2+ in liquor at
59.7%.
4. Using the model of Langmuir and Freundlich
isothermal adsorption equation to simulate the
process of strain Z-1 absorbing Cu2+, the result
shows that the process of strains Z-1 absorbing
Cu2+ accord Langmuir isothermal adsorption
equation, the judgment through the infrared
Figure 11. Unadsorption of Cu2+ infrared spectra spectra strains of Z-1 handled Cu2+, the strains
strains. Z-1 exist in OH, CH, CN, C=O, CH2,
CONH2 and so on in active group, the group of
OH, NH and CONH2 of bacteria occurred
chemical adsorption in surface, amide peak
CH, C=O, CO, CN, and Physical adsorption
adsorb Cu2+.

REFERENCES

Donat R., Akdogan A., Erdern E., et al. Thermodynam-

Figure 12. Adsorption of Cu2+ strains infrared
spectrogram.
The amide II band CONH2 deformation vibra-
tion bar moved 15.85 cm1, other peaks didnt have
any obvious deviation, it state that the group of
OH, NH and CONH2 of bacteria has chemical
adsorption in the surface, other CH, amide peak
C=O, CO, CN adsorb Cu2+ in a physical way.
4 CONCLUSION
1. The test select ore dressing wastewater drain-
age from a copper ore to separate some
ics of Pb2+ and Ni2+ adsorption onto natural bentonite
from aqueous solutions [J]. Journal of colloid and
Interface Science, 2005, 286(1):4352.
Donghee P., Yun Y.S., Jong M.P. The past, present and
future trends of biosorption [J]. Biotechnology and
Bioprocess Engineering, 2010, 15:86102.
Fang Di, Wang Fang. Ecology and Environmental
Science [J]. 2010, 19(3):562565.
Han R.P., Zhang J.H., Zhou W.H., et al. Equilibrium
biosorption isotherm for lead ion on chaff [J]. Journal
of Hazardous Materials, 2005, B125:266271.
Lasat M.M., Baker A.J.M., Kochian L.V. Physiological
characterization of root Zn2+ absorption and translo-
cation to shoots in Zn hyper accumulator and nonac-
cumulator species of thlaspi [J]. Plant Physiol, 1996,
112:17151722.
Perelomov L., Kandeler E. Effect of soil microorgan-
isms on the sorption of zinc and lead compounds
by goethite [J]. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil
Science, 2006, 169(1):95100.
Wang J.L., Chen C. Biosorption of heavy metals by
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Advances, 2006, 24(5):427451.

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Comprehensive development and utilization of coal gangue

in the western region

W.B. Sun & Y. Wang

School of Energy Engineering, Xian University of Science and Technology, Xian, Shaanxi Province, China

ABSTRACT: On the basis of the ecological characteristics of the western region, in combination with
the present situation for the use of coal gangue, and by using coal gangue technology, this paper analyzed
utilization ways as a resource of the coal gangue in the direct utilization process, upgrading process, and
comprehensive utilization in the western region. The effective utilization of coal gangue will reduce the
output of solid wastes, and improve utilization rate of resource. It is important for ecological protection
and sustainable development in the western region.

Keywords: coal gangue; utilization as a resource; sustainable development

1 INTRODUCTION coal gangue is still piled in the form of mountain,

The northwest region is characterized by wide land
area and rich resources, and is also the region for
important development at the end of this century
and for a very long time in the next century (Kang
2011). Particularly in five provinces in northwest
region (Shaanxi, Ningxia, Qinghai, Gansu and
Xinjiang), there are rich coal resources. In the
Twelfth Five-Year planning of the coal indus-
try, the coal production in the central and west-
ern regions is 2.09 billion ton/year, accounting for
53% of total coal production in China. With the
mining of a large amount of coal, the discharge of
coal gangue increases year by year. Coal gangue is
a hard black rock with low carbon content coexist-
ing with coal during the formation of the coal, and
is discharged during the coal mining (Wang 2013),
and it is predicted that the coal gangue in China
will be about 40 108t in 2020 (Lei 2013). A large
amount of coal gangue piles up, which invades the
land and destroys the ecological environment, and
easily results in the geological disaster. Its leach-
ates will pollute the water body and once being
burned, will become hazardous gases, which will
pollute the environment and have influence on
the human health. So it is critically important to
realize the utilization of coal gangue as a resource,
turn the waste into the treasure, and make full use
of the potential values (Qiu 2014). At present,
there is low utilization rate of coal gangue in
China, and the comprehensive utilization rate in
the Western Region is less than 50%. Except that
a small amount of coal gangue is used for power
generation and brick making, a large amount of
which not only occupies the land, but also pol-
lutes the environment. With the strengthening of
resource development in the Western Region, the
resource-oriented treatment of coal gangue shall
be given proper emphasis.
2 UTILIZATION STATUS OF COAL
GANGUE IN THE WESTERN REGION
The Western Region is the energy base, but there is
little study and comprehensive utilization of coal
gangue. These mainly include the production of
industrial aluminum sulfate with powder of coal
gangue in Mining Corporation in Zhangye Region,
Gansu Province (Zhao 1999), Li Q.H. et al. drew
the conclusion that the coal gangue in Fugu Coal
Mine area, Shaanxi Province was high-quality
kaolinite source by analysis (Li 2007), Qi X.X.
et al. analyzed the characteristics of coal gangue in
main coal areas of Xinjiang Autonomous Region
(Qi 2010), Wang Z.P. et al. introduced some paths
in Xinjiang (Wang 2009), Yin H.R. et al. analyzed
the utilization methods of coal gangue according
to the physical and chemical properties of coal
gangue in Yulin region (Yin 2013) and so on. True
transformation into the scale operation mainly
includes the projects with added value, such as
power generation with coal gangue and sintering
of porous bricks. For example, coal gangue brick
plant of Huating Coal Group Co., Ltd. in Gansu
Province, Shenhua Midong Coal Gangue Power
Plant and Hami Coal Gangue Power Plant of
Luan Group and so on.

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 3 UTILIZATION ROUTES
FOR COAL GANGUE
Main constituents of coal gangue are Al2O3 and SiO2,
as well as C, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5 and
SO3 in varying amount and rare elements (gallium,
vanadium, titanium, cobalt) in trace amount and
so on. In addition to traditional utilization of coal
gangue for backfill, wasteland filling, lowland filling,
filling of the goaf and collapse zone, coal gangue has
multiple utilization methods by using the character-
istics of the elements in coal gangue.
3.1 Utilization of coal gangue in the energy field
Since coal gangue contains C element in certain
quantity, coal gangue with the heat generation
capacity more than 7.5 MJ/kg may be directly used
as the fuel of circulating fluidized bed boiler for
power generation, and the coal gangue with the
heat generation capacity less than 7.5 MJ/kg may
be used for power generation by mixing with the
slime and middlings.
3.2 Utilization of coal gangue
in the construction field
Coal gangue is used as the raw material to produce
the coal gangue brick, decorative brick, porous brick
and lightweight aggregate, as well as cement, hollow
concrete blocks and aerated concrete and so on.
3.3 Utilization of coal gangue
in the chemical product field
Coal gangue with high aluminum content is used
to produce crystallized aluminum chloride, multi-
use aluminum hydroxide, and water glass; it may be
used for the production of carbon white by using
sedimentation method; it may be used for the pro-
duction of 4 A molecular sieve.
3.4 Utilization of coal gangue
in the agricultural field
Coal gangue is used for the production of fertilizer
by using the characteristics of N, P and K elements
in coal gangue, and also for the reclamation of the
wasteland and coal gangue mountain.
4 PROBLEMS AND THE UTILIZATION
ROUTES OF COAL GANGUE IN THE
WESTERN REGION
4.1 Problems for the utilization of coal
gangue in the western region
The Western Region is characterized by wide
land and sparse distribution of population, and
404
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 404
the coal gangue is discharged into large area of
Gobi. The comprehensive utilization of coal
gangue in the Western Region is not as urgent
as that in the East, but if this problem is not
considered as early as possible, the environmen-
tal problem of coal gangue will be highlighted
with constant increase of the coal production
in the Western Region The Western Region is
dry and deficient of water, cold in winter, has
heavy sandy wind and weak ecological undertak-
ing capacity. The utilization of coal gangue as a
resource shall lay more emphasis on the environ-
ment efficiency.
4.2 Routes for the utilization of coal gangue
in the western region
To achieve reasonable utilization of coal gangue
in the Western Region and turn the coal gangue
from the waste to the treasure, it is required to
categorize coal gangue according to the charac-
teristics, thus realizing comprehensive utilization
of coal gangue in multiple paths, components
and levels. The Western Region is character-
ized by wide land and sparse distribution of
population, long energy transportation distance
and deficiency of land and water resources.
This decides that the utilization of coal gangue
in the Western Region shall firstly consider
the utilization with high added value and then
the consumptive utilization in large scale. In the
large-scale consumptive utilization, it is required
to consider the utilization means of land and
water resources.
Firstly, the mined coal gangue will be extracted
with the resources with high added value accord-
ing to the characteristics of coal gangue, such as
rare earth, aluminum sulfate and carbon white
and so on. Then coal gangue will be categorized
according to the heat generation capacity, the coal
gangue with high calorific value may be used for
power generation with coal gangue, the inorganic
Figure 1. Multi-level utilization diagram of coal gangue
in the western region.
8/27/2014 6:01:54 PM
 elements in fly ash from the power plant may be
further enriched, for the extraction of valuable
elements, preparation of the products with high
added value, such as glass beads and inorganic
insulating fiber. Coal gangue with low calorific
value may be classified according to the silicon-
aluminum ratio and the contents of trace elements,
for the production of kaolinite, insulating materi-
als or sintered bricks, haycite, or for reclamation
and production of fertilizer. Residual coal gangue
after the screening and the slag after multi-level
utilization will be used as the raw materials for
the filling of the mine pastes, for the control of
surface subsidence and the protection of water
resources. Refer to Diagram 1 for the technical
path of multi-level comprehensive utilization of
coal gangue.
5 CONCLUSION
In the Western Region with sparse population dis-
tribution and weak ecological undertaking capac-
ity, multi-level utilization of coal gangue is mainly
used as the means of comprehensive utilization of
coal gangue.
1. Classify the discharged coal gangue on the basis
of reducing the discharge of coal gangue with
the in-situ technology.
2. Firstly choose the utilization with high added
value, and then consider the large-scale utiliza-
tion of coal gangue.
3. Utilize coal gangue as a resource for power
generation, construction material produc-
tion, road pavement and reclamation based on
the heat generation, and use the coal gangue
and slag for which the resource utilization is
impossible in the underwell filling with the
mine paste filling technology, for the control
of surface subsidence and for the protection of
water resources.
405
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 405
Thanks for all the support from the research
team and the field technical personnel in this
project.
REFERENCES
Kang Ya ming, liu Chang wu. 2011. Shallow talk on the
coal mining technology under green mining in the area
of northwest. China mining magazine (10):7780.
Lei Zeng-min, pan Bao-feng, zhang Jing-jun, wang
Jin-hao. 2013. The Domestic Status of Comprehen-
sive Utilization of Coal Gangue. West-China Explora-
tion Engineering (9):7174.
Li Qing-hai, luo Jun-wen. 2007. Occurrence charac-
ters of waste of coal in Fugu area and properties of
white-increasing through calcination. Coalgeology &
Exploration (2):2123.
Qi Xing-Xin, Wang Xiao-Jun, Li Yan, Guo Xin-Feng,
Wang Juan-Fang. 2010. Study on properties of the
coal gangues from Xinjiang main coal mine regions
and their utilization suggestions. Journal Of China
Coal Society (7):143147.
Qiu Jingping, Li Xiaoqing, Sun Xiaogang, Xing Jun,
Wangyanbing. 2014. Status and progress in the utili-
zation of coal gangue resources. Nonferrous Metals
(Mining Section) (1):4750.
Shi Xiao-Cui, Zhang Zhi-Qiang. 2008. Research on coal
refuse discharging and utilization in Xinjiang Mining
Area. Coal Engineering (10):7880.
Wang Bin, Zhang Dong Jian, Gu Lin, Wang An Jia.
2013. Overview of the research on the comprehensive
utilization of coal gangue. Coal Processing &
Comprehensive Utilization (3):7780.
Wang Zhong-ping. 2009. Discussion on comprehensive
utilization of coal gangue in Xinjiang. Coal Quality
Technology (4):5557.
Yin Hai-rong, chen Ping. 2013. Comprehensive
exploitation and utilization of Yulin coal gangues.
Journal of Shanxi University of Science & Technology
(2):4448.
Zhao Zhen min, zhang Wen dong, li Yong sheng. 1999.
The compression process of coal gangue in the
production of aluminum sulfate. Coal Processing &
Comprehensive Utilization (1):2728.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Study on assessment system of rehabilitation on acid mine

waste rock dump

Y.B. Zhu, L.B. Zhou, L.P. Ju & Y.J. Zhu

Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (BGRIMM), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Assessment system of rehabilitation on acid mine waste rock dump is made up of soil
covers, leachate and revegetation. Ecological environment variation tendency of acid mine waste rock
dump is predicted, by means of analysis variation tendency of pH Value, leachate quantity, heavy metal
in soil covers, leachate and plant, etc.

Keywords: acid mine waste rock; soil covers; leachate; revegetation

1 INTRODUCTION About hundreds of mine abundant iron sulphide

Reactive waste rock from mining has the potential
to generate leachate of high acidity and elevated
heavy metal levels, which may pollute surround-
ing natural environment (Rinker et al. 2003). Acid
Rock Drainage (ARD) is the product of the chem-
ical and biological oxidation of sulphide minerals
in the presence of water and oxyegn (Evangelou
and Zhang 1995). Sulphuric acid produced from
reaction solution increase the availability of heavy
metals that may be subsequently released to sur-
face and ground waters. Management of ARD
and associated treatment costs can be very expen-
sive (Dobos and Brisebois, 2003). Some methods
of preventing ARD involve covering reactive mine
waste rock with water, alkaline substances or satu-
rated soil. The addition of alkaline substances to
sulphide-rich wastes is the most commonly tech-
nique employed to prevent ARD production. The
presence of these alkaline substances neutralize the
acid and decrease metal solubility by precipitation.
In addition, the precipitates formed can form coat-
ings on sulphide grains and further hinder their
dissolution and release of contaminants into solu-
tion (Evangelou, 1995). Limestone is commonly
used for this kind of treatments (Mylona et al.,
2000). Soil covers are also an effective way to mini-
mize ARD, as they reduce the ingress of water and
oxygen into reactive waste rock. There are differ-
ent kinds of soil covers, namely a store and release
cover, a resistive barrier, and a capillary barrier
(Barbour 1990, Bussire et al. 2003). Soil covers are
beneficial to vegetation growth. Without adequate
soil, it is more difficult to achieve successful reveg-
etation on large area of acid mine waste dump hav-
ing strong potential acid generation.
mineral are exploited in China, and most mine
located in mountainous area. It is difficult to reha-
bilitate mine waste dump with sustainable plant
communities, because waste dump has a strong
potential acid generation, surface soil was not
stripped and stockpiled before mining. Without
adequate soil available, it is difficult to minimize
ARD and rehabilitate acid waste dump through
soil covers.
It is very difficult and unsuccessful to vegetate
on waste rock dumps for high sulfur content, high
pH value, high heavy metal content, low organic
matter, nitrogen and phosphorus. It is also difficult
to access the results of revegetation on acid mine
waste rock dump, due to potential to generate lea-
chate of high acidity and elevated heavy metal lev-
els, which may pollute surrounding environment.
Evaluation system of rehabilitation on acid mine
waste rock dump, including soil covers, leachate
and revegetation, is provided. Soil covers includes
such index as physical, chemical and particle
characteristic of substance and reconstructed layer,
and so on. Leachate includes such index as leach-
ate quantity per area per time, pH value and heavy
metal (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg) in ARD, and
so on. Revegetation includes such index as selected
plant species, plant growth and heavy metal in root
and stem & leaf of dominant plant, and so on.
2 ASSESSMENT SYSTEM
Assessment system of rehabilitation on acid mine
waste rock dump includes soil covers, leachate
and revegetation. Soil covers includes such index
as physical, chemical and particle characteristic

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 of substance and reconstructed layer, and so on. industry minerals (such as limestone, bentonite, zeo-
Leachate includes such index as leachate quan- lite, sepiolite, palygorskite, attapulgite, etc.), indus-
tity per area per time, pH value and heavy metal try solid waste (such as coal gangue, fly ash), urban
(Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg) in ARD, and so on. domestic refuses, clay, microorganism, and so on.
Revegetation includes such index as selected plant Lime: Lime has acid-neutralizing capacity;
species, plant growth and heavy metal in root when water sank into ground and form ARD,
and stem & leaf of dominant plant, and so on. lime can neutralize ARD to a certain extent. The
Evaluation system are shown in Table 1. results of the laboratory experiments and field tri-
als at Yongping copper mine acid waste rock dump
show that: it is unfavorable for plants surviving for
2.1 Soil covers
soil acidity is terribly higher at platform, with net
Soil reconstruction is the key step of land acid produce capacity 42.8 kgH2SO4/t, and heavy
reclamation; soil profile reconstruction is the key metal is higher in content and very active in acid-
content of soil reconstruction; and quality of ity condition. It is the best way to add lime for
reconstructed soil is the primary standard for eval- increasing pH value and fill fly ash for depressing
uating effect of soil reconstruction (Hu Zhenqi, soil compaction (Wu Yajun, et al. 2002).
et al. 2005). Soil reclamation includes non-soil Bentonite: Bentonite has expansion in absorb-
cover vegetation, foreign-soil vegetation and soil ing water and contraction in losing water, so ben-
improvement vegetation. tonite layer is a better separation layer to prevent
Non-soil cover vegetation is generally suitable water from infiltrating into waste rock.
for land without pollutants or with low pollutants The adsorption effects of Na-modified bentonite
such as heavy metal and acid. Foreign-soil vege- for Cd2+ has been studied by isothermal adsorption
tation is suitable for land with low pollutants. In method. The results show that the bentonite, as a
metal mines, field trials are mainly carried out at kind of common silicate mineral, is not only a fine
tailings ponds. The vegetation is established on the raw materials in making ceramic, but also a kind of
sterile tailings pond by means of base improvement effective adsorbent because its unique layer crystal
to form soil surviving conditions settling, selection structure. The results of the pot experiments show
of tolerant species, the plants grows well, and the that the growth of plant could be significantly
sustainable benign cycling system are constructed improved, and adding Na-modified bentonite to
in the local area. cadmium-contaminated soil decreased heavy metal
Generally, it is necessary to conduct soil improve- concentration in shoot and root (Yang Xiuhong,
ment vegetation in land with pollutants. More and et al. 2005).
more researches on soil improvement agents are Clay minerals: The adsorption of cadmium ions
carried out in recent year. Substance applied in soil in clay minerals such as bentonite, sepiolite and
improvement at acid mine waste rock dump includes attapulgite is studied by isothermal adsorption test
and compared with that in soil. The results show
that clay minerals have high affinity for cadmium
Table 1. Assessment system of rehabilitation on acid ions and can be used to remedy heavy metals con-
mine waste rock dump. taminated soil. The order of adsorption capacity
of clay minerals and soil is attapulgite > bentonite >
Item Index Reference value sepiolite > soil (Hu Zhengqi, et al. 2004).
Soil covers pH Local soil Industry minerals: It is an important develop-
Heavy metal Local soil or envi- ment orientation of the remediation technology
ronment quality for heavy metal-contaminated soil using indus-
standard for soil try minerals. Nonmetal minerals possess multi-
Particle size Clay particular excellent performance, such as acid
distribution tolerance, alkali tolerance, excellent adsorption,
Infiltration Silver sandclay expansion, and so on (Yang Xiuhong, et al. 2003).
coefficient Montmorillonite: The results of a study on
Revegetation Vegetation Local vegetation effect of montmorillonite, rice straw and fowl
coverage dung, used as amendment, on growth of ryegrass
Survive rate Local optimal plant on copper mine tailing show that available Cu,
Heavy metal Local plant Zn, Pb and Cd in copper mine tailing was found
Leachate Leaching quantity Local soil increasing with the quantity of rice straw and fowl
pH Local ground water dung applied, but decreasing with montmorillonite
Heavy metal or integrated
(Hao Xiuzhen, et al. 2002).
wastewater dis-
charge standard Rhizobium: The results of trials on white clo-
ver colonized high complex biology rhizobium

408

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 show that Emergence Rate of Seed of white clo- 2.2 Revegetation
ver colonized rhizobium reaches 80%, but without
It is an effective measure to control pH value by veg-
colonized rhizobium is nearly zero, and white clove
etation to a certain degree. Generally, Plant estab-
grows well (Zheng Xuemin, et al. 2003). The results
lishment includes plant selection and planting.
of experiments at Pingguo bauxite mine reclama-
Selected plant species should have strong capa-
tion show that biological, engineering and mycor-
bility of tolerance such as drought resistance, acid
rhizal techniques are integrated to facilitate soil
resistance, drought resistance, leanness resistance,
maturing and vegetation establishment. The yields
heavy metal resistance, and grow quickly, plant eas-
of corn colonized endogenesis epiphyte increased
ily and a high survival rate. According to the results
14%30%, the infection rate of peneninal crops
of pot planting experiment in laboratory and suc-
was higher than others (Zhang Wenmin, et al).
cessful vegetation experience from other mine, the
The results of experiment on soy bean, paspalum
test plant species is selected. Planting stressed on
wettsteinii and pigeon pea colonized G.M osseae
deploying the arbor-shrub-grass pattern.
and G.E tunlatum show that The percentage
Survive rate, Vegetation coverage is the key
of total root length of of soy bean, paspalum
index. Heavy metals and metalloids, such as Cu,
wettsteinii and pigeon pea colonized VA epiphyte
Zn, Pb, Cr, Cd, As and Ni, in root and stem & leaf
was 1.521.1%, 116.7%133.3% and 31,540.2%
of dominant plant should be analyzed, in order to
respectively (Ma Yanqing 2001).
access heavy metal accumulation in root and stem
There are advantage and disadvantage of sub-
and leaf of the plant species sampled. If total con-
stance applied in soil improvement at acid mine
centrations of As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni in
waste rock dump. Advantage is substance excel-
root, stem and leaf of dominant plant species were
lent performance, such as acid tolerance, excellent
similar between plants grown in local soil, then it is
adsorption, expansion, and so on. Disadvantage is
feasible to use soil cover as plant growing medium
probably substance pollution, such as heavy metal
for revegetating the waste rock piles.
in industry minerals, industry solid waste, urban
It is pointed out that phytoremediation is an
domestic refuses, and so on.
ecological technique used to clean polluted soils by
It is important to access environment hazard of
heavy metal, and the study on phytoremediation
substance applied in soil improvement at acid mine
and hyper accumulator is one of the hot fields of
waste rock dump. If total content of heavy metal
academic research worldwide. Phytoremediation
(Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg, etc.) in substance
has many advantages such as low cost, no worsen-
is higher than that in nature soil or environment
ing the ecological environment of soil and rivers
quality standard for soil (GB 15618-1995), it is
and no recontamination.
high environment hazard to use substance as soil
Vegetation coverage, survive rate and heavy
improvement. If pH value of substance applied in
metal in plant is the key assessment index, in order
soil improvement is higher or lower than 7, it is dif-
to assess successful revegetation on acid mine
ficult to revegetate on soil improvement. The grain
waste rock dump. Reference value of Vegetation
of substance equals to that of nature soil or clay
coverage is Local vegetation. Reference value of is
soil, substance can be used as insulation interlayer
local optimal plant.
into shield the surface of waste rocks. pH, Heavy
metal, the particle size distribution and Infiltration
2.3 Leachate
coefficient is the key assessment index of substance
applied in soil covers. After successful vegetation, runoff increased,
The fresh rock had a strong potential of acid infiltration decreased, heavy metal concentration
generation. Freshly mined rock doesnt generate in ARD decreased. The main reason may be that
acid mine drainage when being isolated and dry, pH value in ARD increases slightly after vegeta-
but gradually generates acid mine drainage when tion; substance, such as bentonite, has capacity of
exposed to atmospheric condition and rain infil- absorption of heavy metal, so heavy metal concen-
tration, while both the leaching rock and long tration decrease.
pile rock generates acid mine drainage immedi- The trend of Cu2+ and Pb2+ Zn2+ concentra-
ately. Heavy metal, such as copper, in the freshly tion from successful vegetation on waste rock
mined rock is easily soluble in acid mine drainage. dumps indicates that lead and copper has strong
It is important to carry out soil reconstruction in pertinence. It is a very effective way to control Zn
proper time. dissolving out by vegetation to a large degree.
Reference value of pH value and heavy metal in Leaching quantity, pH value and heavy metal of
substance is local soil or environment quality stand- leachate from successful revegetation on acid mine
ard for soil (GB 15618-1995). Reference value of waste rock dump is the key index to assess suc-
particle size distribution is clay. Reference value of cessful revegetation. Reference value of leaching
infiltration coefficient is silver sandclay. quantity is local soil. Reference value of pH value

409

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 and heavy metal (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg) of
leachate is local ground water or integrated waste-
water discharge standard (GB8978-88).
3 CONCLUSION
Without adequate top soil reconstruction, it is
difficult to implement successful revegetation
program on acid mine waste dump, which have
a strong potential of acid generation. In order to
assess successful revegetation, Assessment system,
including soil covers, leachate and revegetation, is
provided.
1. Soil covers index includes physical, chemical
and particle characteristic of substance and
reconstructed layer, and so on.
2. Revegetation index, including selected plant
species, plant growth and heavy metal in root
and stem & leaf of dominant plant, and so on,
is the key index to assess successful revegetation
on acid mine waste dump.
3. After successful vegetation, runoff increased,
infiltration decreased, heavy metal concentra-
tion in ARD decreased. Leachate index, includ-
ing leachate quantity per area per time, pH value
and heavy metal (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg) in
ARD, and so on, is the key index to assess suc-
cessful revegetation.
Financial supports from Research on Mines
Aera Rehabilitation Supervision Technology
Demonstration (201211045) of the Public Welfare
Project, established under Ministry of Land and
Resources of the Peoples Republic of China. The
authors thank the group of the program.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Spatial distribution of heavy metals in the abandoned tailings

pond of Chaihe lead-zinc mine

Z.Y. Wei & W. Zhang

College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China

J.H. Long
Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration, China University of Mining and Technology
(Beijing), Beijing, China

M. Yang & Q. Chang

College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China

ABSTRACT: Chaihe lead-zinc mine lies in Laoning province, Northeast China, and its tailings pond
has been abandoned 22 years ago, growing a small amount of weeds. On the tailings site, 5 sampling
points of P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were set at intervals of 100 m along the discharge direction of tailings
slurry from upstream to downstream, and the samples were taken at every layer to 20 cm interval in the
depths of 220 cm for each sampled point. For every sample, pH, total content of heavy metal and acid
soluble fraction were determined following the standard methods. Results showed that the pH values of
the tailings ranged from 6.83 to 7.97, which increased with depth in 0120 cm; below 120 cm, there was a
vibration, and on the whole, there were a little higher in the downstream samples. Pb, Zn and Cd are the
major contaminants in the tailings and the mean content of Pb was 1372.79 mg/kg, Zn was 4077.15 mg/kg
and Cd was 49.74 mg/kg. Total contents of Pb, Zn and Cd at P4, P5 in the downstream were higher than
the contents at P1, P2 and P3 in the upstream. In 060 cm, total contents and acid soluble fraction con-
tents decreased with depth at P1, P2, P3 and P4, and there were insignificant variations in tailings below
100 cm. Furthermore, the contents of Pb, Zn, and Cd significantly increased in most layers of P5, which
could be due to the tailings discharge. The proportions of Pb and Zn for acid soluble fraction to total
content were higher at downstream sampled points than upstream ones. The results can serve for the
measure of tailings pond reclamation.

1 INTRODUCTION which will offer guidance for the tailings pond

Tailings are the major waste that generate from
ore processing, and discharged with water into
tailings pond. The contaminants in tailings are
prone to spread and pollute around environment
by the ways of rainwater and wind (Shi et al. 2010;
Gbadebo 2014; Zhang et al. 2003).
Several studies investigated the distribution,
migration and chemical forms of heavy metals
on tailings pond (Duanmu et al. 2011; Zhou et al.
2010; Xing et al. 2011). Heavy metals are lower in
surface tailings and enriched in deeper zone (Lin
1997). There are obvious differences for the con-
tent of heavy metals and the chemical fraction in
different positions of the pond (Duanmu et al.
2011).
The purpose of this study was to investigate
the contents of heavy metals and spatial distribu-
tion in the tailings pond of Chaihe lead-zinc mine,
reclamation measures and for the prevention of
heavy metals discharged from tailings pond.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Description of research site
Chaihe lead-zinc mine is located in Kaiyuan,
Liaoning province, northeast China. It mainly pro-
duced galena and blende, and the ores are carbon-
ate rocks (Hu et al. 2009). The tailings pond was
abandoned 22 years ago, growing a small amount
of weeds. The dam of the pond was constructed
by upstream embankment method, the height of
dam is 46 m, and the volume of the discharged tail-
ings amount is about 2.284 106 m3. The tailings
with water were discharged into the pond, which
contained various heavy metals such as Pb, Zn, Cd
and Hg.

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 2.2 Sample collection and preparation
In the tailings pond, 5 sampling points of P1, P2, P3,
P4 and P5 were set at intervals of 100 m along the
discharge direction of tailings slurry from upstream
to downstream, and the samples were taken at every
layer to 20 cm interval in the depths of 220 cm for
each sample point (Fig. 1). Tailings samples were
taken back to laboratory and air-dried.
2.3 Sample analysis
The pH of tailings were determined (1:2.5, soil/
water) with a pH Meter (PHS-3C). The particle
sizes were determined by the international pipette
method (Gee and Bauder 1986). Total contents of
heavy metals were determined by digestion method
of HCl-HNO3-HF-HClO4 (10:15:10:5, v/v)
(Sahuquillo et al. 1999), and acid soluble fractions
by extraction with 40 ml 0.11 mol/L HOAc for
16 hours shaking (Sahuquillo et al. 1999; Rauret
et al. 1999). The concentrations of heavy metals
were measured by inductively coupled plasma
optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES).
The particle sizes of tailings samples at three
depths (020 cm, 2040 cm and 100120 cm) and five
points were summarized in Table 1. The proportions
of particle size (>0.05 mm) in 020 cm were higher
than in 2040 cm and 100120 cm; the proportions
of particle size (0.020.05 mm) at P4 and P5 were
much higher than at P1 and P2; the proportion of
particle size (< 0.02 mm) in 020 cm at P5 was the
highest. The particles were coarse at upstream of the
pond, due to the tailings discharge method.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 pH
pH is a major factor influencing the migration
of heavy metals in tailings. The pH values of the
tailings were from 6.83 to 7.97 in the profile of
0220 cm; the pH values in 0120 cm increased with
the depth, and there was a vibration in 120220 cm.
As a whole, the pH values were a little higher at the
sampled points in downstream than in upstream.

3.2 Distribution of heavy metals in the pond

3.2.1 Total content
Pb, Zn and Cd were the major contaminants
in the tailings and the mean content of Pb was
1372.79 mg/kg, Zn was 4077.15 mg/kg and Cd was
49.74 mg/kg (Fig. 3). The highest content of Pb
was 3506.26 mg/kg, Zn was 9057.28 mg/kg, Cd was
Figure 1. Sampling points in the tailings pond. 97.48 mg/kg. The highest content of Pb and Zn
were found in 4060 cm at P5, and Cd was found
Table 1. Particle sizes of tailings in different sample
in 100120 cm at P5. The mean contents of Pb, Zn
points (%). and Cd at P5 were obviously higher than at other
points, and the content of Pb, Zn and Cd increased
Sample Depth along the direction from P1 to P5. Total contents
point (cm) >0.05 0.020.05 0.0020.02 <0.002 of Pb, Zn and Cd were higher at downstream sam-
pled points than at upstream points.
P1 020 80.03 11.84 7.12 1.01 In 060 cm, total contents of Pb, Zn and Cd
2040 70.03 23.08 6.56 0.33 decreased with depth at P1, P2, P3 and P4, and
100120 76.28 15.60 5.76 2.37 the contents of Pb, Zn and Cd in 020 cm were
P2 020 95.91 0.68 2.14 1.27
2040 74.63 19.08 6.16 0.13
100120 61.56 32.20 6.24 0.00
P3 020 47.91 39.32 11.43 1.34
2040 29.31 63.84 6.64 0.21
100120 47.99 45.16 4.84 2.01
P4 020 59.19 30.76 7.46 2.59
2040 20.39 75.20 4.20 0.21
100120 3.15 90.52 4.52 1.81
P5 020 32.31 40.28 24.2 3.21
2040 40.59 52.52 6.76 0.13
100120 9.08 82.63 5.60 2.69 Figure 2. The pH values of tailings samples in different
depths.

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 Figure 3. The total contents of Pb, Zn and Cd in the tailings pond.

Figure 4. The acid soluble fraction in the tailings pond.

higher. That was in accordance with Bernhards
result, heavy metals may move to the surface in
tailings pond due to the evaporation (Bernhard
and Lluis 2004). At P1, P2 and P3, there were lit-
tle changes for total contents of Pb, Zn and Cd in
100220 cm. At P4, the total contents of Pb, Zn
and Cd decreased with depth in 120220 cm. At P5,
the total contents of Pb, Zn and Cd were relatively
high and fluctuant with depth, there were three
peaks at 4060 cm, 100120 cm and 160180 cm,
which seemed to result from the tailings discharge.
P5 was located near the outfall, and tailings were
soaked longer after rains, the water soluble fraction
of heavy metals will migrate with the rainwater.
3.2.2 Acid soluble fraction
Heavy metals will migrate with rainwater leaching
and runoff, and pollute the around environment.
Heavy metal in acid soluble fraction is the most
unstable and bio-available fraction, which is prone
to migrate and transform in acid condition and
can be absorbed by plant. Thus, it is necessary
to investigate the acid soluble fraction (Wei et al.
2012; Ma et al. 2009).
The variations of Pb, Zn and Cd in acid solu-
ble fraction in different depths were summarized
in Figure 4. The highest values of Pb, Zn and
Cd in acid soluble fraction were 2931.26 mg/kg,
7032.21 mg/kg and 92.47 mg/kg, that all were found
at P5. At P1, the contents of Pb and Zn in acid
soluble fraction were slightly higher in 020 cm,
and insignificant variations in 20220 cm; the con-
tents of Cd were stable in 0220 cm. At P2, P3, the
contents of Pb, Zn and Cd in acid soluble fraction
were higher in 040 cm. There were not obvious
changes in 0120 cm at P4, and the contents of Pb,
Zn and Cd in acid soluble fraction decreased with
the depth in 120220 cm. At P5, the contents of Pb,
Zn and Cd in acid soluble fraction showed obvious
fluctuation in 0220 cm, and enriched in 4060 cm,
100120 cm and 160180 cm. The variation at
P5 may result from the rainwater leaching and run-
off, and the decrease of acid soluble fraction con-
tents in 120160 cm may be due to lower pH.

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 Table 2. The proportion of acid soluble fraction to total
content (%).
Proportion P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Pb 60.15 71.74 71.72 73.57 86.85
Zn 58.18 62.92 70.59 73.97 84.84
Cd 86.91 86.71 82.20 81.93 88.78
The mean contents of Pb, Zn and Cd in acid sol-
uble fraction at P1, P2 and P3 were obviously lower
than P4 and P5, which may be due to the influence
of particle sizes. The contents of Pb, Zn and Cd
in acid soluble fractions at downstream sampled
points were higher than at upstream ones.
The proportions of Pb, Zn and Cd for acid
soluble fraction to total content were summarized
in Table 2. The proportions of Pb and Zn at P1
were approximately 60%, while the proportions
increased to 85% at P5. That means the activity
of heavy metals in downstream tailings were obvi-
ously higher than in upstream, and more atten-
tion should be paid to prevent heavy metals from
releasing to surroundings in tailings pond rec-
lamation. The proportions of Cd for acid solu-
ble fraction to total content were relatively high
(81.9388.78%), that was due to the carbonate
rocks. The heavy metals in tailings are prone to
migration in acid condition, acid leaching could
increase the released amount of heavy metals
(Lan et al. 1996).
4 CONCLUSIONS
The pH values of the tailings were from 6.83 to
7.97, which increased with depth in 0120 cm, below
120 cm, there were a vibration, and on the whole,
there were a little higher in the downstream samples.
Pb, Zn and Cd are the major contaminants in tail-
ings and the mean content of Pb is 1372.79 mg/kg,
Zn is 4077.15 mg/kg and Cd is 49.74 mg/kg. Total
contents of Pb, Zn and Cd at P4, P5 in the down-
stream were higher than the contents at P1, P2,
P3 in the upstream.
In 060 cm, total contents and acid soluble
fraction contents decreased with depth at P1,
P2, P3 and P4, and there were insignificant vari-
ations in tailings below 100 cm. Furthermore,
the contents of Pb, Zn, and Cd significantly
increased in most layers of P5, that could be due
to the tailings discharge. The proportions of Pb
and Zn for acid soluble fraction to total content
were higher at downstream sampled points than
upstream ones.
To investigate the distribution characteristics of
heavy metals in tailings pond can provide guide for
tailings pond reclamation.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 416
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was financially supported by the
Special Fund of Ministry of Land and Resources of
Peoples Republic of China for Scientific Research
in the Public Interest (Project No. 201111016-03).
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8/27/2014 6:01:58 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Physiological and ecological response of lorn to heavy metal toxicity

under the action of chelate and AM mycorrhira joint remediation

Y.Z. Wang, Z.Q. Zhao & X.N. Liu

School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
Key Laboratory of Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation, Ministry of Land and Resources, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Test was conducted to compare the physiological and ecological response of maize (Zea
mays L) by singly or compositely adding different kinds of chelates (EDTA, EDDS, AES and IDSA)
and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM). The results show that AM decreases malondialdehyde (MDA) con-
centration (the value is 139%) and improves superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate
peroxidase (APX) activity in maize leaves, of which SOD activity is increased by 57.2% and APX activ-
ity is 4.3 times of the control; Adding chelating agents increases MDA concentration, of which MDA
concentration in maize leaves is increased respectively by 65.3%, 163.2% and 87.4% by adding EDTA,
EDDS and AES; Compositely adding chelating agents and AM mycorrhizal enhances the effect of singly
adding chelating agents, of which compared with EDTA and EDDS, MDA concentration in AM&EDTA
and AM&EDDS is decreased respectively by 30.0% and 305.8%, compared with AES and IDSA, CAT
activity in AM&AES and AM&IDSA is increased respectively by 166.6% and 61.4% and compared with
EDTA, AES and IDSA, APX activity in AM&EDTA, AM&AES and AM&IDSA is increased respec-
tively by 165.2%, 51.2% and 118.5%.

In recent years, scholars both at home and abroad
carry out a lot of researches on the application
of metal chelating agent and mycorrhizal on
chemical-plant and microbial-plant combined
remediating heavy metal polluted soil. Chelate
inducing plant extraction technology is to activate
heavy metals in soil by using complexation capac-
ity of Chelate, to promote heavy metal to transfer
to the aerial part of plants, and to improve plants
extraction efficiency ultimately (Luo et al. 2006,
Zhou et al. 2007, Huang et al. 1997, Jiang et al.
2003, Nowack et al. 2006, Wei & Zhou. 2004).
Mycorrhizal phytoremediation is a kind of spe-
cial biological repairing methods using fungi and
plant roots combined into symbiont (Wang &
Lin. 2006). Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungi
can be widely existed either in singly or compos-
itely heavy metal polluted soil, tolerance to heavy
metal toxicity to a certain extent (Liu et al. 2011),
improving plant growth, and accelerating plant
extract or phytostabilization of heavy metals in
soil, thus attracting more and more attention in
phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated
soil (Gaur & Adholeya. 2004, Khan A et al. 2000).
This paper, comparing the physiological and eco-
logical response of maize to heavy metals toxicity
by singly or compositely adding EDTA, EDDS,
AES, IDSA and AM mycorrhizal, so as to pro-
vide reference for the study on phytoremediation
of chelating agent and AM mycorrhizal joint used
in heavy metal pollution.
The more heavy metals are used by plants in
the soil, the greater the stress is in plant growth.
A series of physiological changes are existed in
stress or plants aging, such as intracellular reac-
tive oxygen metabolism balance is destroyed,
leading to accumulation of active oxygen, which
can cause or aggravate membrane lipid per-
oxidation, damaging cell membrane system and
severity will lead to plant cell death. Malondial-
dehyde (MDA) is one of the products, and the
more MDA is, the greater stress level is. Free
radicals in plant cells hurt the plant itself, which
can be eliminated mainly by related enzymes and
organic molecules reacting with free radicals and
producing stable products (Gou & Wang. 1995).
Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT)
and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) are important
protective enzymes of plant enzymatic defense
system. SOD can scavenge oxygen free radical,
protecting cells from damaging, and the higher
the activity is, the stronger stress resistance of
plants is. CAT and APX can eliminate H2O2 pro-
duced in strengthening process of active oxygen
metabolism, and its activity is closely related with
plant stress tolerance. The higher CAT and APX
activity are, the stronger the stress resistance of
plants is.

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 1 MATERIALS AND METHODS filter paper. Seeding after 2 days of Petri dish
putted in 25C incubator and thinning after the
1.1 Materials seeds germination, with 3 strains each box, the soil
was maintained 80% of field capacity by weighing
The soil was collected from the farmland of
and deionized water every other day during growth
Changping District, Beijing, Zea mays were of
period. EDTA, EDDS, AES and IDSA were com-
Ludan 981, and mycorrhizal was provided by the
pounded into solution respectively and leached on
Academy of forestry in Beijing. The rhizosphere
the soil surface evenly after 30 days growth, with
soil containing infected mycorrhizal and hyphae
adding deionized water to the control group.
was used as inoculum after maize multiplication.
EDDS was purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Shang-
hai) Trade Co., ltd. The physical and chemical 1.3 Plant analysis
properties of soil were determinated as the method
MDA concentration, SOD, CAT and APX activity
of Lu Rukuns (Lu. 2000) (see Table 1).
were determinated after 7d treatment, clipping 1 g
and 0.5 g fresh plant leaves and grinding adding
1.2 Design drug respectively. The method for determination
of MDA was according to the Heath and Packer
Air-dried soil sieved to a <1 mm, and kept steri-
(1968), CAT according to the Chance and Maehly
lizing for 2 h at 120 C high temperature sterili-
(1955), APX according to the Nakano and Asada
zation pot, to kill fungal spores in the soil and
(1981), and SOD according to the Beauchamp and
then the four heavy metals-Pb, Cu, Cd, and Zn
Fridovich (1971).
were one-time added after sterilized soil was air-
dried: 2000 mg kg1 Pb (PbCl2), 350 mg kg1 Cu
(CuSO4 5H2O), 10 mg kg1 Cd (CdCl2 2.5H2O), 1.4 Statistical analysis
1500 mg kg1 Zn (ZnSO4 7H2O), one-time
Statistical analysis was conducted by SPSS17.0
applying to basal fertilizer (N: 100 mg kg1;
and Microsoft Excel 2003 using the data obtained
P: 80 mg kg1; K: 100 mg kg1) in the form of
by above methods, and difference significance was
KH2PO4 and CO (NH2)2, with 5 mmol kg1 chelat-
multiply compared and tested between mean val-
ing agent concentration.
ues of each treatment in the 5% level by Duncan.
There were 10 treatments: CK (without chelant
and bacterial soil), AM (with bacterial soil sin-
gly), EDTA (with EDTA singly), EDDS (with
2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
EDDS singly), AES (with AES singly), IDSA
(with IDSA singly), EDTA&AM (with EDTA
2.1 Effect of different treatments on MDA
and AM), EDDS&AM (with EDDS and AM),
content in maize leaves
AES&AM (with AES and AM) and IDSA&AM
(with IDSA and AM). Each treatment had four Figure 1 showed that, compared with the control,
replicates, arranging in randomized block. Among MDA concentration in maize leaves with AM
them, inoculation amount of the treatment add- singly was significantly lower than the control
ing mycorrhizal was 15%, with 500 g soil each pot. (P < 0.05), decreased by 139%. MDA reflected
Treatments with AM were mixed with sterilized the degree of plants suffering stress, while
contaminated soil and bacterial soil, while these inoculating AM alleviated the toxicity of heavy
without were mixed with sterilized contaminated
soil and sterilized bacterial soil, holding 80% of the
field water holding capacity, and balancing for two
weeks in the greenhouse.
Maize seeds, with full grains, disinfecting for
10 min with 10% H2O2 solution, and washing with
deionized water, were put in Petri dish with moist

Table 1. Basic physicochemical characteristics of soils.

Heavy metal content

(mg kg1)
Organic
pH matter (%) Pb Zn Cu Cd Figure 1. Effect of different treatments on MDA con-
tent in maize leaves. Different letters indicate significant
Soil 7.95 1.38 13.05 96.16 24.19 3.17 differences at P < 0.05. Vertical bars represent standard
deviations (n = 4).

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 metals on maize and enhanced stress resistance
of maize.
MDA concentration in maize leaves in the
groups adding EDTA, EDDS and AES respec-
tively was significantly higher than the control
(P < 0.05), increased by 65.3%, 163.2% and 87.4%
respectively. MDA concentration in maize leaves
with IDSA was higher than the control, but no
significant difference. Heavy metal content in
maize shoot was raised owing to the addition of
chelating agent, and increasing heavy metal mobil-
ity and bioavailability, but excessive heavy metals
and heavy metal chelate would produce toxicity to
maize, so MDA content of the maize adding the
chelating agent singly was higher than the control,
showing the severe persecution.
Then the groups adding chelate and AM com-
positely were compared with chelate singly. MDA
concentration in the former was lower than the lat-
ter, among which the difference between the two
groups AM&EDTA and EDTA, and AM&EDDS
and EDDS was significant (P < 0.05), and the
former was reduced by 30% and 305.8% respec-
tively than the latter, showing that the effect of
compositely adding chelating agent and AM
mycorrhizal is stronger than singly addition of
chelating agent. Chelating agent increasing plant
absorbing of heavy metals, at the mean time AM
alleviating the toxicity of excessive heavy metals on
maize, enhanced the efficiency of plant extraction.
2.2 Effects of different treatments on the activity
of SOD, CAT and APX in maize leaves
2.2.1 Effect of different treatments on SOD
activity in maize leaves
Figure 2 showed that SOD activity in maize leaves
singly inoculating AM was significantly higher
than the control (P < 0.05), increased by 57.2%.
Active oxygen was accumulated in the body when
plants under stress, and SOD could scavenged oxy-
gen free radical, protecting cells from damaging,
Figure 2. Effect of different treatments on SOD activ-
ity in maize leaves. Different letters indicate significant
differences at P < 0.05. Vertical bars represent standard
deviations (n = 4).
419
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 419
which meant that AM inoculation enhanced the
stress of heavy metal environment on the maize
growth, improving the maize resistance.
Compared with the control, among the treat-
ment groups singly adding chelating agent, SOD
activity in maize leaves with EDDS and IDSA was
significantly increased (P < 0.05), no significant dif-
ference with EDTA and AES. SOD activity would
increase with the raise of heavy metal concentra-
tion, when adding to a certain degree, occurred
the opposite, maybe owing to the concentration of
free radicals generated at this time greatly exceed-
ing SOD scavenging ability.
No significant difference was existed between
the groups compositely adding chelating agent
and AM and singly adding chelating agent, but the
content of heavy metals in the former maize shoot
was larger than the latter, indicating that AM elim-
inated the negative effect caused by excessive heavy
metals, enhancing maize resistance.
2.2.2 Effect of different treatments on CAT
activity in maize leaves
Figure 3 showed that no significant difference in
CAT activity in maize leaves was existed between
the treatment group with AM and the control,
while heavy metal content in maize shoots of the
former was higher than the latter, suggesting that
AM had a positive effect on enhancing CAT activ-
ity, improving the stress resistance of maize.
CAT activity in maize leaves adding chelat-
ing agent was significantly lower than the con-
trol (P < 0.05). Compared with the control, CAT
activity in maize leaves was decreased by 105.9%,
32.4%, 201.2% and 45.9% respectively when add-
ing EDTA, EDDS, AES and IDSA. Chelates
promoted the desorption of heavy metals in soil,
increasing the bioavailability of heavy metal ions,
promoting plant absorption of heavy metals, and
damaging plant growth.
Then the groups adding chelate and AM com-
positely were compared with chelate singly, among
Figure 3. Effect of different treatments on CAT activity
in maize leaves. Different letters indicate significant dif-
ferences at P < 0.05. Vertical bars represent standard
deviations (n = 4).
8/27/2014 6:01:59 PM

Figure 4. Effect of different treatments on APX activ-
ity in maize leaves. Different letters indicate significant
differences at P < 0.05. Vertical bars represent standard
deviations (n = 4).
which, CAT activity in maize leaves in AM&AES
and AM&IDSA were all significantly higher than
AES and IDSA (P < 0.05), increased by 166.6% and
61.4% respectively. CAT activity in AM&EDTA
was also higher than EDTA, but no significant
difference. The composite application of chelating
agent and mycorrhizal strengthened the effect of
chelating singly, enhancing the resistance of maize
to heavy metals.
2.2.3 Effect of different treatments on APX
activity in maize leaves
As shown in Figure 4, APX activity in maize leaves
inoculating AM singly was significantly higher
than the control (P < 0.05), 4.3 times of the con-
trol. Similarly to CAT, APX could eliminate H2O2
of plants produced in adversity or aging process,
enhancing the resistance of plants to stress. Above
marked difference showed that AM enhanced
stress resistance of maize, playing a positive role
on maize growth.
APX activities in maize leaves adding EDDS
and AES were significantly higher than the con-
trol (P < 0.05), no significant difference with addi-
tion of EDTA and IDSA. Similarly to SOD, APX
activity increased with the raise of heavy metal
concentration when low heavy metal concentra-
tion, and while the upper limit was reached, oppo-
site situation was appeared, which may be related
to the ability of APX eliminating H2O2.
Then the groups adding chelate and AM
compositely were compared with chelate singly,
among which, apart from no significant differ-
ence between AM&EDDS and EDDS, APX activ-
ity in AM&EDTA, AM&AES, AM&IDSA were
significantly higher than EDTA, AES and IDSA,
increased by 165.2%, 51.2% and 118.5% respec-
tively. Above situation showed that compositely
addition of chelating agent and AM enhanced the
efficiency of singly addition of chelating agents
inducing plant extracts, strengthening maize resist-
ance and promoting maize growth.
420
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 420
3 CONCLUSION
1. AM mycorrhizal inoculation decreased MDA
concentration in maize leaves, improving SOD,
CAT and APX activity in maize leaves, and
enhancing resistance of maize to excessive
heavy metal environment.
2. Addition of chelating agent promoted the
absorption of heavy metals in maize, increas-
ing MDA content, showing that excessive heavy
metal enhanced maize toxicity.
3. Compositely addition of chelating agent and
AM enhanced the effect of singly addition of
chelating agent. The chelating agent promoted
plant absorbing of heavy metals, however exces-
sive heavy metals would restrain plant growth,
affecting the effect of chelating agents inducing
plant extracts. AM enhanced plants resistance,
promoting plants growth in the face of adversity,
and strengthening plant extraction efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Fundamen-
tal Research Funds for the Central Universities
(2652014045).
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Bioremediation of Acid-Mine Drainage contaminated with acid

and heavy metals in coal mine by Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria

B.G. Ma
College of Water Resource and Hydroelectricity, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, China

Z.Q. Hu
Institute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration, China University of Mining and Technology,
Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Acid-Mine Drainage (AMD) that releases highly acidic, sulfate, and metals-rich waste is
a severe environmental problem, contaminating surface and groundwater as well as soils in coal mining
districts in China. In this study, Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria (SRB) was isolated from the loess polluted
by Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) from coal wastes. The aim of the test is to study the possibility of using
SRB for preventing acid and heavy metals pollution from coal wastes, which is considered to be the major
environmental problem associated with coal mining activities. Tests were conducted to determine if the
SRB could be used for increasing pH and the immobilization of soluble heavy metals of AMD from
coal wastes. We investigated the mechanisms of preventing acid and heavy metals from coal waste by
sulfate-reducing bacteria and effect of the dosage of carbon source on controlling acid and heavy metals
contamination. The results show that SRB can effectively enhance pH and immobilize iron, cadmium and
zinc of acid mine drainage from coal wastes. The 1% dosage of carbon source is suitable.

Keywords: Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria; acidic coal wastes; Acid-Mine Drainage; contamination of acid
and heavy metals; bioremediation

1 INTRODUCTION necessary fact regarding the characteristics of

With the development of the national economy,
coal has become one of the main energy in China.
Coal mining will bring negative effects to the local
ecological environment in benefits also. Coal waste
is the solid waste from coal mining and coal wash-
ing process and dark grey rocks associated with coal
seam in coal forming process. Its carbon content is
low, and its harder than coal. At present, 20% of
coal mining quantity with coal waste discharged in
China. The coal waste would be increased about
4 million tons every year all over the country, but
its about 60 million tons in comprehensive utiliza-
tion, and the rest of the nearest melange storage
form of coal gangue (Pei Z.Y., et al., 2011).
Pyrite is the most abundant mineral in coal
wastes. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is formed
when sulfide minerals in coal wastes are oxidized
in the presence of water and oxygen to form highly
acidic, sulfate and metals-rich drainage. Release
of various toxic metals in soil, surface water and
groundwater cause high magnitude perturbations
of the ecosystem. In order to effectively treat the
environmental problem, the present study is a
coal wastes and the acid generation control. This
paper describes the results of laboratory tests to
remediate the acid and heavy metals pollution by
Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria (SRB) from coal mine
washery wastes. The oxidation of organic carbon
coupled to sulfate reduction and precipitation of
metal cations (Me2+) by SRB can be summarized
by the following reaction equations:
2CH3CHOHCOOH + SO42__SRB2CH3COOH
(1)
+ H2S + 2HCO3
CH3COOH + SO42__SRBH2S + 2HCO3 (2)
2CH3CHOHCOOH + 3SO42_SRB3H2S + 6HCO3
(3)
Me2+ + H2S + 2HCO3MeS + 2H2O + 2CO2
(4)
Results expected in sulfate-reducing environ-
ments include decreased concentrations of sulfate
and heavy metals coupled with an increase in pH
and alkalinity (14). The use of biological sulfate
reduction to treat contaminated groundwater con-
taining sulfate and dissolved heavy metals has been

423

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 423 8/27/2014 6:02:00 PM

 widely investigated (Barnes et al., 1992; Boonstra
et al., 1999; Dvorak et al., 1992). Biological sul-
fate reduction has been studied in various reactor
designs, such as anaerobic contact process (Haas
and Polprasert, 1993), anaerobic filter (Dvorak
et al., 1992; Elliott et al., 1998; Farmer et al., 1995),
stirred tank reactor (Moosa, 2000), upflow anaero-
bic sludge blanket reactor (Boonstra et al., 1999; de
Vegt et al., 1998; Hammack and Dijkman, 1999),
hybrid reactor (Nedwell and Reynolds, 1996; Steed
et al., 2000) and fluidized-bed reactors (Ma and
Hua, 1997; Somlev and Tishkov, 1992). There have
been few successful applications of SRB mediated
AMD treatment systems, even though the possi-
bility of using SRB to remediate AMD have long
been appreciated. The main reason being that the
pH optimum for growth of SRB is between pH59
(Postgate, 1984), whereas AMD generally has a
pH between 2 and 4 (Bechard et al., 1994). The
aim of this paper is to evaluate the effect of biore-
mediation of coal wastes contaminated by SRB to
remove cadmium in AMD.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Microorganisms
Applied cultures of SRB (Sulfate-reducing bac-
teria) were isolated from a mixed culture obtained
from: Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria (SRB) was isolated
from the loess polluted by acid mine drainage from
Yangquan coalfield in Shanxi province. The SRB
was selected from the mixed cultures grown on
agar plates as well as in agar shake tubes containing
modified Postgates medium E (Postgate, 1984). The
isolation was performed by the modified dilution
method (Ronald, 1995). Postgates medium C (Post-
gate, 1984) was used for the preparation of activeA.
Luptakova, M. Kusnierova/Hydrometallurgy 77
(2005) 97102 98 SRB cultures and the cultiva-
tion of SRB. This medium contained (in g/L): 0.5
K2HPO4, 2.5NH4SO4, 0.5NaHCO3, 0.2CaCl2 2H2O,
1.0MgSO4, 2.0 sodium lactate, 0.1 Vc, 0.5 (NH4)2
Fe(SO4)2, 1.5 yeast cream, 0.5 cysteine hydrochlorite.
The pH of the media was adjusted to 7.2.
2.2 Experimental materials
The materials tested were coal wastes from the
Dawukou mines in Ningxia province in China.
The grain size of coal wastes is less than 2 mm.
The chemical constituents of the coal wastes pre-
sented in Table 1.
2.3 Analytical procedures
The parameters monitored pH, oxidation-
reduction potential (Eh), the concentrations of
424
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 424
Table 1. Chemical properties of
the coal waste.
Items Values
pH 2.89
Si 21.96%
Al 13.67%
Fe 8.07%
S 3.42%
Ca 505.72 mg/kg
Mg 63.31 mg/kg
Mn 49.01 mg/kg
Ni 14.98 mg/kg
Cd 0.12 mg/kg
Zn 26.51 mg/kg
Cr 22.02 mg/kg
Pb 3.88 mg/kg
Cu 25.03 mg/kg
P 213.14 mg/kg
sulphate ion (SO42) iron, zinc and cadmium con-
centration. Turbidimetric method was used to
measure the concentrations of sulfate ion (APHA,
1989) using Spectromom 723 (China) instrument.
The absorbance of the sample was measured at
a wavelength 420 nm. A glass pH-electrode com-
bined with the reference Ag/AgCl electrode and a
platinum redox plus Ag/AgCl reference electrode
were used to measure pH and redox potential (Eh)
respectively. Digital pHmeter pHS-3C (China)
were used. The iron, cadmium and zinc concentra-
tion in the liquid samples taken from the bioreac-
tors was analyzed by means of inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).
2.4 Experimental design
The experiments were conducted with leachate of
coal wastes in distilled water. They were prepared
in triangular flasks with 100 ml including SRB
liquid. The experiments designed 5 treatments.
They were CK (no SRB, adding 0 ml sodium
lactate), J11 (inoculating 5 ml SRB, adding 0 ml
sodium lactate), J12 (inoculating 5 ml SRB, adding
1 ml sodium lactate), J13 (inoculating 5 ml SRB,
adding 3 ml sodium lactate) and J14 (inoculating
5 ml SRB, adding 6 ml sodium lactate) respectively.
The leached samples were monitored once three
days. The samples were filtered (0.45 m) before
analysis. There were 24 bottles each treatment in
the experiment. Each determination included three
repeat samples, and finished the samples were
discarded to ensure the test under the anaerobic
condition and liquid 100 ml and reduce the experi-
mental error. The reactors were placed in thermo-
stat at 30C and ran during a period of 21 days
under anaerobic conditions.
8/27/2014 6:02:00 PM
 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Effect of the pH value variation
Figure 1 shows the variation in pH with time for
the leachate of coal wastes. The pH values of
CK treatment remained almost constant at around
3.0, throughout the test for the leachate of coal
wastes. The pH values increased from an initial
value of 2.89 to 5.38, 6.83, 7.02 and 6.45 at the end
of experiment for J11, J12, J13 and J14 respectively
since bacterial sulfate reduction produces alkalinity.
Increased alkalinity could be attributed to the gen-
eration of bicarbonate during bacterially mediated
sulfate reduction (eq. 13). SRB can effectively
increase pH values of acid-mine drainage from coal
wastes. Adding carbon source (sodium lactate) can
significantly improve pH. The amount of carbon
source (sodium lactate) should be 13 ml.
3.2 Redox potential (Eh) of the leachates
Figure 2 shows the variation of Eh with time for
all the tests. Results for the CK leachate of coal
wastes showed a constant Eh value of about
Figure 1. The variation of pH in leachate of coal wastes.
Figure 2. The variation of Eh in leachate of coal wastes.
425
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 425
400 mV, suggesting that most of the iron existed
as Fe3+ (a high Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio), and was present
in the oxidized state at the beginning of the test.
Results for the rest (J11, J12, J13 and J14) of treat-
ments showed a decrease in the Eh values from 416
to 37, 33, 35 and 36 mV respectively in 21 days,
indicating a lower Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio than that for CK.
The Eh results indicated that the coal wastes had a
higher acid producing potential. This is attributed
to the relatively high percentage of Fe3+ and sul-
phur present in the coal wastes, as also indicated by
the higher acidity value for coal wastes. The inocu-
lated SRB can effectively decrease the Eh values of
leachates of coal wastes, change the redox state of
leachates from coal wastes and control the genera-
tion of AMD.
3.3 Sulfate reduction and iron immobilization
Figure 3 shows the variation in sulfate with time
for the 5 treatments. Changes from 1823.6, 1727.1,
1825.8 and 1744.1 mg/L to 366.7, 115.4, 109.8 and
104.3 mg/L of leachate respectively for J11, J12,
J13 and J14, from 1587.8 to 1963.8 mg/L of leach-
ate in 21 days for CK were observed. The amount
of sulfate reduction that occurred in bioreactors
over a given period of time was calculated from by
subtracting the measured the SO42 concentrations
in the 21st days from the initial concentrations.
Sulfate reduction rates were higher in the inocu-
lated SRB reactors. They were 79.9%, 93.3%,
94.0% and 94.0% respectively for J11, J12, J13 and
J14. With respect to sulfate change before 3 days,
they are due to low pH. Bacterial sulfate reduction
cannot occur until the pH has increased to 4.0
5.2 (Wakao et al., 1979). The addition of carbon
source (sodium lactate) can effectively enhance the
ratio of sulfate reduction. The 1% dosege of car-
bon source is suitable.
Iron ion concentration increased slightly
at the early stage after inoculation with SRB
(Fig. 4). Changes from 495.3 mg/L to 513.3 mg/L,
Figure 3. The variation of SO24 concentration in
leachate.
8/27/2014 6:02:00 PM
 Figure 4. The variation of Fe concentration in leachate.
Figure 5. The variation of Cd concentration in leachate.

506.8 mg/L, 510.7 mg/L and 519.2 mg/L of leach-

ate respectively for J11, J12, J13 and J14 in 0.5 days.
Then decreased rapidly and the iron concentra-
tions were below the instrument detection limit
(0.0001 mg/L). The immobilization of iron ions in
leachate were by the generation of FeS, Fe(OH)2
and Fe(OH)3 with bacterial sulfate reduction and
alkaline enhancement. However, Iron ion con-
centration in CK increased from 495.3 mg/L to
726.5 mg/L in 6 days, then decreased to 530.0 mg/L
in 12 days and retained 530.0 mg/L to the experi-
mental end. The leachate in CK was irons-rich
AMD. The results show SRB can effectively
immobilize iron and prevent AMD from coal
wastes. The iron ions in leachate had been nearly Figure 6. The variation of Zn concentration in leachate.
immobilized in 21 days. The effect on addition of
sodium lactate carbon source on SRB reduction
of sulfate and the fixed iron ion was obvious. The source increased salt concentration, inhibited the
addition of 1 mL carbon source (1% amount of activity of SRB and prolonged remedying time.
coal wastes) is appropriate. Figure 6 indicates the efficiency of zinc imobili-
zation in the leachate of coal wastes by SRB. The
100% immobilization of Zn from liquid phase by
3.4 Cadmium and zinc immobilization
SRB was registered after 6 days of J11 experiments.
In these experiments, we investigated the efficiency During the experiments, after 6, 18, 18 and 21 days
of cadmium and zinc imobilization from the leach- the Zn concentrations was below detection in the
ate of coal wastes by SRB that was obtained from J11, J12, J13 and J14 treatments, while the Zn con-
heavily polluted AMD. Figure 5 shows the results centrations in CK treatment was slightly increas-
of cadmium precipitation at these conditions. They ing from 2.82 to 3.03 mg/L in the experimental
indicate high activity of both bacterial cultures of end. The dosege of carbon source (sodium lactate)
SRB. The 100% immobilization of cadmium from is not significant. These results demonstrate that
liquid phase by SRB was registered after 6 days of Zn was effectively immobilized in the leachate of
batch experiments. During the experiments, after coal wastes by SRB. The addition of carbon source
6,15, 18 and 18 days the cadmium concentrations increased salt concentration, inhibited the activity
was below detection respectively in the J11, J12, J13 of SRB and prolonged remedying time.
and J14 treatments, while the Cd concentrations in
CK treatment was slightly increasing from 0.018
to 0.023 mg/L in 18 days. The results show that 4 CONCLUSION
the ability to reduce and immobilize Cd signifi-
cantly enhanced by SRB when Eh value is less than The chemistry of the leachates from the coal wastes
100 mV. The dosege of carbon source (sodium lac- from Dawukou Mines, located in the Ningxia
tate) is not significant. These results demonstrate province, indicated that the coal wastes from these
that Cd was effectively immobilized in the leachate mines are highly reactive, and already oxidized
of coal wastes using SRB. The addition of carbon and acid producing. The tests have been carried

426

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 426 8/27/2014 6:02:01 PM

 out in order to evaluate the effects of remediating
acid and heavy metals pollution by SRB from coal
wastes.
The following conclusions can be drawn from
this study.
SRB were isolated from the loess polluted by
AMD from coal wastes. SRB from this source
effectively enhanced pH value and immobiled cad-
mium and zinc in AMD from coal wastes after
3 days, reduced sulfate and decreased the Eh values
of leachates, by using one batch reactor that pro-
vides the simultaneous running of basic processes
of study method, i.e. the hydrogen sulfide bacterial
production and the Fe, Cd and Zn precipitation by
the bacterial produced hydrogen sulfide. Achieved
results indicate the 100% immobilization of Fe, Cd
and Zn by bacterially produced hydrogen sulfide
after 18 days. The successive running of the hydro-
gen sulfide bacterial production and the Fe, Cd and
Zn precipitation by the bacterial produced hydro-
gen sulfide, i.e. the application of sealed triangular
flasks, allowed faster Fe, Cd and Zn immobilization
(during 21 d), and probably as well the possibility of
selective metals precipitation in the form of sulfides,
which will depend on the pH values of solution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges the research
support by the State 863 Project of China
(2009AA06Z320), the Science and Technology Pil-
lar Program of Hebei Province (12220802D).
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Koch, R.O., 1992. Simultaneous microbial removal of
sulfate and heavy metals from waste water. Trans. Inst.
Min. Metal. (Sect. C: Mineral Process. Extr. Metall.)
101, C183C189.
Bechard, G., Yamazaki, H., Gould, W.D., Bedard, P.,
1994. Use of cellulosic substrates for the microbial
treatment of acid mine drainage. J. Environ. Qual. 23,
111116.
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Buisman, C.J.N., 1999. Biological treatment of acid
mine drainage. In: Amils, R., Ballester, A. (Eds.), Biohy-
drometallurgy and the environment toward the mining
of the 21st CenturyProceedings of the international
biohydrometallurgy symposium IBS99. Elsevier, San
Lorenzo de El Escorial, Madrid, Spain, pp. 559567.
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de Vegt, A.L., Dijkman, H., Buisman, C.J., 1998. Hydrogen
sulfide produced from sulfate by biological reduction
for use in metallurgical operations. In: Asteljoki, J.A.,
Stephens, R.L. (Eds.), Sulfide Smelting 98: Current
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rials Society, Warrandale, PA, pp. 463471.
Dvorak, D.H., Hedin, R.S., Edenborn, H.M.,
McIntire, P.E., 1992. Treatment of metal-contaminated
water using bacterial sulfate reduction: results from
pilot scale reactors. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 40, 609616.
Elliott, P., Ragusa, S., Catcheside, D., 1998. Growth of
sulfate-reducing bacteria under acidic conditions in
an anaerobic bioreactor as a treatment system for acid
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Farmer, G.H., Updegraff, D.M., Radehaus, P.M.,
Bates, E.R., 1995. Metal removal and sulfate reduc-
tion in low-sulfate mine drainage. In: Hinchee, R.E.,
Jeffrey, L., Burris, R. (Eds.), Bioremediation of
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stripping for metal and COD removal. Water Environ.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil by selection

of plant species

B.K.C. Chan, T. Luo & R.Y. Wang

State Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Utilization of Low Grade Refractory Gold Ores,
Zijin Mining Group Co., Ltd., Shanghang, Fujian, China

ABSTRACT: Phytoremediation is an effective and promising solution to remediate polluted soils. This
paper evaluates Solanum nigrum L. for its hyperaccumulative characteristics in mixed heavy metal con-
taminated soil in greenhouse pot trial and different Cd concentrations in hydroponic setup. Pot experi-
ment showed preferential Zn uptake in all parts of the plant, concentration in stems > leaves > roots >
fruits, followed by Pb and Cd. In hydroponic setup, Solanum nigrum L showed clear signs of stress with
increases in Cd concentration in solution. It showed reduction in shoot biomass, but root biomass and
root length were not affected. Increase in Cd uptake in stems and leaves was evidenced when exposing up
to 50 mol/L Cd concentration, then decline. On the contrary, Cd in root remained high indicating its
greater tolerance. Result also confirms that Solanum nigrum L is effective in Cd remediation in soil and
water due to the much larger fibrous root system covered with extremely large surface areas.

1 INTRODUCTION concentrate and precipitate heavy metals from soil

Soil contamination is largely due to natural weath-
ering of rocks, soils, volcanic eruptions, agriculture
and forestry, various industrial activities e.g. ore
beneficiation, metal smelting, waste disposal, fos-
sil fuel combustion that led heavy metal migration
into the water course and soil (Hutchinson &
Meema 1987, Cunningham et al. 1995, Mdegela
et al. 2009). It raises potential long term environ-
mental and health concerns. Heavy metals are not
biodegradable (Sobukola et al. 2010) and they
accumulate in soil much longer than in other com-
partments of the biosphere (Lasat 2002), hence
contamination is long term. Without remedial
action, soil will never return to normal.
Choices of different remediation methods are
governed by the scale and severity of the contami-
nation, time constraint and budget. Chemical and
physical treatment are by far the most common
techniques but costly and generate large volume
of sludge. Phytoremediation is an emerging tech-
nology using plants to remove contaminants from
polluted soils. Different phytoremediation strate-
gies are possible using different plant properties
(Pilon-Smits 2005). The main treatment can be
categorized as phytovolatilization, phytoextraction
and phytostabilization. Phytovolatilization is used
to extract volatile metals such as mercury and sele-
nium from soils and release them through transpira-
tion to the atmosphere as a detoxified vaopur. The
process of phytoextraction uses plants to absorb,
into plant tissues where they can be permanently
stored. The plants are then discarded or processed
to reclaim the metals. Some soils are so heavily con-
taminated that the use of plants for removing met-
als would not be an adequate approach and would
take an unrealistic amount of time. Nevertheless,
without some remediation effort, these areas
remain barren and exposed to erosion and leaching.
Phytostabilization is an alternative (Marques et al.
2009) and plants are used to stabilize the metals
by reducing water and wind erosion in sludge and
soils. In addition, the mobility of the contaminants
is reduced by either being concentrated in root
tissue, adsorbed onto roots or precipitated in the
root zone (Shmaefsky 2003). Plants growing in an
ex situ or in situ hydroponics systems are also used
to absorb, concentrate and precipitate the metals,
which remain in the roots. This technique works
best with water tolerant plants having fibrous root
systems. Cadmium and lead have been removed
from contaminated water using this technique.
In recent years, much effort has been concen-
trated on screening a variety of hyperaccumula-
tors, e.g. Sedum alfredii are hyperaccumulators
of Zn (Yang et al. 2002), Pteris vittata and Pteris
cretica for As (Chen et al. 2002), Rapeseed (Su &
Huang 2002), Viola baoshanensis (Liu et al. 2003),
Solanum nigrum L. and Boehmeria nivea (Ramie)
for Cd, and Phytolacca americana for Mn (Xue et al.
2003). Having characteristics of hyperaccumulator,
Solanum nigrum L. has strong tolerance in single

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 Cd and mixed Cd-Pb-Zn polluted soil (Wei et al.
2005). The simplicity in operation and technical
capability for vast area implementation makes phy-
toremediation an effective, promising and afford-
able solution (Zhou & Song 2004, Chaney et al.
1997). However, the process can take much longer
(18 months5 years) to be effective (Shmaefsky
2003) and is restricted to shallow contamination,
applicable only to sites with low to moderate level
of metal pollution (Padmavathiamma & Li 2007)
and does not fully prevent the leaching of contami-
nants into groundwater.
2 OBJECTIVE
This research sets out to screen and search for
suitable, largely native plant species for phytore-
mediation of heavy metals mainly Zn, Pb and
Cd contaminated soil. In this paper, Solanum
nigrum L. was evaluated in greenhouse pot trials
for its hyperaccumulative characteristics in a mixed
heavy metal contaminated soil.
Metals considered available for plant uptake are
those that exist as soluble components in the soil.
However, due to the strong binding of some heavy
metals to soil particles, their uptake/accumulation
by plants is restricted (Marques et al. 2009).
Hydroponic experiment has advantages includ-
ing the potential for accessibility to all plant tis-
sues and the easy manipulation of the nutrient
profile of the growth medium when compared to
soil, given the complex interaction of ions with soil
particles. (Conn et al. 2013). In view of this, four
hyperaccumulators: Solanum nigrum L., Sedum
alfredii, Pteris vittata and Brassica juncea (Indian
mustard) were examined in hydroponic cells with
synthetic heavy metal solution for efficiency of
metal uptake. Plant tolerance to different heavy
metal concentrations in both experimental set up
were observed, with particular focus on stem and
root lengths and biomass. Chemical analyses of
heavy metals on plant leaves, stem, root and fruits
were also examined.
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Pot experiment
3.1.1 Soil
Synthetic soil was prepared by mixing normal soil
with lead and zinc ore samples so the heavy metal
concentration in the mixture exceeded the govern-
ment Grade II and III standard for soil (GB15618-
1995). A mixed heavy metal concentration was
prepared having Cd: Pb: Zn = 5: 300: 515 mg/kg.
After sieving the air dried mixture, portion of the
430
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 430
soil sample was taken for heavy metal analysis.
1 kg each of soil sample with size < 1 mm was
transferred to 18 cm plot. After addition of
nutrient N:P2O5:K2O = 0.15:0.10:0.15 g/kg soil, the
soil was then left for aging for 14 days.
3.1.2 Seeds
Seeds were obtained from local suppliers, soaked
in 250 mg/L Gibberellic acid for 12 hrs, rinsed and
sown in seed trays for germination in the green-
house under a 8:16 hrs, light:dark cycle, with
70% atmospheric humidity at 23C. When seed-
lings reached the appropriate size to survive (4 or
5 leaves), they were then transferred to the con-
taminated soil.
3.1.3 Experimental setup
Seedlings were transferred to the heavy metal (Zn,
Pb & Cd) contaminated soil and grew in the green-
house condition described above, with daily water-
ing to maintain soil moisture content and nutrient
addition every 15 days.
After 60 days, the plants were harvested by care-
fully taking them out of the submerged soil to
avoid damaging the roots. Then, they were washed
thoroughly with tap water to remove the soil and
20 mmole/L EDTA-Na2 for 30 mins to remove
metal ions on the surface. It was then rinsed with
deionised water and dried with absorbent paper.
The plant samples were separated into roots, upper
plant parts (stems and leaves) and fruits. The fresh
weights, length of stems and roots were recorded.
The plants were first dried at 105C for 30 mins
and then to a constant weight at 70C. Then the
dry weights were recorded and the plant materials
were ground using a stainless steel grinder and sent
for heavy metal analysis.
3.2 Hydroponic cells
3.2.1 Nutrient solution (Hoagland solution)
The Hoagland solution is a hydroponic nutrient
solution that was developed by Hoagland and
Arnon (Hoagland & Arnon 1950) and is one of
the most popular solution compositions for grow-
ing plants in the scientific world. It provides every
nutrient necessary for plant growth and is appro-
priate for the growth of a large variety of plant
species. The prepared nutrient solution consisted
of the following: NH4 NO3 (5 mM), K2SO4 (2 mM),
CaCl2 (4 mM), MgSO4 7H2O (1.5 mM), KH2PO4
(1.3 mM) and Fe(II)-EDTA (0.05 mM), H3BO4
(0.01 mM), ZnSO4 7H2O (0.001 mM), CuSO4 5H2O
(0.001 mM), MnSO4 5H2O (0.005 mM).
3.2.2 Experimental setup
About 21 days post-germination, when the
roots were 4050 mm in length, plants had
8/27/2014 6:02:01 PM
 the appropriate size to survive. Plants species,
Solanum nigrum L., Sedum alfredii, Pteris vittata
and Brassica juncea (Indian mustard) were trans-
ferred to plastic rack holders where plants could
be supported by sponges inside while at the same
time allowing roots to pass through and immerse
in the solution. Each of this holder was inserted
to a 10 L, 12 evenly spaced out cells in hydroponic
tank containing 8 L 1/4 Hoagland solution. Plants
remained in these 10 L tanks for 710 days in
greenhouse condition described above. Aeration
(20 mins/hr) of each hydroponic tank was provided
via aquarium pump with tubings fitted to each
tank. The tank was designed so that light was kept
away from roots to prevent algal growth. Nutrient
solution was renewed every 4 days throughout the
experiment. Figure 1 shows the experimental set
up of hydroponic tank.
After the period of acclimatization, luxurious
growth of root hairs was observed. The plants
were transferred to different concentrations of Cd
(0, 10, 25, 50, 100 mol/L) as CdCl2 7H2O. The
plants were harvested after 14 days. Same proce-
dure described in Section 3.1.3 was followed after
harvesting.
3.3 Analysis
A number of measurements were made to ascer-
tain the physiological state of plants grown in the
pot experiment and hydroponics system. Soil pH
was carried out using suspension method in water
(Rowell 1994). Soil organic matter was determined
by Loss on Ignition (Ball 1964). About 5 g of oven-
dry soil sample was ignited in a muffle furnace at
850C for 30 minutes, then cooled and re-weighed.
The Loss on Ignition was the percentage of weight
lost from the oven-dried soil sample. Heavy metal
analysis of the plant and soil samples was measured
by Inductive Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
Figure 1. Experimental set up for hydroponic cells.
431
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 431
(ICP-MS) by taking 1 g air dried sample for micro-
wave digestion in HNO3 and H2O2 (Li et al. 2010).
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Pot experiment
Solanum nigrum L. was grown in soil having a mix-
ture of heavy metals (Cd: 5 mg/kg, Pb: 300 mg/kg &
Zn: 515 mg/kg) under pH 4.96 and soil organic mat-
ter 0.8%. After 60 days in the greenhouse, plants
were harvested and gave shoot and root biomass
5.5 g and 0.9 g. Figure 2 shows heavy metals in dif-
ferent parts of Solanum nigrum L. With a mixture
of heavy metals in the soil, higher Zn accumulation
was observed in all parts of the plant, with the high-
est Zn uptake in the stems, then leaves, roots and
fruits. Pb also followed similar trend but to a much
lower extent. Cd accumulation in plant was com-
paratively low despite it occurs primarily as soluble
and readily bioavailable form (Padmavathiamma &
Li 2007). However, given the original Cd concentra-
tion in the soil being only 5 mg/kg, Bioconcentration
Factor (BCF: ratio of metal concentration in plants
to soil) was above 1 for different parts of the plant
and Translocation Factor (TF: metal concentration
in shoots to roots) > 1, these all fit in the character-
istics of a hyperaccumulator.
4.2 Hydroponic cells
A selection of plant species: Solanum nigrum L.,
Sedum alfredii, Pteris vittata and Brassica juncea
(Indian mustard) were evaluated in hydroponic
cells. Only Solanum nigrum L. survived whereas
the rest did not show any positive sign of growth.
Result describes hereafter will be on Solanum
nigrum L only. After 21 days in hydroponic cells,
from general observation of the plant, it showed
some clear signs of stress with increases in Cd
concentration. Stunted growth was observed from
Figure 2. Solanum nigrum L. in mixed heavy metal con-
taminated soil after 60 days.
8/27/2014 6:02:01 PM
 plant biomass as shown in Figure 3, along with yel-
low and fallen leaves as well as withered root.
Figures 4 & 5 shows shoot & root biomass and
length of Solanum nigrum L in different Cd concen-
tration. Plant showed no sign of biomass reduction
when Cd concentration at 10 mol/L. There was
even about 10% increase in shoot length (Fig. 5).
This could be due to the low concentration causing
positive stimulation to the plant cells and stimulating
RNA and protein and promoting cell division (Patra
et al. 1994). However, further increase in Cd concen-
tration caused a marked decrease in shoot biomass
(60%), but only slight decline (13%) in shoot length Figure 5. Shoot & root length of Solanum nigrum L in
(Fig. 5). It is noted that root biomass and root length different Cd concentration in the solution.
did not show any significant difference with increases
in Cd concentration. The roots were not as sensitive
to high Cd concentration as comparing to shoots.
Heavy metal accumulation in plants increased
with increase in Cd concentration in the solution,
in the order of leaves > stems > roots > fruits. In
10 mol/L Cd concentration, metal accumulation
in leaves accounted for 312 mg/kg, stems 250 mg/kg
and roots 208 mg/kg, ie metal concentration in

Figure 6. Cd concentration in different parts of

Solanum nigrum L after exposing different Cd concentra-
tion in the solution.

plant above ground was much higher than that in

Figure 3. Solanum nigrum L. in Cd concentration 10,
25, 50 & 100 mol/L in hydroponic cells.
Figure 4. Shoot & root biomass of Solanum nigrum L
in different Cd concentration in the solution.
the roots. It clearly showed some of the distinctive
characteristics of hyperaccumulator. By taking
the plant (root and shoots) biomass into account,
Cd concentration in different parts of the plant is
shown in Figure 6. Steady increase of Cd in the
plant was observed with increasing concentration
in solution from 1050 mol/L, and then decline.
This was clearly demonstrated in both stems and
leaves. When concentration was >50 mol/L,
plants started to show sign of stress producing less
biomass. On the contrary, there was an increasing
Cd uptake in root at 50100 mol/L indicating its
greater tolerance to high Cd concentration.
Comparison of Cd uptake by plant in pot and
hydroponic experiment was made from similar
Cd concentration in soil (5 mg/kg) and solution
(50 mol/L). Although plant biomass from hydro-
ponic cells was lower than that in pot experiment
(Table 1), Cd accumulation in plant was much
higher in hydroponic cells. One reason for this high
uptake might be due to the availability of Cd in
the solution.
General observation of different plant growth
in the hydroponic experiment, Solanum nigrum L.

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 Table 1. Cd uptake in Solanum nigrum L. in pot experi- seemed to be suited for heavy metal remediation in
ment and hydroponic cells. water. It showed more luxurious growth in water
than in ordinary soil (Fig. 7). Further the develop-
Pots Hydroponic cells ment of dense and profuse root system might also
Biomass (g) contribute to the metal translocation from water to
Roots 0.9 0.45 its roots (Fig. 8), then to the harvestable shoots.
Stems & leaves 5.5 1.80
Cd concentration (mg/kg) 5 CONCLUSIONS
Roots 8.7 586.7
Stems 16.0 697.8 Pot experiment with Solanum nigrum L. in a mix-
Leaves 12.21 747.8 ture of different heavy metals showed preferential
Fruits 14.48 185.4
uptake of Zn in all parts of the plant, with high-
est metal concentration in the stems, then leaves,
roots and fruits. It was then followed by Pb and
Cd but to a much lower extent. Although Cd accu-
mulation in plant was comparatively low, Biocon-
centration Factor (BCF) and Translocation Factor
(TF) were above 1 confirming its suitability as a
hyperaccumulator.
After 21 days in hydroponicc setup, Solanum
nigrum L showed some clear signs of stress with
increases in Cd concentration and reduction in
shoot biomass, but root biomass and root length
did not have any significant difference. Increase
in Cd uptake in stems and leaves was evidenced
when exposing up to 50 mol/L Cd concentration,
then decline. On the contrary, significant increase
in Cd uptake in root in higher concentration was
observed, an indication of greater tolerance in
Figure 7. Growth comparison of Solanum nigrum L. in roots in high Cd concentration.
the control pot and hydroponic experiment. Solanum nigrum L. in hydroponic setup showed
good chance of survival whereas other plants did
not. It was partly due to the much larger fibrous
root system covered with root hairs with extremely
large surface areas. High Cd uptake by plant in
the same setup further confirmed the suitability
of Solanum nigrum L being a potential plant for
remediation in contaminated water.
Results have indicated that Solanum nigrum L
can be effective in Cd remediation in both soil and
water. However, knowledge into mechanisms affect-
ing metal availability, uptake, translocation and deg-
radation in phytoremediaton in general is lacking
and further investigation in these areas is needed.
So far, most phytoremediation experiments have
taken place on a laboratory or greenhouse scale,
field trial will give a better understanding on the
practical implementation of this technology so
optimization can be made to develop into an
industrial practice.

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Pollution status of heavy metals in Chinas metallic mining areas

and treatment measures concerned

Y. Chen
Minmetals Mining Holdings Ltd., Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes the distribution and pollution status of metallic mineral resources in
China, elaborates the causes and harms of pollution in mining areas, and clarifies the remediation tech-
nologies on heavy metal pollution at home and abroad in a systematic way. Based on this, it offers two
ways to reinforce the treatment of heavy metal pollution in mining areas. On the one hand, it is essential
to use and manage the tailings in a rational manner and guarantee advanced treatment of mineral water
during beneficiation to control the pollution of heavy metals in metallic mining areas from the sources.
Technologies like physical chemistry and phytoremediation, on the other hand, can be adopted to restore
the polluted soil and water bodies, so as to achieve the recycling of the mining soil.

1 INTRODUCTION Therefore, it is of great significance for

Mineral resource is an important material founda-
tion for human survival and development and can
boost the rapid development of economy; however,
mining always brings very serious environmental
problems. To be specific, mine drainage, leach-
ing water produced by ores and spoil banks, mine
industrial wastewater and domestic wastewater,
ore dusts, smoke and SO2 emitted from coal burn-
ing, and radiation of radioactive substances dur-
ing mining may all present significant harms to
the mining environment and human health. The
migration and enrichment of heavy metal elements
caused by beneficiation may lead to heavy metal
pollution to most of the soil and water resources
inside or around the mining areas, causing a large
number of soil or water pollution incidents con-
cerning mining areas around the world (Mandal
2002, Bhattacharya 2006, Azcue 1995 & Liu 2005).
Exposure of carcinogenic heavy metals like
Pb, Cd, Cr, Hg and As of any dose is likely to
exert negative influences on health. At present,
the global emissions of Hg, Cu, Pb, Mn and Ni
reach around 15,000 t, 3.4 million tons, 5 million
tons, 15 million tons and 1 million ton s yearly
(Huang 2012) respectively, and a majority of the
heavy metals are discharged directly into the soil
and water bodies, producing severe regional polu-
tion of heavy metals. Since pollution of heavy
metals is serious and universe and arduous and
time-consuming for treatment, governments of all
nations attach particular importance to the pre-
vention and control of heavy metal pollution and
environmental protection.
environmental protection, ecological civilization
construction and food security to put forward
the principal approaches to prevent and control
heavy metal pollution in China at the present stage
through analyzing the status and causes of heavy
metal pollution in the mining areas and clarifying
remediation technologies at home and abroad in a
systematic way.
2 POLLUTION STATUS OF HEAVY
METALS IN MINING AREAS
2.1 Distribution of mining areas
Mining activities are considered one of the core
reasons causing heavy metal pollution. In China,
some provinces which are rich in minerals like
Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan and Hunan are pol-
luted by heavy metals in varying degrees. South
China, one of the important mining areas of
heavy metals across China with a large number of
heavy metal mines like high quality Pb-Zn mines
and Cu-Zn mines (see Fig. 1), is also a severely
afflicted area in this regard. A total of 141 types of
mineral resources have been discovered in Hunan,
accounting for 83.83% of the mineral resources
found around China (168 types). Among them,
the variety of proven reserves reaches 94, account-
ing for 61.43% of the proved reserves of minerals
in the country. The deposits and mineral occur-
rences discovered amount to more than 6,000,
and there are also 1,534 proven mineral deposits,
including 92 large deposits, 174 medium deposits,
and 1,268 small deposits. In addition, the major

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 Figure 1. Distribution map of ferrous and non-ferrous metals in China.
characteristic of mineral resources in Hunan lies
in its wide and relatively concentrated distribution
of nonferrous-metallic mineral resources. So far as
Guizhou is concerned, its mineral resources with
proven reserves reach 73, of which, 27 resources
rank among the top five across the country. In terms
of recoverable deposits, bauxite hits 396 million
tons, ranking second in China; both mercury mines
and barites rank first; rare earth and gallium rank
second and; manganese ore, antimony ore and
iodine rank third. Guangxi, a mineral resource rich
area and also known as the Hometown of Non-
ferrous Metals, ranks first in the world in terms
of indium reserves with the reserves of manganese
and tin ores accounting for 1/3 of the national
total reserves. Yunnan, famous as the Kingdom
of Non-ferrous Metals, is considered a major
production base for non-ferrous metals all over
China, and its metallurgical industry is dominated
by the exploitation and smelting of non-ferrous
metals. In Yunnan, the Sn output of Gejiu City
ranks first across China, and Dongchuan District,
Yimen County and Yongsheng County are major
places of origin of Cu. Pb-Zn mines in Lanping
County, followed by Huize County and other
places are large and centralized in reserves, high in
grade and easy for exploitation with a larger scale
436
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 436
of smelting. In addition, Guangdong is also rich
and diversified in mineral resources. Among the
162 discovered mineral resources and 148 proven
reserves, 116 mineral resources and 89 proven
reserves can be found in Guangdong. It covers a
total of 1,400-odd places of origin, of which, large,
medium and small deposits accounting for 10%,
20% and 70% respectively. The proven reserves
of more than 300 solid mineral resources have
reached the large or medium scale. The reserves of
a total of 34 mineral resources in Guangdong rank
among the top five around Chinathose ranking
first include kaolin, peat, metallurgical vein quartz,
cement trachyte, Ge and Te; second cover Pb, Bi,
Ag, oil shale and glass sand, and third contain Sn,
Nb, Ta, Se, iceland spar and jade. Moreover, high-
grad iron ore deposit, tungsten ore, uranium ore,
titanium ore and gold ore also represent an impor-
tant position throughout the country.
2.2 Pollution status
For a long time, the soil and environment around
the mining areas have been severely affected dur-
ing the exploitation due to problems concerning
funds, technologies and poor management. For
instance, a large number of wastes produced during
8/27/2014 6:02:08 PM
 beneficiation are stacked in the tailings ponds, and
the large amount of heavy metals contained in the
ponds may release or migrate to the soil and rivers
under the surface bio-geochemistry. Afterwards,
the polluted water flows into the farmland through
irrigation and then enters human bodies via the
food chain, posing serious threats to the health of
people nearby and their living environment.
Soil and water bodies of the mining areas are
considered the most serious environmental media
leading to heavy metal pollution. Ores left after
the exploitation of mineral resources as well as
waste residues, tailings, wastewater, liquid waste
and waste gas produced during ore smelting can
pollute the soil environment. Particularly, toxic
wastes stacked arbitrarily may cause heavy met-
als in the waste residues to eluviate and infiltrate
into the soil or to evaporate into the atmosphere,
leading to soil pollution. Nearly 20 million hm2
of cultivated land is currently polluted in China,
accounting for around 1/5 of the total cultivated
area (Wei 2001). Among this, the pollution caused
by exploitation of mining areas accounts for a large
proportion. Taking mining areas of Yata Gold
Deposit in Guizhou as an example, the concentra-
tion of As in tailings, soil and rice roots amount to
5721,385 mg kg1, 22.2 mg kg1 and 209 mg kg1 ing beneficiation are stacked in the tailings ponds
respectively; while the concentration of Sb in tail-
ings, soil and rice roots reach 10.4233 mg kg1,
52.7 mg kg1 and 7.0 mg kg1 (Zhang 2009)
respectively. Since the water sources and soil in
Dengjiatang Township, Suxian District, Chenzhou
City, Hunan have been polluted by arsenic wastewa-
ter discharged from arsenic smelting factories, the
concentration of As and Cd in soil have amounted
to 709 mg kg1 and 7.6 mg kg1 respectively, and
there are also pollutions regarding Zn, Cu and
Pb (Liu 2005). Besides, the concentration of As
reaches 16.6 mg kg1 (Xie 2005) in edible parts of
crops and 19.52 37.2 mg kg1 in the soil along
the downstream part of the mining areas. The con-
centration of arsenic in edible parts of vegetables
ranges between 0.042.64 mg kg1 (Cai 2004). The
contents of heavy metals like Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd and
Cr also exceed the standards in the soil nearby Puyu
Gold Mine located at Huayin City, Shanxi Province
(Zhang 2011). In terms of farmland soil along poly-
metallic mining areas of Gejiu City in Yunan, the
concentration of Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd and As reaches
2,050 mg kg1, 1,275.41 mg kg1, 1,316.09 mg kg1,
12.91 mg kg1 and 825.43 mg kg1 respectively
(Song 2012). Large areas of farmland were polluted
or even led to total crop failure dut to the collapse of
tailings dam along the Pb-Zn metallic mining area
which is located at Huanjiang County, Guangxi,
with the concentration of As, Cd, Pb, Zn, Ni and
Cr hits 37.9 mg kg1, 2.06 mg kg1, 798 mg kg1,
52.0 mg kg1, 21.6 mg kg1 and 22.90 mg kg1
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 437
respectively (Zhai et al. 2008). All these above
were caused by such mining activities as exploita-
tion, beneficiation and smelting of metallic min-
eral resources in the mining areas; in addition,
backward technologies, poor management, or huge
loss of tailings caused by weather and other factors
also lead to severe pollutions to the soil and water
bodies around the mining areas.
A large number of mining areas in China have
suffered the pollution of heavy metals. As heavy
metals are different from organic pollutants and
cannot be degraded, they together with the partic-
ularity of the soil lead to the pollution to the soil.
The increasingly serious pollution of heavy metals
to the soil leads to soil fertility degradation and also
reductions in output and quality of crops, exerting
a strong impact on the environmental quality and
the sustainable economic development.
3 FACTORS RELATING TO
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The long-term heavy metal pollution in mining
areas is largely due to the poor management over
the tailings. A large number of wastes produced dur-
nearby the mining areas, and such tailings always
contain a great many of heavy metals. Although
these tailings are of certain values, they always fail
to be used in an effective way due to low technol-
ogy, high cost and low utilization (Liu et al.2013),
and stacking nearby the ores over a long period of
time, they release or migrate to the soil and rivers
under the surface bio-geochemistry. Afterwards,
the polluted water flows into the farmland through
irrigation and then enters human bodies via the
food chain, posing serious threats to the health of
people nearby and their living environment.
Incomplete statistics show that the tailings accu-
mulated in metal mines across China reach about
4 billion and more tons and are still growing rap-
idly at a speed of over 100 million tons every year.
These tailings always contain a large quantity of
useful constituents. For instance, YUNNAN TIN
GROUP (HOLDING) COMPANY LIMITED
now owns 28 tailing ponds and 35 tailings dams,
and its accumulated tailings reaches more than
100 million tons, containing 200,000-odd million
tons of tin as well as a wide range of concomitants
including Pb, Zn, Im, Bi, Cu, Fe and As (Liu et al.
2013).
3.1 Exploitation and beneficiation
During mining activities like mining and dressing
and smelting of metals, a large amount of water
will generally be used for flotation or elution,
437
8/27/2014 6:02:10 PM
 which always involves a large number of emissions
and complex components, particularly heavy
metals like Pb, Cd, Cu and Hg with more severe
hazards. Wastewater containing heavy metals is
abundant in sources and huge in quantity and
some of the wastewater even contains As. Such
wastewater mainly comes from the production
process of galvanization, metallurgy, chemical
industry, mining, beneficiation and other depart-
ments, such as leaching water from waste-rock
yard, pickling wastewater and wet-type dust col-
lector drainage from non-ferrous metals process-
ing factories, tailings drainage from mines and ore
dressing plants, pickling drainage from steelworks,
water used to wash coated parts from electrolytic
and electroplate factories, as well as wastewater
produced during various industrial production
processes such as dyestuffs, medicines, paints and
pesticides.
Oxidized Pb-Zn ores and sulphide Pb-Zn ores
are principal Pb-Zn industrial minerals in China
nowadays. In Pb-Zn mines (consisting prima-
rily of Zn oxide) in Lanping County, Yunnan,
crude ores are crushed first, and then washed
Figure 2. Average annual precipitation in China.
438
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 438
and screened and treated subject to flotation.
Medicaments like Na2CO3, copper sulfate, butyl
xanthate and terpenic oil are used in flotation
of sulfide ores and sodium hexametaphosphate,
sodium sulfide, TA, BK and terpenic oil are
applied to flotation of Zn oxide (Zhao 2007). As
mineral water contains a great number of heavy
metals which can combine with ores, these heavy
metals, affected by dressing potion, are always
left in the mineral water after the elution. For
instance, such heavy metals as Pb, Hg, Cd and Se
are contained in gold mineral water, and they are
mainly from galvanization, fuel, mining, smelt-
ing and chemical processes, in which, they are
left through elution following the combination of
heavy metals like Se and the gold ores (Liu 2012).
The ore dressing plant subject to Huili Zinc
Ore, the concentration of Pb, Zn, Cd and Cr in
Pb-Zn mineral processing wastewater may reach
35.91 mg L1, 2.14 mg L1, 0.49 mg L1 and
1.17 mg L1 respectively, and such wastewater
in large quantity, if failed to be treated properly
before being discharged, are bound to cause great
pollution to water bodies (Yan & Xie 2006).
8/27/2014 6:02:10 PM
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 439

Table 1. List for remediation & treatment technologies targeting heavy metal pollution to the soil.

Category Name Technical principle Maturity

Engineering Conventional remediation Covering with other soil for melioration, soil displacement and mixing deeply- Mature, expensive
remediation ploughed soil and polluted soil to reduce concentration of heavy metals in soil
technology Geochemical engineering Achieving environmental pollution governance through man-made products using Under laboratory batch tests
remediation certain geochemical effects or products produced with principles of geochemistry
Bioremediation Phytoremediation Phytoextraction based on hyperaccumulation of plants or cumulative features, Relatively mature
technology phytostabilization using root system of plants to control pollution dispersion
and restore ecological functions, phytodegradation based on plant metabolism,
phytovolatilization based on plant transformation and phytoinfiltration based on
adsorption of plant roots
Microbial remediation Degrading organic pollutants using degradation of microorganism Mature (organic pollution)
Physical Thermal desorption Promoting the organic pollutants group in the soil to a proper temperature via direct or Relatively mature; restricted
remediation indirect heat change to make it evaporate or separate from soil media (organic pollution)
technology Vapor extraction An in-situ remediation to remove Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in the soil Mature (organic pollution)
Chemical- Solidificationstabilization Fixing the pollutants in contaminated media for its long-term stability Relatively mature; stability test
physical and is required in later period
chemical Elution Injecting water or eluants like water solution containing rinse additives, acid p aqueous Relatively mature; prevention of
remediation
439

alkali, complexing agent or surface active agent into the polluted soil or sediments to secondary pollution; expensive
technology elute or clean pollutants in the soil
Oxidation-reduction Adding chemical oxidants (Fenton reagent, ozone, peroxide and potassium Under application research
permanganate) or reducing agents (SO2, FeO, gassy H2S, etc.) to the soil to set off (organic pollution)
a chemical reaction between it and the pollutants for soil sanitation
Catalytic degradation Photocatalytic oxidation of organic pollutants degradation (photolysis) Under research and application
Electrodynamics Making pollutants gather at the electrode district through recombination action Under field remediation
(electroosmosis, electromigration and electrophoresis) of electrochemistry and and application
electrodynamics for centralized treatment or separation
Combined Microbial-animal-plant Microbial (bacterial and fungus)plant combination, animal (earthworm) Under research
remediation combination plant combination
technology Chemical-physical-biological Giving play to the feast edge of chemical or physical and chemical remediation to Under laboratory study
combination combine with biological remediation
Physicalchemical Achieving fast and effective remediation based on advantages of physical Under laboratory study
combination remediation and chemical remediation
Passivation Measures for solidification Changing biological effectiveness of heavy metals by adding certain mineral Relatively mature
technology and stabilization substance(s)
Agronomic Agronomic measures Adjusting some farm management systems based on actual conditions and growing Mature; poorer remediation
measures & plants not covered in the food chain in the polluted soil, including controlling soil effect
technology humidity, changing farming system, adjusting crop variety, reasonable application
of organic fertilizer, etc.
8/27/2014 6:02:13 PM
 3.2 Surface runoff atmosphere and water. Principal pathways for
pollutants generated in mining activities enter the
Heavy metal elements released from mining
environment may vary due to the differences in
activities are spread to surrounding areas mainly
water conditions of different places.
through media like atmosphere and water (surface
water and underground water). Water bodies are
considered a critical way for long-distance migra-
4 TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
tion and transport of heavy metals emitted from
mining activities in upper reaches of the rivers, and
As a matter of fact, heavy metal elements indis-
can thus lead to heavy metal pollution caused by
pensable or unnecessary to plant growth wont
mining activities to large areas of the farmland soil
have any impact on the growth of plants when
within the river basin. This is mainly because river
controlled in a certain concentration range. Long-
basins are consequences of confluence, migra-
term exposure of heavy metal pollution to the
tion and deposition of natural land water on the
plants, however, may lead to heavy metal accu-
earth and its concomitants under the action of
mulation and exert influences on human health
gravity and are aggregations of a series of regions
by entering the food chain. Whats worse, plants
which are closely related to and influence each
may be poisoned or even die in the event that the
other in particular range.
contents in plants exceed their own threshold of
The main routes for migration of heavy metal
concentration. It is, therefore, important to treat
ions produced in mining gangues and tailings dur-
and restore the soil and water bodies polluted by
ing mining activities in the environment are closely
heavy metals.
related to the local landforms and weather features.
In recent years, both scholars at home and
Water is considered the most important carrier
abroad have developed many studies on treatment
for migration of heavy metals. Most of the heavy
technologies targeting heavy metal pollution to the
metal pollutions in some mining areas were the
soil with certain achievements made (see Table 1).
results of flood erosion on tailing ponds, such as
Overall, there are two relatively mature
Pb-Zn metallic mining areas located at Huanjiang
approaches to guarantee the remediation of heavy
County, Guangxi (Zhai et al. 2008), metallic min-
metal pollution. One is to change the bioavailabil-
ing areas in Hechi City, Guangxi (Song et al.
ity of heavy metals through measures for solidifi-
2008) and realgar mining areas in Shimen County,
cation and stabilization. And the other is to extract
Hunan (Zeng et al. 2006). As shown in the Average
heavy metals contained in the soil with special
Annual Precipitation Distribution Map (Fig. 2),
plants and then recover and treat the plants prop-
as the South China is endowed with much rain as
erly to remove the heavy metals.
well as a great number of rivers, mining areas and
tailings ponds, it is very likely to cause huge loss
of heavy metals and further lead to regional heavy
5 CONCLUSIONS
metal pollution.
Principal pathways for heavy metal elements
As China is facing a more severe situation in
contained in wastes exposed to the environment
terms of heavy metal pollution in metallic mining
to enter the environment include (Zhai 2007):
areas, it is essential to, based on the above analy-
1. Metals, affected by mechanical erosion of bar-
sis, strengthen the prevention and control of heavy
ren rocks and tailing heaps, enter the hydrological
metal pollution of mining areas from the following
system in the form of mineral grains; Heavy met-
two aspects:
als infiltrate into the soil of underlaying material
through pores of barren rocks and tailing heaps 1. Strengthening environmental management for
or enter the soil of the surrounding environment source control: This means to use and manage
through the surface runoff; 3. Heavy metals enter tailings in a reasonable way to prevent heavy
the hydrological system of the lower reaches or metals from emission or migration, and mean-
infiltrate into the underground water through the while, to guarantee advanced treatment of min-
surface runoff, which connects the surface water eral water during beneficiation to prevent the
and underground water, causes water body pol- soil and water bodies being polluted by mineral
lution of the whole mining area or even of the water, curbing the occurrence and aggravation
most areas nearby, and exerts influences on the of heavy metal pollution in mining areas from
entire ecosystem; 4. Atmospheric deposition is the sources.
another important way for heavy metals to enter 2. Applying remediation technology according
the environment. All in all, Wastes produced dur- to actual conditions and developing remedia-
ing mining activities enter the environment mainly tion of polluted soil: Technologies concern-
through two kinds of migration media, i.e. the ing physical and chemical remediation and

440

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 440 8/27/2014 6:02:13 PM

 phytoremediation can be adopted to treat the
polluted soil and water bodies to achieve refuse
of the soil in mining areas. In terms of measures
to prevent and control the polluted soil, unceas-
ing progress are being made in remediation
technologies of all kinds, and in particular, phy-
toremediation is featured with wide application
prospects and accessible to large-scale remedia-
tion and treatment.
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Azcue J.M., Nriagu J.O. Impact of abandoned mine
tailings on the arsenic concentrations in Moira Lake,
Ontario [J]. Journal of Geochemical Exploration.
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Bhattacharya A., Routh J., Jacks G et al. Environmental
assessment of abandoned mine tailings in Adak,
Vasterbotten district (northern Sweden) [J]. Applied
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Cai Baosong, Chen Tongbin, Liao Xiaoyong et al.
Arsenic concentrations in soils and vegetables and
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Hunan province Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2004, (04):
711717.
Hao Qingqing, Hao Ziguo et al. A study on comprehensive
utilization status of metal tailings resources in China
[J]. Geology and Prospecting. 2013, (03): 437443.
Huang Xiaoyu. Analysis on status of heavy metal
pollution in mining areas [J]. Intelligence. 2012, (09):
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and crops affected by the Chenzhou lead/zinc mine
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Liu Lian Liu Shanni. Analysis and evaluation on
upgrading technology targeting arsenic-contained
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Mandal B.K., Suzuki K.T. Arsenic round the world:
A review [J]. Talanta. 2002, 58 (1): 201235.
Song Shuqiao, Liang Lifang, Zhou Yongzhang et al.
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land polluted by heavy metals from mining along the
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Song Yanhui, Zhong Zhengyan, Li Hongmei et al. Status
of heavy metal pollution to farmland soil-crop system
in polymetallic mining areas in Gejiu city, Yunan
A case study in Zhadian town. Journal of Safety and
Environment. 2012, (01): 138146.
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plants of farmland and its healthy risk: A case study
in an As-contaminated site in Dengjiatang, Chenzhou
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Simulation of lateral migration of heavy metal in Huanjiang

watershed, Guangxi province of China

P.W. Qiao
Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing, China
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

X.Y. Zhou, J. Yang, T.B. Chen & M. Lei

Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Soil heavy metal migration will enlarge the polluted areas and increase the difficulty
of soil management and remediation. An efficient simulation method is urgently needed to predict the
heavy metal transportation and to provide useful information for taking measurements to prevent the
pollution. Based on the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tools) model, this research established a
heavy metal transportation model. An experimental case study was conducted in a seriously polluted
area in Huanjiang watershed, Guangxi province in the south of China. Nash coefficient and correlation
coefficient during the modeling period were fairly high, at 0.87 and 0.82, respectively, and the overall bias
was only 13.23%. The migrated quantity in the study area in 2013 was also estimated, As, Zn, Pb, Cd were
90, 230, 120 and 0.7 kg/yr, respectively. The model proposed by this study would be promising for other
similar areas worldwide.

1 INTRODUCTION study area is part of the downstream of the huan-

Soil heavy metal pollution is an important issue
all over the world. Heavy metal accumulation and
migration is harmful to human body and crops,
and makes the pollution extent larger (Fan et al.
2010). Soil pollution arouse by some major heavy
metals, As, Cd, Pb and Zn has become a big issue
in Huanjiang, Guangxi province of China since
2001 (Lei et al. 2005).
Modeling is an efficient way to predict the
heavy metal migration process, areas and amount.
Nowadays, the soil heavy metal migration mod-
els mainly include empirical model, separated
model and holistic model, such as Hydrus-ID model
(Minh et al. 2009) and LECHM model (Legret
et al. 1999). However, these models all have limi-
tations in improving simulation precision (Sandy
et al. 2009). Therefore, It is necessary to build
an appropriate model to predict soil heavy metal
migration, which would be helpful for soil heavy
metal pollution prevention and remediation.
jiang basin, with an area of about 273 km2 (Fig. 1).
2.2 Data collection
The whole study area was divided into 25 sub-
basins by SWAT model. Inside these subbasins,
37 soil samples were collected. Runoff and sedi-
ment were sampled at 8 positions, and 4 runoff
plots were established (Fig. 2).
Laboratory analysis method for soil heavy metal
samples was conducted according to guidance
from EPA of the US.
2.3 Model building
The quantity of heavy metal migration was calcu-
lated by Matlab. SWAT model was used to simulate
the sediment transported through river network.
As, Pb, Cd and other kinds of heavy metal content
was estimated by soil samples and soil attributes.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study area
Huanjiang watershed lies in the northwest of
Guangxi province, with its geographical extent
ranging at 1075110843, 24442533. The
3.1 Runoff and sediment simulation
1. Parameter sensitivity analysis
Runoff and sediment was simulated by SWAT
model at daily scale, and calibrated and vali-
dated by SWAT-CUP software.

443

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 443 8/27/2014 6:02:13 PM

 Figure 2. Subwatershed delineation and field samples
allocation.

Figure 1. Location of the study area.

Parameter sensitivity analysis was conducted

to find the most sensitive parameters. The most
sensitive parameters in this study were soil evap-
oration compensation factor (ESCO), base flow
alpha factor for bank storage (ALPHA_BNK),
groundwater delay time (GW_DELAY) and
Figure 3. The calibration result of runoff and sediment.
initial SCS runoff curve number for moderate
moisture condition (CN2). ESCO was nega-
tively correlated with runoff, and CN2 was posi-
were 0.82 and 0.87 respectively. The results have
tively correlated with runoff.
revealed an excellent modeling and indicated the
2. Model calibration and validation
high suitability of the model for the area.
The SWAT model was calibrated automatically
using SWAT-CUP after 5000 times model run,
and the calibrated results were shown in Figure 3. 3.2 The estimation of soil heavy metal migration
Figure 3 showed that, the simulated values fit- Based on the indicators as follows: total heavy
ted the observed values well. The variations of metal, water-soluble of heavy metal, pH value,
observed values could be represented closely by the the heavy metal in the runoff, sediment and run-
simulated values. The Nash coefficients for run- off plots soil samples, and learning from the N, P
off and sediment were 0.87 and 0.93, respectively; transportation equation, the transportation equa-
and the correlation coefficients between simulated tion of As, Zn, Cd and Pb was built by regression
runoff and sediment to the related observed values analysis as follows:

444

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 Figure 4. The space division of As, Cd, Pb and Zn transportation quantity.

HM As = 0.0015
tranHM In which, tranHM means the heavy metal
ln pH (a +a +a )0.595 migration quantity (g), pH means soil pH value,
a1, a2, a3 mean the content percentage of clay,
(CHws sed CHw s flow )
loam and sand respectively, CHws means the water
solute state of heavy metal (mg/kg), CHws means
HM Zn = 0.0006
tranHM
the water-solute of heavy metal (mg/L), sed
ln pH (a1 0 001 + a2 0.026 + a3 )0.212 means soil erosion amount (t), flow means runoff
( + ) volume (m3).
The model was verified by the observed data
HMCd = 0.0076
tranHM in water inlet and outlet, and the average relative
ln pH (a1 + + )0.26 error (bias) was 13.23%.
( ) Using the heavy metal transportation equa-
+
tion, we can get the spatial distribution of As, Cd,
tranHHM Pb = 0.017 Zn and Pb transportation quantity (Fig. 4). The
total transportation quantity of these heavy met-
ln pH (a +a +a )0.32 als in 2013 in study area was: As-90 kg, Zn-230 kg,
(CHws sed + CHw
H s flow ) Cd-0.7 kg, Pb-120 kg.

445

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 4 CONCLUSION
This study proposed a SWAT based heavy metal
migration model coupled with field data. A case
study was conducted and the model was proven to
be reliable to estimate heavy metal transportation.
Spatial distribution and the overall amount of soil
heavy metal transported would be accurately given
after modeling. The model showed large potential
to locate the critical pollution areas and to monitor
the effect of different soil restoration technologies.
REFERENCES
Fan, X.X., Gan, Z.T., Li, M.J., et al. 2010. Progress
of assessment method of heavy metal pollution in
soil. Chinese Agricultural Science Bulletin, 26(17):
310315.
446
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 446
Legret, M., Nicollet, M., Miloda, P., et al. 1999. Simulation
of heavy metal pollution from stormwater infiltration
through a porous pavement with reservoir structure.
Water Science and Technology, 39(2): 119125.
Lei, M., Yue, Q.L., Chen, T.B., et al. 2005. Heavy metal
concentration in soils and plants around Shizhuyuan
mining area of Hunan province. Acta Ecologica
Sinica, 25(5): 11461151.
Minh, N.N., Stefan, D., Jrn, K. 2009. Simulation of reten-
tion and transport of copper, lead and zinc in a pad-
dysoil of the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment, 129(13): 816.
Sandy, M.Y. Ng, Onyx, W.H. Wai, Yok, S.L, et al. 2009.
Integration of a GIS and a complex three-dimensional
hydrodynamic, sediment and heavy metal transport
numerical model. Advances in Engineering Software,
40(6): 391401.
8/27/2014 6:02:22 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Mechanochemical stabilization of lead containing soil

for contaminated site remediation

W. Zhang, Q. Wang, H. Zhang, L.L. Wu, W.Q. Gao & L.B. Zhou
Beijing General Research Institute of Milling and Metallurgy, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Lead smelting industry produces a large amount of heavy metal-containing solid wastes,
and its heavy metal contamination site is the most serious in China. These wastes should be safely stored
and disposed because several serious accidents of exceeding limits of children blood lead happened in
many parts of our country. Solidification and stabilization are the common methods to treat these wastes.
The traditional solidification/stabilization method has the problems such as incompletely solidification
and unstable structure. Therefore, we propose that utilization of Mechano-chemical reaction which could
strengthen the stabilization process of lead contaminated soil with solid phase radicals. This research
provided a new technology and theory basis for the design and optimization of harmless disposal and
remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil.

1 INTRODUCTION formation toward calcium silicate during milling

Lead smelting industry produces a large amount of
heavy metal-containing solid wastes, and its con-
tamination is the most serious in non-ferrous metal
metallurgy industry in China. These wastes should
be safely stored and disposed because several seri-
ous accidents of exceeding limits of children blood
lead happened in many parts of China. Moreover,
it is known that the DNA-damaging effects of
certain metals in humans can lead to induction of
cancer and decrease of fertility.
Mechanical treatments by Ball Milling (BM)
are typically used to promote specific transfor-
mations such as combustive or gradual reactions,
amorphization, activation, microstructural refine-
ment, comminution, cold-welding and alloying.
Experimental results related to the remediation
of Pb (II), Zn (II) and Cd (II) contaminated soils
are reported. Pb (II), Zn (II) and Cd (II) immobi-
lization is achieved without the use of additional
reactants but only through the exploitation of
weak transformations induced on the treated soil
by mechanical loads taking place during collisions
among milling media.
Yasuhira Fujiwara has found that Ca-O-Si, when
a Si-O pendant bond of SiO2 comes close to the Ca
atom on the surface of calcium oxide or hydroxide.
A decrease in the coordination number for Ca in
CaO or Ca(OH)2 increases the electron Population
Density (PD) between Ca and O, and decreases the
PD between Si and O. These simultaneous changes
in PD favor the formation and stabilization of a
Ca-O-Si HBB. The calculated results agree well
with the experimental observation of precursor
of a mixture of Ca(OH)2 and SiO2.
In the present work, this effect is analyzed
for the case of Pb (II) contaminated soils whose
immobilization may be induced by specific trans-
formations such as formation of aggregates where
Pb (II) may be entrapped, formation of new
highly reactive surfaces onto which Pb (II) may
be adsorbed thus reducing the Pb (II) leachability
and its dispersion in the environment by the appli-
cation of SiO2 sand.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
High purity CaCO3 (99%), SiO2 (99%), ben-
tonite (99%) kaolin (99%), Fe2O3 (99%), MnO2
(99%), humic acid (99%) were mixed in order to
prepare Sandy Soils (SS), Kaolinitic Soils (KS)
and Bentonitic Soils (BS). All compounds were
obtained from SigmaAldrich, Inc.
A planetary ball mill (QM-3SP2, Nanjing
University Instrument Corporation, China) was
used for all experiments. The mixture of reagents
(4.5 g) and HCB (0.3 g) was placed into a zirconia
pot at room temperature, which was then sealed.
Four compositions of reagents were examined for
comparison purposes. The planetary ball mill was
operated at 550 rpm and the rotation direction of
the supporting disk changed automatically every
30 min. The charge ratio was set as 36:1, and the
total weight of the balls (24 large balls of 9.60 mm
and 100 small balls of 5.60 mm) was 180 g.
At the end of each programmed time interval of
mechanical treatment, as well as for untreated soils

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 (i.e. milling time equal to 0), soils were suitably sam-
pled to be analyzed. The degree of immobilization
of heavy metals was evaluated using the Synthetic
Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP)
reported by USEPA. The latter one, being designed
to simulate acid rain conditions, is useful to assess
if a potentially contaminated material, once left in
situ, may release toxic substances when exposed to
normal weathering. To perform the SPLP test, US
EPA SW 846 Method 1312 was taken into account
by using an extraction fluid which consists of a
60/40 wt% sulfuric/nitric acid mixture diluted with
18.2 M water to a final pH of 4.2 0.05.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Four reagents (BG01\02\03\013) had been applied

to investigate the mechanochemical stabilization
effects of real fly ash containing Pb, Cu, Zn.
Both the four kinds of reagents had the stabili-
zation ability to immobilize the heavy metal haz-
ardous materials. These reagents can change the
characteristic of hazardous waste into common
industry waste. The Pb extraction toxicity of origi-
nal fly ash had decreased from 20 mg/L to 2 mg/L,
and the Chinese identification standards for haz-
ardous waste-identification for Pb is 5 mg/L. So
the stabilization effect of Pb is above 90%.
Quartz possesses a very high modulus of elas-
ticity (70120 GPa); thus, a considerable amount
of energy is required to fracture a quartz parti-
cle. Much of this energy goes into breaking Si-O
bonds, which have a bond dissociation energy of
466 kJ/mol. According to the literature, ESR stud-
ies have shown the existence of E centers (Si) and
nonbridging oxygen hole center (NBOHC) radicals

Figure 1. Stabilization effects of four reagents by using

Ball milling (550 rpm, charge ratio 25:1).

Figure 2. Mechanism of mechanochemical reaction Figure 3. SEM images of the ground samples after 1 h
involving SiO2. and 8 h.

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 in quartz milled under vacuum or inert atmospheres.
When atmospheric oxygen is present, silicon peroxy
radicals, which are less reactive than E centers and
NBOHC radicals, are also known to form.
We find that the four reagents can not only reduce
the heavy metal extraction toxicity, but reduce the
dioxin TEQ. The total TEQ of original fly ash had
been reduced from 612 ng/kg to 110 ng/kg, the deg-
radation rate is 82.02%. Obviously, the mechano-
chemical method has two functional effects of heavy
metal stabilization and persistent organic pollutants.
Based on the Discrete Element Method (DEM),
the medium dynamics simulation model of mech-
anochemical reactor has been built. The particle
Figure 4. The dioxin TEQ change by different reagents.
Figure 5. The PFC3D simulation analysis of Ball
milling.
449
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 449
Figure 6. Mechanochemical stabilization schematic
flow sheet of the process for contaminated site.
flow computional 3D soft is selected as the
numerical analysis platform. And we found that
the drum-type ball mill with stirring up system
is the best form of mechanochemical reactor. Then
the real application system of soil remediation by
using mechanochemical reaction is designed and
its flowsheet of the process is shown in Figure 6.
So in order to demonstrate the mechanical treat-
ment of heavy metal contaminated soil and fly ash,
the stabilization reagents containing SiO2 had been
applied in mechanochemical reaction, and the
heavy metal stabilization process is acquired, this
research encourage the large scale application of
mechanic stabilization by using solid radicals.
This research is supported by the Cadmium pol-
lution control key technology research and dem-
onstration in xiangjiang river basin (2012FJ1010)
and BGRIMM research fund (YJ-2008-12).
REFERENCES
Mulas G., S. Loiselle, L. Schiffini, G. Cocco, 1997. The
mechanochemical self propagating reaction between
hexachlorobenzene and calcium hydride, J. Solid State
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Tuinstra F., J.L. Koenig, 1970. Raman spectrum of
graphite, J. Chem. Phys. 53 11261130.
Uglov V.V., A.K. Kuleshov, et al. 2002. Dementshenok,
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158159 699703.
Uglov V.V., A.K. Kuleshov, et al, 2006. Raman
lightscattering in hydrogenated metal-carbon
composite films, J. Appl. Spectrosc. 73, 388393.
Zhang Q., F. Saito, et al, 2001. Effects of
quartz addition on the mechanochemical dechlorina-
tion of chlorobiphenyl by using CaO, Environ. Sci.
Technol. 35 49334935.
Zhang W., J. Huang, et al, 2011. Mechanochemical
destruction of pentachloronitrobenzene with reactive
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This page intentionally left blank
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Environmental problems and the ecological restoration of polluted land

in ion-absorbed rare earth mine: A conceptual model

S.W. Liu, X.D. Liu & Y.Y. Huang

National Research Center for Geoanalysis, Beijing, China
Key Laboratory of Ecological Geochemistry, Ministry of Land and Resources, Beijing, China

X.J. Luo
Beijing Shuntian Lvse Bianpo Keji Ltd., Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The iron-absorbed rare earth deposit occurred in Jiangxi, Fujian Provence et al. in the
south of China and is a unique kind of rare earth ores in the world. The Longnan rare earth mining dis-
tricting in the south of Jiangxi Provence are the most representative iron-absorbed rare earth deposits of
China, where the rare earth minerals have been extracted by methods of leaching mining with the oxalate
or the ammonium sulfuricum since the 1970s. Environmental problems including the serious chemical
land pollution in mining areas and the severe soil and water loss, caused by rare earth mining are increas-
ingly acute. The absence of effective polluted land restoration technology makes the work of polluted land
restoration little progress. Combining the geochemical engineering and the flexible structure engineering
technologies for polluted lands restoration in rare earth mining areas is a new attempt. The Zudong rare
earth mining area is selected as study object for land restoration, where pH values in polluted soil will be
adjusted by clay minerals and contents of the ammonia nitrogen and the sulfate radical will be decreased.
All soil removed from other place adding restoration materials will be filled in ecological bags and assem-
bled on the exposed land of rare earth mine in way of the flexible structure engineering for plant restora-
tion. Combination of the geochemical engineering and the flexible structure engineering technologies is a
new attempt for rare earth polluted land ecological restoration.

1 INTRODUCTION
The ion-absorbed rare earth ore deposits, unique
type of rare earth deposit in the worldwide, are
distributed in Jiangxi, Guangdong Provence of
the South China (He & Wang 1989). Longnnan
rare earth mines in Jiangxi Provence are typical
ion-absorbed rare earth mine that had been mined
since 1970s. Leaching extracting methods using
oxalic acid and ammonia sulfate in forms of the
heap leaching and the in situ leaching are main
technologies for ion-absorbed rare earth min-
ing for these methods easily using and low eco-
nomic cost. However, the involving environmental
problems have been arisen by removal vegetation
and surface soil, and residual ammonia sulfate
are accumulated in mines during the process of
leaching mining (Liu 2013; Zhu et al. 2011; Cai
et al. 2013). Problems such as soil chemical pol-
lution and its potential ecological risks need to be
focused and solved by means of soil restoration.
Nevertheless complicated geological and envi-
ronmental situations and the costly restoration
limited the polluted soil restoration in rare earth
mining areas.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Regional setting
Longnan rare earth mines, typical ion-rare earth
mines in Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, South China,
are selected as study area for polluted soil inves-
tigation and research. Reserves of ion-absorbed
heavy rare earth of Longnan occupy 70% of all
worlds heavy rare earth reserves, and Longnan
County has been acclaimed as hometown of heavy
rare earth in China. Rare earth mines in Longnan
has been mined since 1970s and these mines were
forbidden mining at 2002 for resource exhaustion.
However, environmental problems remained by
historical rare earth mining has increasingly seri-
ous bad influence on environment and health of
residents around the mining area.
The study area located at the northeast of
Longnnan County, Jiangxi Provence, South of
China surrounding by rolling country (Fig. 1).
16 rare earth mines are distributed in this region
with a total area about 14 km2. The lithology is
dominated by early Yanshanian granites and the
granites weathering crust of in the ridge of moun-

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Figure 1. Location of study area and environmental
problems status of rare earth mining (athe sampling
location of profile XTP-12 and its environmental situa-
tion; bthe sampling location of profile XTP-11 and its
environmental situation).
tains with thickness about 1015 m where the rare
earth deposit occurred. Rare earth mining has led
to the vegetation and original thin soil layer have
been removed and wreathing crust was exposed and
formed bad land bare of any vegetation (Fig. 1a)
with hundreds of wells for injecting ammonia sul-
fate solution to leaching rare earth. Re-vegetating
of these rare earth mines is crucial in this region.
2.2 Sampling and analysis
In May 2013, Zudong, Fuheng and Guanxi, the
three rare earth mining area in Longnan have
been investigated (Fig. 1). The surface water and
groundwater in the mining area and its surround-
ing area are sampled. The surface water sample
included the pit water and the river water and the
stream water, and groundwater samples are mainly
collected from wells. 31 water samples composed
of 25 pieces of surface water, 6 pieces of ground-
water are sampled and the sampling locations are
shown in Figure 1.
Two profiles XTP-11 and XTP-12 were dug at
the top and the middle part of the mine, respec-
tively, for understanding Characteristics and
mechanism of soil pollution in rare earth mines.
Samples of the two profiles were collected at an
interval of 10 cm.
The test of REE and heavy metals in water
sample on the basis of DZ/T0223-2001 and the
test instruments is plasma mass spectrometer
(X-series), while the test of ion concentration and
pH is based on GB/T8538-2008. All the tests are
452
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 452
completed in National Research Center of Geo-
analysis, Beijing. The content of REE and heavy
metals of samples were analyzed by ICP-MS, and
the content of NH4+, SO42, NO3, NO2, and Cl in
soil samples were analyzed by ion chromatogra-
phy. 5 surface soil samples are collected as shown
in Figure 1.
2.3 Geochemical engineering technology
and flexible structure technology
Geochemical process is a kind of geological proc-
ess that reaction rates are slow in natural situation.
The slowly process is a mean of control contami-
nation itself. Geochemical engineering is a kind of
technology which can be used as environmental
control and management by applying geochemical
knowledge where man-made geochemical actions
or geochemical products made by geochemical
fundamental principles.
The non-metallic material, such as the zeolite,
the attapulgite clay, is widely available with mod-
erate price, which clays cannot cause secondary
pollution. This kind of materials is feasible to res-
toration projects of contaminative water, which
have characteristics of low price, effective, manag-
ing simply.
The flexible structures system is made by com-
pletely ecological materials green ecological soft
defense system. The core of this system is the
environmental materials that are resists chemical,
anti-ageing, which the lifespan is over ten or even
one hundred years. The basic operating principle
is the principles of stabilized soil mechanics that
have been accepted by worldwide and used over
25 years. Ways of achieved flexible structures are
by the functions of the non-woven geotextile such
as filter layer, permeable, vegetation growth and
high strength. The flexible structure originated
from Canada, and it started in 35 developed and
developing country in North American, South
American, Oceanica, Europe and Asia.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Environmental problems and requirements
3.1.1 Surface water acidification in mining area
and its neighborhood
The pH is an important index for indicating acid-
ity or alkalinity of water. The smaller the pH value
the more acid the water. And the harmful ele-
ments in the ore body are easily been activated,
dissolved (Chen et al. 2001) and carried to down-
stream, which causes the accumulation of heavy
metal. The low pH will also lead to a decrease and
a large number of deaths in plants, especially in
the agricultural production. The pH test results of
8/27/2014 6:02:26 PM
 31 water samples show that the pH distribution of
surface water is 3.569.78 while the groundwater is
6.337.93. The surface water samples with lower
pH (3.56pH5.8) is mainly come from the min-
ing area. The decrease of pH dues to the raise of
H+ in water which is caused by the large doses of
ammonium sulfate and ammonium bicarbonate in
the process of mining.
The REE content of six pieces of 31 water sam-
ples are all less than 1 gL1, the REE contents of
7 pieces of the rest 25 surface water samples are
extremely high anomaly, and the rest are slightly
higher than groundwater. The content of REE in
mining area water is more than 2600 times the nor-
mal surface water. The current test data also show
that REE in mining area has not entered the surface
water and groundwater outside the mining area yet.
In the process of mining, ore body is injected a
large number of ammonium sulfate which used
for the extraction of rare earth minerals. In ore
body, through ion exchange, the rare earth ions are
extracted. At the same time, in the condition of acid,
heavy metals in the rock will be activated, and then
flow into rivers or groundwater with the effluents
and cumulatively deposit, which causes a potential
ecological risk of heavy metal pollution. The REE
ore body in research area develops on granite which
belongs to the high Pb background granites of south-
ern China. The test results of water sample suggest
that Pb content in the mining area was significantly
higher than in the non-mining area, and far beyond
the content in the V class of China (100 gg1). The
Pb contents in the surface water and the surround-
ing groundwater outside of mining area are relatively
close. There is a positive correlation between Pb con-
tent and pH in water samples.
The distribution of sulfate ion in the surface
water of mining area and the concentration ranges
from 214 mgL1 to 1121 mgL1, which is 100500
times of non-mining area. The concentration of
sulfate ion in the mining area and the surrounding
groundwater ranges from 0.3 mgL1 to 0.8 mgL1.
The distribution features of ammonium ion and
sulfate ion in 31 water samples are similar. The
distribution of ammonium ions which ranges
from 33.7 mgL1 to 268 mgL1. The concentra-
tion of ammonium ions in water of mining area
is 3080 times of that in normal surface water.
The content of ammonium ions in mining area
and the surrounding groundwater are all less than
0.04 mgL1. The ammonia nitrogen that residues
in the ore body eventually forms nitrate under the
action of oxygen and microbial function (Yu & Li
1999). The nitrate ion can be leached easily in soil
and flows into the surface water along with the
ore solution. And therefore, the nitrate ion in the
water increases. The distribution of nitrate ion in
rare earth mining area, and its distribution range is
453
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 453
90468 mgL1, which overtops 1890 times of the
background values. Nitrite comes from the ammo-
nia nitrogen which is not completely oxidized in
water, and it has a strong biological toxicity which
has an important effect on regional hydrochemical
environment (Wang et al. 2005). The nitrite con-
tents are all below 1 mgL1, and have a uniform
distribution. So the mining activities do not lead to
the increase of nitrate in regional water.
The test results show that the mining activi-
ties haves great influence on the regional water
environment. These effects mainly reflected in
the following three aspects: (1) the mining activi-
ties cause the decrease of pH and the acidifica-
tion of regional surface water. The influence
mainly focuses on the surface water surrounding
the mine. (2) The enrichment of REE and heavy
metal Pb in regional surface water and, makes the
concentrations of REE and Pb far beyond the
background value, which has a huge potential
ecological risk. (3) The ions composite structure
is changed. Due to the large number of inefficient
use of ore leaching, the concentration of sulfate
ion, ammonium ions and nitrate ion in surface
water is far beyond the background value and
national standards. The change of water environ-
ment makes crops which located around the mine
area cant grow normally, or even affect the drink-
ing water of surrounding residents. The spatial
distribution of the impact that mining activities
on the regional water environment are that it has
severest impact on the mining area surface water,
then around the mining area, and the main riv-
ers and groundwater in the research area have not
been affected yet.
3.2 Key issues of land ecological restoration
in rare earth mine
3.2.1 Serious soil acidification in rare earth mine
and its surrounding areas
The experimental area, where granite weather-
ing crust was exposed with no vegetation and the
gullies arranged in a crisscross pattern created by
erosion effect, is leveled as 5 horizontal stages.
Present surface soil what we saw of every stage
were from the inner of the mine and mechani-
cally leveled out made it. Parameters measured
from the surface soil at every stage can represent
environmental situation of inner mine. Values
of pH, Eh and temperature of surface soil of
every leveled stage were measured. The pH values
ranges from 3.24 to 3.56 which represent serious
soil acidification compared with other pH values
(from 5 to 6) measured from soil around the mine.
It is suggested the whole mine is at high oxidation
environment by the Eh values range from 195.2
to 222 mV.
8/27/2014 6:02:28 PM
 To better understanding the vertical variation of
pH values in rare earth mine a 200 cm depth pro-
file XTP-12 is cleaned and dug based on an injec-
tion well of the mine, where pH, Eh, temperature
values were measured at an interval of 10 cm and
results. The vertical changes of pH values at profile
XTP-12 show that values at the top (<150 cm) is
higher than at the bottom (>150 cm) of the whole
profile XTP-12, and changes of Eh values in verti-
cal are conversely. Values measured from bottom
of the profile XTP-12 close to values from leveled
out experimental area.
Results of pH values measured from lev-
eled experimental area surface soil and profile
XTP-12 suggested that pH distributed in surface
soil to undersurface about 150 cm (we named it
layer A) ranged from 4.5 to 6 while pH distrib-
uted beneath underground 150 cm (we name it
layer B) ranged from 3 to 4. In general pH values
of exposed semi-weathering granite crust or soil,
layer A, are close to or lower than average soil pH
level in study area, but pH values of layer B are
far below the average pH level in mining area. The
serious soil acidification and inner of mine even
more.
3.2.2 Enrichment of NH4+-N, NO3-N,
and NO2-N in soil of mining areas
To appraise the extent of soil chemical pollution
and identify key issues of soil restoration the pro-
file XTP-11 is examined in details. At the same
time, original soil (XTS(r)-1), west of 20 m dis-
tanced the profile XTP-12 and the original weath-
ering crust profile XTP-11 north of 80 distanced
from the profile XTP-12 is sampled. Samples were
collected at an interval of 10 cm at the profile of
XTP-11. Results from both XTP-11 and XTS(r)-1
were set as the soil background values in the rare
earth mines.
1 g of sample was immersed with 25 ml pure
water, and then filtered the solution. The content
(mgL1) of NH4+, SO42, NO3, NO2, and Cl were 2004). Prolonged drinking water containing high
tested by clear solution with chromatography of
ions. Results (in form of mgL1) were converted
to the contents of ions in soil (mgkg1). In general
vertical varying contents of NH4+, SO42, NO3,
NO2 have similar trend that the top of XTP-12
have lower contents and the bottom of XTP-12
have higher contents and the depth where abrupt
changes of ions contents in profile XTP-12
occurred is between 60 cm and 80 cm. The con-
tent of Cl changes is smooth and the Cl con-
tent peaks occurred in the depth of 020 cm and
80100 cm.
The contents of the 5 ions in soil from profile
XTP-12 with the contents of original soil in min-
ing area XTS(r)-1 and the natural profile XTP-11 is
compared showing that the content of SO42 in pro-
454
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 454
file XTP-12 is 23 times of the natural background
values, the content of NH4+ in profile XTP-12 is
2024 times of the natural background values, the
content of NO3 in profile XTP-12 is 1824 times of
the natural background values, the content of NO2
in profile XTP-12 is 36 times of the natural back-
ground values. The content of Cl in profile XTP-12
is close to natural background values, but there are
abnormal values at the depth of 10 cm and 90 cm.
In soil ions of NH4+, NO3, NO2 are of char-
acteristics of leaching and infiltrating downward,
and especially the NO3, NO2 ion content changes
in the soil profile. XTP-11 as the natural back-
ground show NO3, NO2 enrichment in the bot-
tom of the profile, related with natural process of
soil in mining area. However, in the profile XTP-11
there is no trend of synchronous change of NH4+,
SO42, NO3, NO2, thus changes of this profile do
represent natural process of soil in mining area.
Changes trend of NH4+, NO3, NO2 content in
profile XTP-12 are similar and their contents are
far over the background values. Consequently, it
is believed that enrichment of NO3, NO2 at the
bottom of profile XTP-12 was caused by overusing
ammonia sulfate in mining process.
3.2.3 Key issues of polluted soil restoration
in rare earth mining area
Contents of NH4+, NO3, NO2, sourced from
leaching agents in mining such as ammonia sulfate
are far beyond the environmental quality stand-
ards for surface water (GB 3838-2002) or back-
ground values in soil from the profile XTP-12,
are the key issues of polluted soil in mining area
restoration. NH4+-N, NO3-N, NO2-N entered in
surface water and underground water would have
serious environmental effects, furthermore, they
would get into human body and detrimental to
health in the ways of water, agriculture products
and other foods. Hazards of NO3-N pollution to
health are next to the pesticide (Qiao & Zhang
NO3-N content would lead to serious disease and
even to die. Moreover, NO3-N and NO2-N are
the precursor of N-nitroso Compounds (NOCs)
that can cause the cancer (Deng 2000), the hyper-
tension (Gao et al. 2003), the deformity and the
mutation (Liu et al. 2009). Additionally, NH4+-N,
NO3-N, NO2-N is widely harmful to animals
and plants (Zhu 1995; Xu et al. 2005). Longn-
nan rare earth mines are located at the South
China, with abundant precipitation and warm,
and humid where exposed granitic crust or base
rocks are easily suffering strong modern chemical
weathering erosion. When the surface of the mine
body is eroded the residual NH4+-N, NO3-N,
NO2-N in rare earth mines would migrate to
downstream rivers containing in the weathering
8/27/2014 6:02:28 PM
 clay in ion form by rain water or streams. Greater
hazards are NH4+-N, NO3-N, NO2-N enriched
in the inner and deep part of rare earth mines,
which enriched NH4+-N, NO3-N, NO2-N like
dozen of chemical time bombs and factors such
as heavy rains, landslide could detonate them.
Once the chemical time bombs are detonated,
NH4+-N, NO3-N, NO2-N enriched in mines will
enter downstream rivers in several or decuple
magnitude, which will have effects on irrigation,
drinking water and even human health. Because
the same leaching extracting mining technologies
were adopted in other mines in Longnan mining
area yet, environmental problems as the study
area exist. Longnan country with a population
of 110000, distances from mining area only 4 to
5 km. Streams through rare earth mines mingle
in the Wojiang River through the whole country,
so potential ecological risks exists. Consequently,
NH4+-N, NO3-N, NO2-N pollution in soil caused
by mining in rare earth mining area is urgent need
to resolve, and polluted soil needs to be tentative
restoration in spite of great challenges.
3.2.4 Limiting factors of polluted soil restoration
and requirements
Ecologically retorting polluted soil and re-vegetat-
ing the stopped mines is a difficult and challenged
work, and main limiting factors are: (1) it is very
difficult to plant trees or grass on bare semi-weath-
ering granite with exposed bedrock, bad chemical
weathering and soil erosion. (2) Serious chemical
pollution characterized as serious soil acidification,
content of NH4+-N, NO3-N, NO2-N beyond the
standard or background values. Previous restoring
works suggested that acid plants such as eucalyptus
were difficult to survive. (3) Restoring polluted soil
with the allochthonous soil is cost with bad effects.
There are more problems in restoring polluted soil
with foreign earth, and the most obvious problem is
that plants grow in the foreign earth going to die.
3.3 Geochemical engineering technology
Results obtained from sample analysis collected
from study area suggests that over using ammo-
nia sulfate in the process of REE extraction dam-
age local ecological environment and NH4+-N,
NO3-N are main contaminants. Recently, reports
about removed NH4+-N in water are frequently to
be saw and removed NH4+-N in soil are few to be
saw.
The zeolite is a good mineral for removing
NH4+-N. Natural zeolite has larger specific surface
area that made it has strong adsorptivity. Com-
pared with other inorganic adsorbents the zeolite
has better adsorptive and depurative effects. If we
set the decontamination factor as the standard: the
455
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 455
kaolin is 4.56.2, the vermiculite is 3.34.3, the
pyrolusite is 8.2, the zeolite is 6268. The zeolite is
at low price, non-toxic, and reproducible. In China
the zeolite resources is rich with low price, which is
high potential for soil restoration.
Other restoration materials such as the attapulg-
ite clay, the kaolin has the adsorptive ability for deal-
ing with pH values and heavy metals. In this study
we selected the zeolite, the attapulgite clay and the
kaolin as restorative materials for small scale plants
experiments. In the experiment plants such as the
slash pine, the cedar, the oiltea camellia, photinia
glabra, and the cherry bay are selected as objects for
plant experiment. Results show that group of the
zeolite and the attapulgite clay are significant to rise
the pH values and removed the NH4+-N in soil.
3.4 Flexible structure technology
The excvavtor was used for leveling steep study
area and decreased the slop of restored area and
formed regular flat terraced fields. In the study
area 46 stages were made from the bottom to the
top of the rare mine. The area of every terraced
field are about 15 m 5 m. Before the study was
leveled Ph values and Eh values were measured in
detailed. In leveled terraced field 12 soil profiles
were dug and samples were collected for measuring
the pH values and contents of harmful elements.
Ecological external member of Xinsanjiao
(GTX-A125) were used for the slope reinforcement
for controlling soil erosion in study area. Grass
and shrub seeds were spray sowed on the ecologi-
cal bags. Improved soil filled in ecological bags are
took from local polluted soil adjusted related index
according experiment.
4 CONCLUSION
The extraction of ion-absorbed REE has impacted
on environment of the water and the soil in mining
area and its area nearby in different degree. The sur-
face water and surface soil acidification are the most
common representation. To the soil in mining area
the deep soil serious enriched NH4+ and NO3, which
contents of NH4+ and NO3 are 10 to 20 times of the
content of background values. The combination of
geochemical engineering technology and flexible
structure is a new attempt to restore polluted soil in
ion-absorbed REE mines, and it is a relative feasible
control pattern based on recent experiment data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by Geological Survey
Project of China (No. 121201130027).
8/27/2014 6:02:28 PM
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Pd-Cu bimetallic catalyst for the reduction of nitrate in
drinking water. Appl Catal B: Environ 46(2):341351.
He, L. Wang, S. 1989. The South Chinas ion-absorbed
rare earth mines. Rare Earth (1):3944.
Liu, F. 2013. Eco-environment status and its comprehen-
sive of Longnan ionic rare-earth mine. Metal Mine
(5):135138.
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acid, bicarbonate and calcium on Cr (VI) reduc-
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Qiao, G. Zhang, J. Tang, J. 2004. Mechanism of nitrogen
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hlnuence on cancer from nitrite and the trace elements
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Yu, S. Li, Z. 1999. Biological Nitriflatlon-denltrlfication
and Nitrogen Loss in Rice Field Ecosystem. Chinese
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8/27/2014 6:02:28 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Application of POPs-contaminated soil in the cement industry

with high pollutant destruction efficiency

Y.Q. Li, H.Z. Wang, J. Zhang & W.J. Miao

Huaxin Environment Engineering Co., Ltd., Wuhan, P.R. China

ABSTRACT: China faces enormous and urgent remediation tasks of contaminated soil as a result
of industrial enterprises relocation, pesticide application, mining exploitation and hazardous industry
waste landfills. Because China is in the early stage of brownfield remediation, many technologies, such
as bioremediation, solvent and vapor extraction, are in the pilot scale process. All of them have a com-
mon disadvantage that they cannot meet the needs of the large field-scale remediation work in a short
time. Therefore, co-processing by cement kilns is considered to be a competent alternative method within
an integrated management method. In this paper, a real-scale co-processing project has been done with
approximately 400,000 t of DDTs/HCHs-contaminated soil. The results demonstrated that the product
was of high quality. Stack emissions complied with the Chinese standards. Particularly, PCDD/F emis-
sions were far below 0.1 ng TEQ Nm3. The Destruction and Removal Efficiency (DRE) and the Destruc-
tion Efficiency (DE) were better than 99.9999% and 99.99%, respectively.

1 INTRODUCTION incineration plant. Modern incineration plants

In recent years, remediation of contaminated
soil has become an urgent task related to human
health and safety in China. On April 17th, 2014,
the two ministries of China, Ministry of Environ-
mental Protection (MEP) and Ministry of Land
and Resources (MLR) announced the report on
national general survey on soil contamination. The
involved survey area is around 6,300,000 km2. Up
to 16.1% of the total survey sites fail to attain soil
environment quality standards.
Commonly employed technologies for treating
POPs-contaminated soil include solvent and vapor
extraction, bioremediation and chemical oxida-
tion. The extraction process has broad applicabil-
ity but needs post-treatment of extraction fluids.
The extraction efficiency depends on type of soil,
and the residual pollution may sometimes exist.
Bioremediation requires no secondary treatment.
However, the duration of bioremediation is long
and the obtainable removal efficiency tends to be
low. The chemical oxidation is a fast destructive
remediation technique, but the dosage of oxidants
is huge in field-scale remedies. The degradation of
POPs may be significantly affected by the distribu-
tion of oxidants in soil (Yap et al. 2010).
Because China is in the early stage on the field
of site remediation, many technologies, especially
the in situ remedies are in the pilot scale process.
In most of the recent cases, contaminated soil
was excavated to landfills or burned in a special
and secure landfills are general disposal options
in China, but have high investment and operat-
ing costs. Sanitary land filling normally occupies
a significant amount of land resources, which is
not accordant with the national circumstances of
China. Incinerators produce large quantities of
unwanted combustion residuals which require final
disposal to landfill. Moreover, the incinerated soil
may need a secondary treatment such as stabiliza-
tion before backfilling (Stephane & Shen 2013).
Therefore, co-processing contaminated soil in
cement kilns is regarded as the promising substi-
tute for the existing technologies due to its remark-
able economic and environmental merits. The
co-processing technology is very attractive to some
projects which need to remedy a large scale of
severely polluted soil in a limited time. Especially
the soil was polluted by Persistent Organic Pollut-
ants (POPs), the co-processing method even can
achieve a destruction and removal efficiency higher
than 99.9999%. The Basel Convention (2007) tech-
nical guidelines consider some technologies to be
suitable for environmentally sound destruction
of POPs. The most common methods among
these are hazardous waste incinerator and cement
kiln, which can offer a larger disposal capacity
(Karstensen et al. 2006). The remaining technolo-
gies have comparatively low capacities, and are
technically sophisticated and currently cannot be
afforded by many developing countries (UNEP
2004). The cement kiln is a thermal treatment

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 457 8/27/2014 6:02:29 PM

 procedure that has attracted much attention owing
to its inherent features such as high temperatures,
long residence time and surplus oxygen as well
as the elimination of slag, ash or liquid residue
byproducts (Chadbourne 1997; Reijnders 2007;
Karstensen 2008; Kookos et al. 2011). Several arti-
cles have demonstrated that this process can avoid
the formation of PCDD/PCDFs (Karstensen et al.,
2006, 2008, 2010; Khumsaeng et al. 2013).
2 METHOD
2.1 Properties of cement kiln
The general process by which cement is manu-
factured today entails quarrying and crushing or
grinding the raw materials (commonly limestone
[CaCO3], chalk, and clay), which are then com-
bined and passed through a kiln in the form of a
dry powder. The average raw material temperature
in the kiln goes up to 1450C. The heat fuses the
raw materials into small pellets known as clinker.
The cooled clinker is combined with gypsum and
ground into the fine powder known as Portland
cement (Hasanbeigi et al. 2012).
The maximum temperature of materials in
cement kiln can be up to 1450C, and they will stay
in the kiln for about 30 min. The gas temperature
can be even higher than 1750C, and the residence
time of gas is more than 10 seconds in high tem-
perature zone of no less than 1300C inside of the
kiln. The strong turbulence in the kiln system with
high temperature, long residence time can com-
pletely destroy the organics in contaminated soil.
Additionally, the heat from the decomposition
of the organic pollutants can be reused into the
clinker sintering.
In the point of cement manufacturing, CaO and
SiO2 are the main components, while Fe2O3 and
Al2O3 are classified as the auxiliary materials. All
of them are indispensable for the cement produc-
tion. As shown in Figure 1, beside those pollutants
the main components of contaminated soil are
SiO2 and Al2O3 ranging from 55% to 75% and 10%
to 20%, respectively. Apparently, the main compo-
nents of CS are similar to the raw materials needed
by cement manufacturing. Thus, contaminated
soil can be co-processed as the alternative material
from the standpoint of the material composition.
The alkaline atmosphere of the cement kiln
system can neutralizes the acidic gas, such as SO2,
HCl, and then reduce their emission. The condi-
tioning tower or waste heat recovering system can
rapidly cool down the temperature of exhaust gas
from 300400C down to 250C. All the ash or The feeding facility and the operating conditions
dust from the kiln system is collected by the bag
filter and sent back to the raw meal silo as the
raw meal for clinker sintering. Therefore, no fly or
458
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 458
Figure 1. The composition diagram of raw materials in
cement production.
bottom ash need to be specially treated. The above
properties manifest that the normal emissions of
cement kiln system will not be impacted by the
co-processing of CS. Moreover, the special char-
acteristics such as the combustion atmosphere, the
temperature gradient and the strong turbulence
between solid and gas, can effectively decompose
PCDD/F and restrain the reformulation of dioxin-
like substances.
When a cement kiln is employed to co-process
the contaminated soil, the modification of facili-
ties involved in the pre-processing, feeding, and
filtering system has to be done to meet the oper-
ating and environmental requirements. However,
the modification on the existing facilities is more
cost-effective than the investment to a new and
purpose-built incinerator.
2.2 CS feeding system
The existing cement process does not design for
the CS treatment. Even though the POPs CS has
been properly pre-processed, the co-processing of
contaminated soil, as an added function, still need
to be realized by a proper feeding system, which
critically impacts the destruction and emission of
pollutants.
Based on the characteristics of cement kiln, the
feeding points of CS can be any of the followings,
the main burner at the kiln outlet, the raw mill,
the riser duct of the precalciner, or the second-
ary firing system (i.e. the precalciner and the kiln
inlet) (Karstensen 2008). The criterion of choos-
ing the feeding points is mainly determined by the
properties of the soil and the adsorbed pollutants.
around the feeding site should also be considered.
The waste with high calorific value, low water
content and good fluidity can be fed into the kiln
8/27/2014 6:02:29 PM
 through the main burner. But if it contains high
ash, the waste should be sprayed to the transition
zone of the kiln. Because of the high ash content,
the low heat value and the poor fluidity of CS, the
main burner is not the appropriate feeding point.
The raw mill and the riser duct as the feeding
points could ensure the homogeneity of the raw
meal and the CS. But the temperatures of the two
sites are 100 C and 500C individually, which are
too low to decompose the pollutant adsorbed in
the soil. Even worse, the temperatures of the above
feeding points may increase the vaporization of
some volatile or semi-volatile organic substances
in the CS. According to the direction of gas flow
in the kiln system, the volatized contaminants will
flow towards the main stack and then release to
the air. Therefore, the two sites can only be used
for feeding the soil contaminated with nonvolatile
inorganics.
The secondary firing system mainly includes
the bottom of the precalciner and the kiln inlet,
where the temperatures are higher than 1000 C,
residence time is longer than 15 s for hot gas and
40 s for materials. These conditions in the sites
are sufficient for the destruction of all organics.
Meanwhile, the strong turbulence in this system
can perfectly mix the soil with the raw materials,
which can guarantee the quality of the product.
The soil contaminated with POPs, organic chlo-
rides, refractory organics, etc. can be fed into this
system as alternative raw materials.
2.3 The co-processing technology in our plant
After reception, CS is firstly crushed to a size less
than 100 mm and stored in a pre-homogenization
hall. Second, the crushed soil is dosed and fed into
a facility named CS pre-processor (CSP), where
the soil is ground to be sifted through a 200 m
sieve and dried using hot air. The hot air in the
CSP could partially vaporize the contaminants and
send them directly into the precalciner (>1000 C)
for complete destruction. After pretreatment, the
fine soil is sealed and mixed in a CS silo and then
fed into the bottom of the precalciner. Finally,
this soil is co-processed as an alternative raw
material in the cement kiln to destroy pollutants
and recover valuable components during clinker
sintering. The whole treatment system is under
negative pressure and well sealed, which completely
prevents the POPs from escaping to the external
environment.
3 CASES COMPARISON
In 2005, the co-processing technology has been
used to dispose the contaminated soil that was
459
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 459
found in Beijing (Cai & Yan 2009). The contractor
of the project mixed the soil with water, and then
fed the slurry into the raw mill. They concluded
that the strength of the clinker was not affected by
the soil co-processing. The emissions and the DRE
of the contaminants can meet the requirements of
the Chinese standards. Nevertheless, the feeding
rate of the slurry has not been reported, the meas-
urement data were also unknown.
Li et al. (2009) have performed an engineering
test regarding soil co-processing in a cement plant.
The soil was contaminated by Dichlorodiphenyl
Trichloroethane (DDT) and benzene Hexachloride
(HCH). The results showed that the DE of DDT
was greater than 99.99991% while that of HCH
was greater than 99.99964%. Both of them were
higher than the regulated DE value (99.99%) of
hazardous waste incinerator in China. The emis-
sions such as PCDD/F, PCB, HCB, VOC, acid gas
and heavy metals were not increased when the soil
was incinerated. All results were well below the
emission limit values. However, the soil was also
mixed with water in a pit, and then pumped to
the outlet of the rotary kiln. The dosage of water
should neither affect the temperature of kiln outlet
nor block the pump pipe. It is reported that the
feeding rate of slurry was 4.075 t/h on average in
the state of smooth and stable process. Given the
water content of the slurry, 37.48%, the net feed-
ing rate of soil was 1.53 t/h. The pre-processing
manner that soil is mixed with water actually lim-
its the co-processing rate of cement kiln. It is hard
to be applied in the large and urgent remediation
project.
The pre-procedure designed by our group aims
to grind and dry the soil, at the same time, utilize
the heat from the kiln to vaporize some volatile and
semi-volatile components in the soil. The vaporized
pollutants are immediately sent to the kiln. The
designed capacity of CSP is 60 t/h, so the maxi-
mum pre-processing rate is 60 t/h. Normally, the
pre-processing rate stays at 35 t/h in the steady
status. After pre-processing, the fineness and the
moisture of the soil can meet the requirements
of the alternative raw materials. It is sent to the
bottom of the precalciner by air, where the soil is
mixed with normal raw meal, and then transferred
to the kiln to take part in the clinker sintering. In
the steady operating state, the co-processing rate
of soil is 22 t/h. Approximately 50% of SiO2 mate-
rial is saved for a cement plant with the output of
5500 t/d clinker due to the utilization of contami-
nated soil.
The data in Tables 1 and 2 manifest that the
quality of product was not negatively affected by
the co-processing of contaminated soil. All the
properties can fulfill the requirements of Chinese
standards.
8/27/2014 6:02:29 PM
 Table 1. The components of clinker when CS was co-processed.

SiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) Fe2O3 (%) CaO (%) MgO (%) SO3 (%) f-CaO (%)

21.06 5.20 3.42 65.06 2.66 0.82 1.17

21.08 5.10 3.30 65.06 2.42 0.74 1.29
21.06 5.20 3.35 65.15 2.76 0.73 1.45
21.30 4.83 3.54 65.15 2.60 0.78 1.23
21.44 5.01 3.33 65.10 2.51 0.78 0.90
21.56 4.77 3.33 64.93 2.66 0.77 1.01
21.60 4.88 3.30 64.89 2.18 0.72 1.24
21.50 4.65 3.33 64.73 2.24 0.78 1.18
21.76 4.59 3.33 64.89 2.42 0.72 1.13
21.40 4.43 3.47 64.89 2.78 0.72 1.13

Table 2. The physical properties of clinker when CS was co-processed.

Setting Breaking Compression

Fineness (%) time (min) strength (Mpa) strength (Mpa)

R80 m Soundness 1 2 7d 28d 7d 28d

1.6 Good 131 190 7.7 8.8 44.1 57.2

2.0 Good 135 294 7.6 9.1 44.5 57.6
1.7 Good 125 189 7.2 8.8 42.4 56.8
2.0 Good 135 202 7.9 9.2 47.0 57.8
1.4 Good 120 185 7.5 8.9 42.8 57.7
1.9 Good 129 195 7.8 9.1 43.7 58.4
1.6 Good 137 198 7.4 9.3 41.9 57.9
1.9 Good 149 212 7.1 9.1 42.0 57.4
1.7 Good 138 199 7.7 9.3 43.4 58.8
1.6 Good 142 204 7.4 9.3 45.3 58.4

Because the soil was contaminated by DDT and Table 3. The concentration of PCDD/Fs in the stack
HCH, their residues in clinker and exhaust gas were gas.
identified. The results show that no DDT/HCH can
be detected in the clinker nor in the emission. PCDD/Fs (ng TEQ Nm3)
Average
The measurements of dioxins were performed 1# 2# 3# (ng TEQ Nm3) SD
six times in the stack. The results are shown in
Table 3. The emissions of dioxins were well below 0.0085 0.0027 0.0025 0.0046 0.0034
the international acceptable emission level (i.e. 0.0035 0.0024 0.0023 0.0027 0.0007
0.1 ng TEQ Nm3).
Other emissions, such as particles, SO2, NOx, HF
was conducted according to standards GB4915-
2004 and GB18484-2001. All the items are also kilns has higher disposal rate (22 t/h) and destruc-
well below the emission limit values regulated by tion and removal efficiency (>99.9999%) in the
these standards. industrial practice. For the solvent extraction
The samples involved in the DE/DRE measure- method, the optimized extraction efficiency of
ment are CS fed into kiln, DDTs/HCHs vapor sent conventional co-solvent is 95% (Silva et al. 2005).
into kiln, clinker, bag filter dust and main stack The efficiency may decrease when the clay loam
emissions. Because no residues of DDT and HCH is washed. In addition, the separation of solute
were detected in the product nor in the emission is very difficult, the residual pollution may thus
gas, the DRE and DE were higher than 99.9999% happen. Thermal desorption needs special equip-
and 99.99%, respectively. ment to prevent formation of dioxins and furans,
Comparing with other remediation technolo- while the cement kilns possess inherent features to
gies, treating POPs-contaminated soil with cement avoid these emissions, such as long residence time,

460

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 460 8/27/2014 6:02:30 PM

 high temperatures, rapid cooling procedure and
intensive gas cleaning by the raw meal (Karstensen
2008). Besides, the presence of water reduces the
desorption effectiveness, and a high clay content
hinders the process. Bioremediation often takes
time and not cost-effective on treating large vol-
umes of polluted materials (Lai et al. 2009). Due
to the toxicity of POPs, the removal efficiency of
bioremediation tends to be low (Yap et al. 2010).
Chemical oxidation is a fast destructive remedia-
tion technique, but the dosage of oxidants is huge
in large-scale remedies, which may induce other
environmental risks. The efficiency of chemical
oxidations decreases when applied to aged soil
(Lundstedt et al. 2006).
4 CONCLUSION
Recently, the co-processing technology using
cement kilns has been widely employed to dispose
the severely contaminated soil. After the modifica-
tion on the existing facilities, the disposal rate has
been significantly increased to 22 t/h. On the other
hand, the whole process smartly avoids the prepara-
tion of slurry which will enhance the consumption
of energy of the kiln system. The test burn results
demonstrated that the clinker was not adversely
affected by CS co-processing. Stack emissions
were all below the limits set by Chinese standards.
Particularly, PCDD/F emissions were far below
0.1 ng TEQ Nm3. The DRE and DE were better
than 99.9999% and 99.99%, respectively.
REFERENCES
Basel Convention, 2007. Updated general technical
guidelines for the environmentally sound management
of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated
with persistent organic pollutants (POPs). http://www.
basel.int/meetings/sbc/workdoc/techdocs.html.
Cai, M.L., Yan, D.H. 2009. Co-processing of pesticides
contaminated soil with cement kiln (in Chinese). China
Environment News, pp. A4. Retrieved from http://www.
cenews.com.cn/hjzt/cjsts/200912/t20091222_629064.
html.
Chadbourne, J.F. 1997. Cement kilns. In: Freeman, H.M.
(ed.), Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment
and Disposal. McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-022044-1.
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Hasanbeigi, A., Lu, H.Y. Williams, C., Price, L. (eds)
2012. International Best Practices for Pre-Processing
and Co-Processing Municipal Solid Waste and Sewage
Sludge in the Cement Industry. Beijing: Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory.
Karstensen, K.H. 2008. Formation, release and control
of dioxins in cement kilns. Chemosphere 70: 543560.
Karstensen, K.H., Kinh, N.K., Thang, L.B., Viet, P.H.,
Tuan, N.D., Toi, D.T., Hung, N.H., Quan, T.M.,
Hanh, L.D., Thang, D.H. 2006. Environmentally
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ing countries using cement kilns. Environ. Sci. Policy
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Karstensen, K.H., Mubarak, A.M., Gunadasa, H.N.,
Wijagunasekara, B., Ratnayake, N., Alwis, A.D.,
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Khumsaeng, T., Kim Oanh, N.T., Karstensen, H.K.,
Polprasert, C. 2013. Emission of dioxins/furans and
other U-POPs from test burns of non-POP pesticides
in a hazardous waste incinerator. Waste Manage. 33:
833841.
Kookos, I.K., Pontikes, Y., Angelopoulos, G.N.,
Lyberatos, G. 2011. Classical and alternative fuel mix
optimization in cement production using mathemati-
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Biosurfactant-enhanced removal of total petroleum
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891896.
Lundstedt, S., Persson, Y., Oberg, L. 2006. Transformation
of PAHs during ethanol-Fenton treatment of an aged
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

A brief review of the heavy metal pollution repair technology

for mine soil

Q. Li
Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: At present the heavy metal pollution soil repair technology mainly includes physical
methods, chemical methods and biological methods. The physical methods mainly includes soil replace-
ment, soil separation, soil isolation and thermodynamics method. The chemical methods mainly includes
chemical fix, soil wash and electrical repair. The biological methods mainly includes plant stable, plant
volatile, plant extract, microbial repair and soil animal repair. This paper briefly introduced the principle,
advantages and disadvantages, and applicability of each soil repair method.

1 INTRODUCTION method of replace soil has a good repair effect of

Mineral resources are the foundation of human life,
it palys an important role in the national economic,
at the same time, it has pollution the environment
around the mine, also pollution the soil around.
The Pb-Zn mine and the multi-metal sulfide mine,
because the mining and mineral separation waste-
water direct discharge, solid wastes stacking and
leaching, make the mining area of soil polluted by
heavy metals (Liu, 2006).
Soil is one of the most basic material foundations
to the survival of humans, and finally the end-result
of all kinds of pollutants, 90% of the pollutants end
up in soil. Because the heavy metal pollutants in
soil mobility is poor, long residence time, cannot
be microbial degradation, and can affect human
health through the water, plants and other media,
so the heavy metal pollution repair technology of
mine soil is necessary.
2 PHYSICAL METHODS
the heavy metal pollution soil. Its advantage arma-
ture and good effect, disadvantages are high invest-
ment and loss of soil fertility (Qi, et al. 2012).
2.2 Soil separation method
Soil separation method refers to the particle size
separation (screening), hydraulic separation, den-
sity separation, dehydration separation, froth
flotation separation and magnetic separation
technologies. It is most suitable for repair the small
scale of the heavy metal pollution soil. Separa-
tion the heavy metals from soil can clean soil, and
restore the soil function (Luo, 2010).
The soil separation methods has advantages of
simple equipment, low cost, sustainable produc-
tion, but in the separation process must consider the
influence of various factors. For example physical
separation methods need pollutants has high con-
centrations and has different physical characters,
when screening dry pollutants will produce dust.

2.1 Soil replacement 2.3 Isolation method

Soil replacement mainly divided into up-down
replace soil and replace outside soil. When the soil
lightly pollution could use the up-down replace soil
method, it just replace the lightly pollution soil form
the deeper clean soil, but for the heavy pollution
soil the method of replace outside soil is used. The
Fund project: National and international scientific and
technological cooperation in special projects Research
on key technology cooperation for comprehensive
improvement to acidic pollution in metallic mine dump
(2012DFA90500).
Soil isolation method refers to isolation the heavy
metal pollution area with isolation material, the
isolation include the horizontal and vertical.
Isolation method is mainly used in seriously heavy
metal pollution, and the hard-repair pollution soil.
This heavy metal could translate by groundwater,
the following problem is the pollution of ground-
water and surface water (Zhu et al. 2012).
2.4 Thermodynamics method
Thermodynamics method involves the use of heat
conduction or radiation to repair the soil, includ-

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 ing high temperature (about l000C) in situ heating
technology, low temperature (100C) in situ
heating technology and in-situ electromagnetic
heating technology. These methods are mainly for
the mercury (Guo & Jiang, 2010).
3 CHEMICAL METHODS
3.1 Chemical fix
The heavy metals major pollute the soil by its
mobility, move faster, pollution heavier. The form
of heavy metals determines its mobility. Soils
physical and chemical properties, such as organic
matter content, pH and Eh, can affect the form
of heavy metals. Through these parameters can
adjusted the mobility of heavy metals in soil.
The purpose of chemical fix is use the fixed
agent to change the soil physical and chemical
properties, use the soil adsorption or deposition of
heavy metals to reduce its mobility.
When the heavy metals being fixed, the mobility
reduced, leads to the reduction of deep soil and
groundwater pollution, and also restore of vegeta-
tion on the soil (Su 2008, Liu 2008).
The common fixed agents are lime, apatite,
zeolite, and steel slag (Chen 2010, Liu 2010).
The fixed agents has different fixed mechanism,
such as the lime fixed the heavy metal by the pre-
cipitation and the hydrolysis reaction of heavy
metals itself (Hu 2009). Zeolite could reduce the
mobility of heavy metals by ion exchange and
adsorption.
3.2 Soil wash
Soil wash first scattered the soil, then mix with the
extraction agent. Then the heavy metal transfer in
the extraction agent, then use the water washing
the soil to remove the extraction agent, this water
called soil eluent. Soil wash use the two heavy
metal reactions, the adsorption and precipitation,
to transfer the heavy metals in the soil eluent. The
soil eluent can recycle the heavy metal and the
extraction agent (Huang 2010).
The key technology of soil wash is the extrac-
tion agent, it must cant destroy soil structure
while could extracting the heavy metal. The
extraction agent mainly include: nitric acid,
hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, EDTA,
DTPA and so on.
Electrical repair is inserted the electrode into
the pollution soil with a low direct current,
under the action of electric field the heavy metal
transfer to the electrode, so the heavy metal in
soil reduced, it also can collect the heavy metal
464
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 464
(Lao 2011). Electrical repair developed rapidly in
recent year, and in some European and American
countries have been commercialized. The electri-
cal repair can control the flow direction of the
pollutants, it particularly suitable for low perme-
ability of clay and silt soil. The cost of electrical
repair can be afford.
4 BIOLOGICAL METHODS
4.1 Plant stable
In the plant stable plants have two main func-
tion. First it can reduce the soil and water loss.
The heavy metal pollution soil mostly dont
has the vegetation, it would intensify soil and
water loss, and the soil and water loss intensify
the pollution. Reduce the soil and water loss is
grow plants on the pollution soil. Second it can
fix the heavy metal. Plants can precipitation and
absorption of heavy metal by the root. Plants can
also change the pH and Eh value around the root
environment and change the form of heavy met-
als (Long 2002).
The Plant stable is mainly used to the heavy
metal pollution soil with heavy soil and high
organic matter of soil. At present was mainly used
in the mining area. The Plant stable did not remove
the heavy metal, only temporarily fix the heavy
metal, its not completely solve the heavy metal
problem. While the plants conditions changed,
the heavy metal may damage the soil again. The
plants for plant stable, first need able to toler-
ate high concentrations of heavy metals in the
soil, and then can fix the heavy metals.
Plant stable is rapid development. Future
research direction is how to promote the growth of
plant roots, and fix more heavy metals in the root.
4.2 Plant volatile
Plant volatile mainly for mercury, the mechanism
of plant volatile is use absorption, accumulation
and volatilization, three gradual processes. The vol-
atile pollutants in the soil can be absorbed into the
plant sand transformed into gaseous substances,
then released in the air (Wang 2010). Mercury
has variety of state, in which the methyl mercury
most harmful to the environment and most easily
absorbed by plants. Now some mercury resistant
bacteria can transfer the methyl mercury and the
mercury ion to the elemental mercury, it has low
toxicity and can be volatile. The development trend
of plant volatile is use molecular biology tech-
niques to transduction the bacteria in plants, then
use this plants to repair the mercury contaminated
8/27/2014 6:02:30 PM
 soil, so the various forms of mercury can directly
volatile to the air. Its advantages are dont need
to deal with containing plant, and can use as the
long-term treatment facilities operation. Disad-
vantage is that the heavy metal mercury will trans-
fer to the air, there are potential risks to humans
and creatures (Wang 2007).
4.3 Plant extract
Plant extract use the heavy metal hyper accu-
mulation plant extract the heavy metal from the
soil, and the plants storage the heavy metal in the
ground part, then collect the ground part to reduce
the pollution. Continuous the process, it could
substantial reduce the heavy metal in the soil. The
current plant extract has continuous plant extract
and chelating agent auxiliary plant extract.
4.3.1 Continuous plant extract
Continuous plant extract rely on the effect of
absorb and accumulation the heavy metals of
the heavy metal hyper accumulation plants. But
the most of the heavy metal hyper accumulation
plant are growth slowly, and small biomass, it is
difficult to achieve scale planting, so some schol-
ars think that using small hyper accumulation
plant is not suitable for large area pollution soil
(Liu et al. 2008). So the development direction of
continuous plant extract first is find new species
of hyper accumulation plants for it can realize the
fast growth, high concentration, and is suitable for
large-scale. Second use the artificial cultivation to
find the plants. Third is study the mechanism of
heavy metal hyper accumulation plants, find the
way to applying soil conditioner and adjustment
the harvest time, to increase the accumulation
effect of plants.
4.3.2 Chelating agent auxiliary plant extract
The heavy metals in soil limits the effect of plant
extract. Some big biomass plants such as corn, peas
in solution culture, the up ground parts of plants
can be a substantial accumulation of Pb, but when
grown in contaminated soils, the up ground parts
of plants rarely more than 1000 mg kg1 (Bai &
Cheng 2011).
Through the research, people find applying
the chelating agent can increase the accumulation
capacity of up ground parts of plant, for example,
add in the contaminated soil 0.2 g kg1 HEDTA,
the Pb accumulation in the up ground part of corn
and peas increased 500 mg kg1 to 10000 mg kg1,
increased 20 times.
The chelating agent first increase the content
of heavy metals in soil solution, then promoting
the heavy metal transport in plants. The affinity
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 465
of chelating agent with heavy metal is the most
relevant factors that can promote the plant metal
accumulation efficiency (Yang et al. 2006). The
chelating agent has some disadvantage, as chelating
agent are water-soluble, it can make the secondary
migration of heavy metals pollution, bring new
environmental pollution problems, the chelating
agent wound reduce the biomass of the plant, even
make the plant to death, but if reasonable use the
chelating agent, can greatly reduce the occurrence
of the above situation. The best chelating agent
use time is the maximum plant biomass, then after
a short time (days) of accumulation, can harvest
the plant, and it can avoid using chelating agent
with the secondary pollution to the environment
(Li et al. 2009).
4.4 Microbial repair
Microbial repair use the naturally or cultivate
microbes under the appropriate environmental
conditions, to promote the microbial metabolism,
to lower the toxic pollutants activity or degrade
into non-toxic substances. The microbial repair is
biodegradable, the decomposition of pollutants.
Because microbes is small, fast reproduction,
strong adaptability, easy variation, so it may cre-
ate new variations under the change of the envi-
ronment, and can also produce new enzymes,
so it can degradation the strange compounds
(Sun et al. 2012).
The microbes according to different sources can
be divided into 3 categories: indigenous microbes,
alien microbes and Genetic Engineering Microbes
(GEM) (Xu & Shi 2001). The current microbial
repair mostly use indigenous microbes. Alien
microbes are mainly used when the indigenous
microbes cant repair. The living conditions of
the microbes is also very important, but the liv-
ing conditions of the contaminated soil tend to be
bad, so always need to artificial modification of
the microbial environment.
Microbial repair also need two conditions,
first there must be rich microbes in the soil, these
microbes can switch, fixed the heavy metal in
the soil, second the heavy metals in the soil can
be transformation or fixed by microbial (Teng &
Huang 2002).
4.5 Soil animal repair
The concept of soil animal in narrow sense refers
to animals that living in the soil all of the time,
in the broad sense refers to a period of life in the
soil of animal life (Liu et al. 2009). Soil animal
repair is suitable for the soil animal broad sense.
Soil animal repair use the soil animals and the
465
8/27/2014 6:02:30 PM
 microbes inside its body. The soil animal growth
and live in heavy metal soil can transfer and
accumulation the heavy metal, then collect the
soil animal to reduce the heavy metal in the soil
(Wang 2010).
Soil animals such as worms, spiders, etc., have a
very strong ability of tolerance and accumulation
of heavy metals, some studies have found that heavy
metal content in the soil animals and soil heavy
metals were positively correlated (Guo & Deng
1996). The soil animal repair can also improve the
soil fertility.
Soil animals not only can directly accumula-
tion of heavy metals, but also can improve the
accumulation capacity of heavy metals for the
microbes and plants around, it have the effect of
the catalyst, such as worms living, weaving in the
soil and other activities, that can greatly speed
up the transfer of soil pollution, so that enhance
the microbial repair effect on the soil. And soil
animals are able to turn the soil organic decom-
position into organic acids, that make the heavy
metal in the soil lose passivation and toxicity (Li
2006).
But recently most research focused on the
indicator function of soil animal for ecological and
environment, soil animal repair remains further
research and development.
5 CONCLUSION
The physical methods has the good effect, and the
efficiency is very high, but it is not completely solve
the pollution, Its transfer the pollution, also need
second time treatment. The chemical methods
have the high efficiency, and the high cost, but it
may cause secondary pollution also. The biologi-
cal methods has the low cost, dont has secondary
pollution, it not only reduce the heavy metal of the
soil but also can repair the ecological system, but
the efficiency is lower.
The research trend in the future, not only to
improve the single method, but also must be study
in the combination of physical method, chemical
method and biological method to take an optimal
treatment effect.
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 Part 7: Land reclamation and ecological
restoration policies and management

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Environmental planning of post-mining landscapes

Wolfgang Wende
Leibniz-Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development, Dresden, Germany

ABSTRACT: This paper is based on a contribution by Wende (2010) on ecological development of

post mining landscapes. It seeks to describe the great ecological potential of post-mining landscapes in
Germany which could also serve as a role model for China. For this, land reclamation legislation is neces-
sary, and powerful environmental and conservation planning instruments would have to be applied. The
end point of a precautionary environmental planning process accompanying the mining operation plan-
ning process should be a comprehensive concept for the ecologically oriented re-naturalisation of post-
mining landscapes. Such concepts contribute to the avoidance of long-term devastation, and compensate
for impacts on biodiversity. The goal of re-naturalisation is to reuse post-mining landscapes in a sustain-
able and ecologically oriented manner.

1 GENERAL LEGAL CONDITIONS FOR
LAND RECLAMATION IN GERMANY
Defining ecological potentials of post-mining land-
scapes first requires an analysis of the legal back-
ground for mining and post-mining rehabilitation.
German federal laws ensure the legal commitment
to the proper treatment of changing landscapes.
1.1 Federal German mining law
The most important legal basis for mining and re-
development in Germany is the Federal Mining
Law, amended several times since, most recently
in 2006. It regulates the exploration, production
and processing of mineral resources. Operational
regulations as well as the re-usability of the dev-
astated landscapes are stipulated. On the basis
of the Federal Mining Law, mining authorities
decide not only about the mining operation itself,
but also about the extent of re-development and
re-naturalisation of the landscape.
Article 2 of the Federal Mining Law defines the
scope of application. The law applies to the resto-
ration or the re-usability of the land during and
after the exploitation, extraction and refinement
of subsurface resources. Under Art. 55, Sect. 2,
No. 2, a mining company must, in order to obtain
approval for a final operational plan, commit itself
to the rehabilitation of the terrain and the soil used
during the operation.
1.2 Federal German nature conservation law
Article 1 of the Federal Nature Conservation Law
describes the goals of nature conservation and
landscape management. Under this law, nature and
landscape are to be conserved, managed, devel-
oped, and where necessary, restored, in order to
safeguard them on a permanent basis, both within
and outside areas of human habitation.
The principle in Article 2, Sect. 1, No. 7 of the
Federal Nature Conservation Law applies directly
to the exploration and extraction of mineral
resources. It stipulates that any unavoidable impair-
ment of nature and the landscape be compensated
through restoration to a more natural state (e.g.
free succession), semi-natural landscaping, reha-
bilitation, land reclamation or re-cultivation.
Article 19, Sect. 2 states that it is incumbent
upon the impacting party primarily to endeavour
to offset any unavoidable impairment through
nature conservation and landscape management
measures (restoration compensatory measures),
or to offset them in some other way (replacement
compensation).
1.3 Federal German spatial planning law
and environmental impact assessment law
In Germany, the Spatial Planning Law requires the
re-establishment of the residential and open space
structure after mining has come to an end. Article
2 of the Federal Spatial Planning Law describes
the principles necessary for that: A large scale and
integrative system of open space must be main-
tained and improved.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Law is based on the European Directive 85/33/
EEC, as amended by Directive 97/11/EC. It regu-
lates the Environmental Impact Assessment, which
is a procedure used to determine, describe and

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 471 8/27/2014 6:02:31 PM

 evaluate a projects impact on the environment. Its
purpose is to ensure, for certain public and private
projects such as open cast mining, effective preven-
tive environmental protection based on uniform
principles. In this sense, the EIA is a preparatory
assessment of the environmental importance of a
project, a part of the decision-making process.
The EIA is a subordinate element of the official
administrative procedure (grant or licensing pro-
cedure), and consists of a determining partthe
description of the environmental impactsand the
actual assessment of these environmental impacts
(Wende 2002).
2 GERMAN ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING AND NATURE
CONSERVATION INSTRUMENTS
Mining projects are subject to the joint plans and
instruments of nature conservation and environ-
mental planning. The requirements of planning
depend on the dimensions, the type of mine and
the environmental impacts. The implementation of
nature restoration and environmental plans is man-
datory for mining development in Germany. These
plans take into account the conservation of nature
and the environment, but also provide the founda-
tions for re-cultivation of post-mining areas.
2.1 Impact mitigation regulation plan
One important tool is the Impact Mitigation Reg-
ulation Plan (IMRP), which is set up to stipulate
measures for compensation of project impacts.
Whether or not a project is to be classified as a
significant impact on nature and the landscape
under the Federal Nature Conservation Law must
be determined (Wende 2005). According to Arti-
cle 18, Sect. 1 of the Nature Conservation Law,
impacts include any changes affecting the appear-
ance or use of areas which lead to considerable or
permanent impairment of the balance of nature
or the natural scenery, or to any changes in the
groundwater table. Therefore, in most cases, open-
cast mining projects require the establishment of an
IMRP (Mller-Pfannenstiel et al. 2003). In accord-
ance with the polluter-pays principle, the polluter
himself is responsible for establishing it. In case
of opencast mining, the company which intends
to explore and excavate the resources ensures, and
grant or finance, the IMRP. The company or its
environmental planning consultant must draft a
plan describing the measures necessary to avoid
and compensate for environmental damage (Darbi
et al. 2010). Usually, the IMRP defines mitiga-
tion and compensation in terms of nature resto-
ration or habitat replacement measures after mine
472
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 472
closure. Local or regional nature conservation
authorities monitor the quality of these docu-
ments, but the Mining Authority decides upon the
admissibility of the project, its impact on nature
and the landscape, and any compensatory meas-
ures; that decision is made in close co-operation
with the nature conservation authority. The IMRP
and EIA in Germany are closely linked to Art. 14
of the Convention for the Protection of Biological
Diversity (CBD). Article 14 of the CBD regulates
the investigation and determination of measures
to offset impacts upon biological diversity (ibid.).
This international convention has been ratified and
signed by China, and is thus valid for this country
as well. Therefore, in the future, concepts for off-
setting impacts on biological diversity may become
more important for mining planning processes in
China than has hitherto been the case.
2.2 Environmental impact statement/study
The main module of the environmental impact
assessment procedure is the Environmental
Impact Statement or Study (EIS). The assessment
procedure is carried out in order to produce an
environmental statement which is a comprehen-
sive document that reports all the findings of an
EIA. The environmental impact statement should
include: a description of the project: location,
design, scale, size, etc.; a description of significant
impacts on the environment; avoidance, mitigation
and compensation measures, and; a non-technical
summary. The EIS identifies, describes and assesses
the impacts of the project on human beings and
human health, animals, plants and biological
diversity, the soil, water, air, climate and landscape,
the cultural heritage, material assets, and the inter-
actions between these assets of protection (Art. 2,
Sect. 1 German EIA Law). The results of the EIS
must be taken into account by the competent
authority during the decision making process and
before approval of an opencast mining project (for
EIA in China, see Wenger, Huadong, Xiaoying
1990 and Xiuzhen, Jincheng, Jinhu 2002).
3 MINING PLANNING AND DIFFERENT
TYPES OF MINING PLANS
3.1 Lignite coal plan
The objectives and requirements of regional plan-
ning are described in the regional plans. These
comprehensive plans define suitability and reser-
vation areas for the use of land. In regions with
lignite coal resources, these regional plans are often
accompanied by special lignite coal plans. They are
also drafted on a regional scale, and are established
for each lignite coal opencast pit. For areas with
8/27/2014 6:02:31 PM
 closed opencast mining, they describe suitability
and reservation areas for re-cultivation and/or
re-naturalisation.
3.2 Mine layout and operating plan
If the development of mining sites does not require
the establishment of operating plans (see below),
the project developer must at least present a mine
layout, containing information about the type of
natural resource, the impacted area, and an operat-
ing schedule. Also included must be measures for
rehabilitation not only after mine closure, but also
during the mineral extraction phase. Thus, the mine
layout plan represents the minimum requirement
for re-cultivation and re-naturalisation planning.
If a mining project is in accordance with Art. 51
of the Federal Mining Law, comprehensive operat-
ing plans must be compiled. Such plans are manda-
tory for mining and milling sites, and for prospecting
sites if they cause pits in the surface, or if they
apply mechanical force, or involve underground
work or the use of potentially explosive substances.
Each operating plan is drawn up for two years, so
as to permit reaction to changing conditions. Each
plan covers the technical performance, the planned
facilities to be built, and the rehabilitation measures
to be undertaken during the mining process.
3.3 Overall operating plan
Once a project requires an EIA, a mandatory Overall
Operating Plan (OOP) must be compiled. The OOP
includes a comprehensive concept for the whole
mining area. Its function is to interconnect and
manage all subsequent operating plans. An OOP is
valid for ten to twenty years, and describes the min-
ing process from the start through re-cultivation.
It moreover implies a probable time schedule, sev-
eral ecological studies, the EIS, and if necessary,
the IMRP. In case of an EIA, it is integrated into
the OOP. To avoid repetitiveness, the IMRP and the
EIA complement each other. Even without the
obligation to establish an EIA, a facultative over-
all operating plan can be created. The responsible
authority decides whether an OOP already consti-
tutes approval for the mining process.
3.4 Final operating plan
Before the closure of the mining site, a final oper-
ating plan must be drafted, which sets the stage for
the removal of the projects technical infrastruc-
ture, and the re-design of the landscape. Thus, it
contains the technical accomplishment for the ces-
sation of work, a time schedule for the final meas-
ures, and an updated plan for re-cultivation and/or
re-naturalisation.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 473
4 ECOLOGICAL POTENTIAL
OF MINING AREAS
For an ecological post-mining concept, the fol-
lowing goals must first be considered: The imme-
diate danger potentials must be eliminated, and
a multiply usable post-mining zoning concept
that can cover various use requirements must be
designed. It must thus determine where zones of
high natural conservation value, areas appropriate
for recreation, or potential any other land use areas
might be located. Finally, a concept for balanced
hydrological conditions must be established. After
implementation of these conceptual goals, various
types of reconstruction, re-cultivation and/or re-
naturalisation will be applicable.
The zero option consists of a total absence of
remedial procedures. It means the undisturbed
development or free succession of the post-
mining area. This could be a preferable option
for total nature conservation. However, it will not
adequately address the issues of dangers to the
public; hence, access to the area would have to be
prohibited.
The complete remediation or re-cultivation has
the goal of maximum danger prevention. Such
measures are mainly geared towards such tech-
nological aspects as use of the processes and the
equipment from the active mining phase. The re-
cultivated area should be appropriate for agricul-
tural and/or forestry use afterwards. This option
is lacking in comprehensive nature compensation
and biodiversity offset concepts.
Site adaptation for remediation for the purpose
of nature conservation and recreation is the inter-
mediate alternative. Minimum measures are taken
only to preclude the most immediate dangers to
the public. However, the extent of the remedial
measures should allow for a maximum of nature
conservation and preservation of a dynamic natu-
ral development. Such a concept should include
areas for the creation of new ecological habitats,
and free succession biotopes preserved for dynamic
post-mining wilderness transformation, together
with areas for public recreation and recreational
facilities. This alternative also considers the legal
requirements for impact mitigation regulation and
biodiversity offset stipulated by the CBD, the Fed-
eral Nature Conservation Law and the EIA Law
in Germany.
It is of the greatest importance to ensure the
property rights for those habitats and ecological
potential areas for long lasting nature conserva-
tion purposes (Hennek & Unselt 2002). Urban
and/or human residential, and any other intensive
development, etc., should be totally precluded. For
this purpose, the properties should be assigned
to a property funds of the nature conservation
8/27/2014 6:02:31 PM
 authority, or of some other nature conservation
organisation. The question of how to safeguard
the property rights should be part of the concep-
tual phase at the very outset of the mine planning
procedure.
5 EXAMPLE OF AN ECOLOGICAL
RE-ESTABLISHMENT
In the open cast mining project Cottbus Nord, spe-
cial measures for the protection of endangered fauna
species have been carried out. Due to the extension
of a lignite opencast coal mine, valuable amphib-
ian habitats, the so-called Lakomaer water ponds,
were destroyed. As compensation for the impacts on
these ponds, five large offset areas were identified to
create new habitats for the endangered species, one
of them in the Spree river alluvial plain.
The biodiversity offset measures were carried
out before the open cast mine had been extended,
and valuable endangered species were moved to
the newly established biotopes in the Spree river
alluvial plain. This example shows that in order
to compensate for mining impacts, it is sometimes
necessary not merely to ensure the free succession
of nature, but also to createin some cases even
highly artificiallyspecial endangered species pro-
tection measures.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The article shows the need for strong legal base-
line and planning regulationsin China, too (Xia
2006). They are necessary to enhance post-mining
concepts with the ideas of compensation and
offsetting for the impacts upon biological diver-
sity, and the creation of new secondary nature
reserves. The main issue of environmental plan-
ning in this context is not just to design solutions
for simple re-cultivation for new urban develop-
ment or for agricultural and forestry land use, but
to establish opportunities for nature to reclaim for-
merly devastated areas. Site adapted remediation
for the purpose of nature conservation and rec-
reation is an appropriate alternative that considers
both biological diversity values as specified by the
474
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 474
CBD requirements, and opportunities for recrea-
tion. However, a strict zoning concept and strong
property rights of ownership for the purpose of
nature conservation are necessary to protect these
areas from urban and/or other development. The
examples show both the natural non-influenced
succession of nature, and the active development
of nature conservation sites by the responsible
authorities. All in all this paper points out the
enormous ecological potential of habitat restora-
tion in the area of opencast mining.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Comparison and reference on the systems of reclamation

of the destructed land left over by history in China
and overseas countries

M. Luo & Y. Zhou

Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Center, MLR, Beijing, China
Key Laboratory of Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation, MLR, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: This paper compares and analyzes the actual situations and problems regarding aban-
doned land reclamation in China with some thoughts and suggestions for improvement proposed based
on a systematic summary about the advanced experience of the USA, Germany, Australia and other coun-
tries concerned in this field. The results show that: 1) Experience of developed countries like the USA,
Germany and Australia in abandoned land reclamation includes: improved legislation, specific sources
of funds, diversified incentives, specialized management institutions, collaborative ways to organize and
implement, hierarchical and dynamic project management, multiple purposes for reclamation, real-time
measurement technologies, etc.; 2) With a huge amount of abandoned land which is unclear in distribu-
tion and status, China has currently initially formed the basic institutional framework for abandoned land
reclamation at the legal level, and taken some reclamation incentives with Chinese characteristics such
as Supplementary Cultivated Land quota and Replacement of Construction Land quota. However,
there are still problems, such as management mechanisms to be improved, difficulty in guaranteeing rec-
lamation funds, simplicity in reclamation purposes, and relatively extensive reclamation technology; 3) It
is essential for China to make improvement in abandoned land reclamation by perfecting organizational
structures, improving incentive policies, diversifying purposes for reclamation, and introducing advanced
technologies and ideas.

Keywords: destructed land; land reclamation; reclamation system

1 INTRODUCTION
A large amount of land, which is to be reclamated,
has been discarded by factories and mines ever since
mankind has entered the industrial society due to
rapid industrial development, sharp increase of the
population, extensive economic development and
the irrational industrial structure, as well as the
notion of attaching importance to land develop-
ment but neglecting its reclamation in the early
days. Globally, abandoned land is universally high-
lighted by vague bases or conditions, which makes
it more difficult to deal with issues regarding legis-
lation, funds, management and technology of rec-
lamation. It is, therefore, of particular significance
for China to make improvements in work relating
to abandoned land reclamation via learning from
the advanced experience of other countries in this
area based on our own situations and problems
concerned.
2 ADVANCED EXPERIENCE
OF RECLAMATION OF DESTRUCTED
LAND LEFT OVER BY HISTORY
ABROAD
2.1 Experiences from the USA
2.1.1 Legislation & funds
It is estimated that the number of abandoned mine
estates has reached over 550,000 in the USA and
most of them are located in the Midwest of the
country. Laws and regulations on governance over
abandoned mines in the USA include the Surface
Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA),
The Clean Water Act, the Hazardous Waste Treat-
ment Act and the Act on Reclamation of Aban-
doned Metal Mines (H.R.504). Among them, it
is stipulated in SMCRA that Abandoned Mine
Reclamation Fund (AMRF) shall be set up to gov-
ern the mines which were discarded before 1977.

475

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 475 8/27/2014 6:02:31 PM

 The sources of AMRF mainly cover charges for
reclamation, royalty donation, interest, and so on.
Charges for reclamation are collected from the
ongoing coal mine enterprises, with 35 cents from
a tonne of coal from open-pit mine, 15 cents from
a tonne of coal from underground mines, and 10
cents from a tonne of lignite. According to the Act
on Reclamation of Abandoned Metal Mines, 25%
of the income from the on-going metal mines shall
be included into the reclamation fund for reclama-
tion of the abandoned mines. It is estimated that
US$ 3272 billion will be spent on reclamation of
abandoned mines in the USA (Nonna 2006; Luo
et al. 2011; Li et al. 2008; Zhang 2006; Chen et al.
2013).
2.1.2 Project management
The USA manages the projects for reclamation
of abandoned mine estates by using the TRIAD
APPROACH recommended by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). TRIAD
APPROACH involves three elements in dealing
with the reclamation of abandoned mine estates.
The first is to develop systematic project planning
(also known as strategic planning) to provide route
map and benchmark standards. The second is to
develop dynamic work plan strategies and make
flexible decisions based on analysis on actual mine
data to guide mine reclamation projects to pro-
ceed in a rapid and economical way. And the third
concerns the use of real-time measurement tech-
nologies, which means to support policies with the
analyzed and shared data which is collected in real
time. In this way, it can not only guarantee common
targets and standards but also allow amendment
based on actual situations, so as to achieve the fast-
est and best results in the most cost-effective man-
ner (Nonna 2006; Luo et al. 2011; Li et al. 2008;
Zhang 2006).
2.1.3 Incentives
1. Preferential carbon tax policies: Forestation
campaign is encouraged first in abandoned
mine estates through policies like carbon tax.
For instance, a tree-planting project for carbon
storage was developed on the site of abandoned
coal mine estates covering nearly 1 million acres
in the Appalachian, the USA with satisfactory
economic and environmental benefits due to
the carbon tax policies of the local government.
Second, tax credit is provided for planting site
by the U.S. Federal Government and state gov-
ernments. For instance, half of the investment in
planting trees can be deducted in Mississippi; in
addition, it is also stipulated by the U.S. Federal
Government that forestation investment can be
deducted from individual income tax. Third,
large company companies like Allegheny Energy
476
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 476
have also participated in forestation campaign
in abandoned mines to meet the requirements
of emission reduction (Nonna 2006; Luo et al.
2011; Li et al. 2008; Zhang 2006; Chen et al.
2013).
2. Setting land development right: A total of
15 states in the USA have initiated their own
projects for transfer of land development rights.
An income of US$ 1,600 can be made per acre
generally and about US$ 7,000 can be gained
per acre for Limited Development Area via set-
ting farmland preservation easement to trans-
fer the land development rights for abandoned
mine estates. Besides, other environmental man-
agement policies, such as clean water currency
and wetland bank, have also provided stimu-
lus funds for reclamation of abandoned mine
estates (Nonna 2006; Luo et al. 2011; Li et al.
2008; Zhang 2006; Chen et al. 2013).
3. Encouraging Good Samaritan program: It
refers that a non-responsible person volun-
teers to govern the abandoned mine estates.
Being more positive toward this, the govern-
ments may develop standard texts like Good
Samaritan Memo, letters of consolation and
letters of agreement to support its implemen-
tation (Nonna 2006; Luo et al. 2011; Li et al.
2008; Zhang 2006; Chen et al. 2013).
2.1.4 New highlight in purposes
In recent years, renewable energy utilization has
emerged a new highlight for reclamation of aban-
doned mine estates across the USA. Since the
requirements of wind power plant and photo-
voltaic industry on land are exactly similar to the
conditions of land discarded by factories and mines,
the latter can play an excellent role in serving as the
new sites of the former. First, the most import thing
for wind power and photovoltaic plants lies in the
continuous and sufficient supply of wind and solar
power. Coincidently, a majority of the abandoned
mines in the U.S are located at mountainous areas
in the Mid-west of the USA which are endowed
with sustained wind flow and sufficient solar power.
Second, wind and optical energy projects are usually
developed on large and open sites. Land discarded
by factories and mines are always provided with
large areas of land for placing large wind power
generators and PV panels. Third, project costs can
be reduced as transportation infrastructure like
roads is universally available on many of the land
discarded by factories and mines.
2.2 Experiences from Germany
2.2.1 Body for implementation
Restricted by the global environment as well as the
conditions for economic and social development,
8/27/2014 6:02:32 PM
 the national energy of the (former) East Germany
was mostly self-sufficient. As one of the pillar indus-
tries for economic development of the (former) East
Germany, industrial and mining establishments also
faced the problem of attaching importance to land
development but neglecting its reclamation, leaving
behind a large amount of land discarded by fac-
tories and mines to be reclamated. Germany, after
the unification of the two Germanys, set up two
specialized agencies to deal with the reclamation
of abandoned land. One was a special agency for
reclamation implementation. LMBV was respon-
sible for organizing the reclamation of the land
discarded by factories and mines, covering develop-
ment of reclamation programs and plans, bidding
and organization and implementation of reclama-
tion projects, reclamation supervision and accept-
ance of reclamation projects. The other was the
Commission for Mining Management and Budget
(hereinafter referred to as the Commission). The
Commission was made up of representatives of
local state governments, German Federal Ministry
for the Environment, German Federal Ministry of
Economy, German Federal Ministry of Labors, the
institution for reclamation organization and imple-
mentation LMBV, as well as state governments con-
cerned under the German Federal Ministry for the
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear
Safety to serve as the decision-making department
for mine reclamation to deliberate capital and plans
of land reclamation and supervise work performed
by LMBV. The mine reclamation institution, made
up of the Policymaking Committee of Land Rec-
lamation and Institution for Reclamation Organi-
zation and Implementation, i.e. LMBV, was thus
established finally (Zhang 2006).
2.2.2 Reclamation plan
LMBV has prepared a unified reclamation plan for
abandoned mine areas. According to the planning, a
five-year reclamation program shall be put forward
yearly and sent to Mine Reclamation Committee
for examination and approval, so as to carry out
the planning gradually as scheduled. Both the plan-
ning and the program may not be static, and can be
adjusted properly by Mine Reclamation Committee
in accordance with the actual conditions of recla-
mation as well as the fund surplus (Zhang 2006).
2.2.3 Reclamation funds
The reclamation of destructed land left over by his-
tory in Germany enjoys full government funding
and borne by the German Federal Government,
German Federal Ministry for the Environment,
German Federal Ministry of Economy, German
Federal Ministry of Labors and state governments
where the abandoned mine areas are located on the
basis of negotiation. In order to initiate the active
477
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 477
roles of all states in mine reclamation, generally,
the German Federal Government bears 75% of
the charges for reclamation, while the rest 25% will
be borne by local governments. The charges for
reclamation are currently used and supervised by
Bund-Lnder-Geschftsstelle fr die Braunkohle-
sanierung (GS StuBA) (Zhang 2006).
2.2.4 Concept of reclamation
The land reclamation in Germany presents a con-
cept for sound living environment and biodiversity
protection, reflecting the harmony between humans
and the nature. The mine reclamation in Germany
is first to rebuild the natural ecological environ-
ment of mine areas. A vast stretches of artificial
lakes were built and stable forest ecosystems were
established on the abandoned bare land like waste
dump by dumping water into the waste pits, shap-
ing sound natural landscapes and wildlife habitats.
In addition, excellent places of leisure for the locals
were formed through purifying water environment
and rebuilding the abandoned mine areas into
museums based on the natural ecosystems. As to
the old factories with high energy consumption
but poor benefits like power generation, they were
replaced with new energy sources such as solar
energy as well as modem manufacturing indus-
try on the basis of mine reclamation to upgrade
the industrial structure and develop a low-carbon
industry (Zhang 2006).
2.3 Experiences from Australia
State governments across Australia have estab-
lished their own funds for abandoned land. For
instance, it is specified in the Mineral Estate Rec-
lamation Fund Act 2012 of Western Australia that
all available mines shall pay reclamation tax to deal
with abandoned mine estates.
It is recommended by Australia that the maturity
chart approach for projects concerned can be used
to administrate the reclamation of abandoned mine
estates. The maturity mentioned here refers to the
capability and willingness of people to take respon-
sibility for their own actions. The maturity of aban-
doned mine projects falls into five grades, namely,
Vulnerable, Passive, Acceptable, Active and Flexible,
representing an increase in levels. Projects for rec-
lamation of abandoned mines involve 14 elements
altogether, including: 1) data collection; 2) informa-
tion on politics, economy, environment and society
of the areas under jurisdiction; 3) plan for high risk
governance over mine estates; 4) regulations, poli-
cies and guidelines on abandoned mines; 5) regu-
lations, policies and guidelines on preventing land
from being discarded; 6) risk assessment; 7) leader-
ship and technical capacity; 8) fund raising; 9) reuse
after reclamation; 10) historical and cultural value;
8/27/2014 6:02:32 PM
 11) reutilization of mineral resources; 12) resources
of partners; 13) participation of stakeholders
and; 14) information sharing. The management
of reclamation projects can be made dynamically
optimal finally through measuring the maturity
of all these elements with plans for improvement
developed, and guaranteeing continuous capability
improvement based on constant measurement and
comparison with interests of all parties concerned
taken into account (Luo & Wang 2012; Wang et al.
2006).
3 RECLAMATION OF DESTRUCTED
LAND LEFT OVER BY HISTORY IN
CHINA AND PROBLEMS REMAINED
3.1 General situation
According to the Regulation on Land Reclamation
and the Measures for the Implementation of the
Regulation on Land Reclamation, the historically
damaged land refers mainly to the land destroyed
by production and construction activities before
the implementation of the Provisions for the Land
Reclamation on January 1, 1989 as well as the land
damaged during the production and construc-
tion activities due to the loss of land reclamation
obligor. The investigation and evaluation results
show that the amount of land destroyed by produc-
tion and construction activities had reached around
114.07 million mu by the end of 2009. Among such
land which was damaged and remains to be recla-
mated, about 31.7 million mu was destroyed before
the implementation of the Provisions for the Land
Reclamation. No special survey or statistics was
developed for the land damaged due to the loss of
land reclamation obligor. To sum up, the histori-
cally damaged land accounts for 40% and more of
the land to be reclamated.
3.2 Syste framework
In China, the peoples governments at or above
the county level are responsible for the abandoned
land reclamation. To be specific, it covers the pro-
cedures as follows: 1) Conducting research and
evaluation on the damaged land, including investi-
gation on status of the damaged land, assessment
on suitability of the damaged land for reclama-
tion as well as analysis on benefits of land recla-
mation; 2) Developing specialized planning and
annual plan on land reclamation; 3) Determining
annual reclamation projects in accordance with
specialized planning on land reclamation as well as
capital arrangement of annual land reclamation;
4) Developing design sheets for land reclamation
projects, elaborating the location, size, targets,
478
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 478
progress schedule and completion deadline of the
projects and; 5) Implementation and acceptance of
the projects.
For years, China has taken a large number of
measures to raise funds for the implementation of
land reclamation projects regarding abandoned
land, such as integrating all kinds of agricultural
capital, attracting social investment and encourag-
ing self-reclamation by obliges concerned. The main
approaches are: 1) Governments invest in imple-
menting land reclamation projectsthe main way
for reclamating abandoned land around China. It
is estimated that about RMB 13.388 billion from
the central and local governments were spent dur-
ing 2005 and 2009, implementing 29,549 land rec-
lamation projects with an area of 5.5254 million
mu and an average investment per mu of RMB
2423; 2) Attracting social funds to invest in land
reclamation projects.
As for social investors, the means of their benefits
mainly include: 1) For the state-owned land involv-
ing no holder of the right to use, it will be provided
to corporate investors or individuals for long-term
production in the fields of crop farming, forestry,
animal husbandry and fishery upon being approved
by peoples governments at or above the county level
in accordance with the law; 2) For land collectiv-
ity owned by farmers or land with holders of the
right to use, competent departments of land and
resources will organize corporate investors or indi-
viduals to sign land reclamation agreements with
holders of the land, making clear the reclamation
targets as well as the land use and income distribu-
tion following the reclamation. Holders of the land
are encouraged to reclamate the land on their own.
In some places, the land subject to self-reclamation
of farmers are scattered in location and small in
scale. The abandoned land within their responsibil-
ity scope, upon being deemed qualified after accept-
ance, will be subsidized by governments concerned.
3.3 Incentive policies with Chinese characteristics
The Chinese government, taking into considera-
tion the basic systems for land management such as
Land Use Control, Cultivated Land Requisition-
Compensation Balance and Planned Supply of
Construction Land, has also issued some incentives
with Chinese characteristics targeting abandoned
land reclamation, playing a positive role in promot-
ing the reclamation. On the one hand, local govern-
ments have rebuilt the abandoned construction land
into cultivated land, which, upon being accepted as
qualified, may be regarded as supplementary culti-
vated land quotas for cultivated land occupation
during non-agriculture construction in the province,
autonomous region or municipality directly under
the central government. On the other hand,
8/27/2014 6:02:32 PM
 3.4 Problems
3.4.1 Management mechanism remains
to be improved
In China, the Ministry of Land and Resources of
the Peoples Republic of China is considered the
functional department for administration over
abandoned land reclamation. However, as such
issues as troubleshooting and control of pollution
hazards, quality of reclaimed land, conservation
of water and soil, and forest protection involved in
abandoned land reclamation also have something
to do with functional departments in terms of envi-
ronmental protection, agriculture, water conserv-
ancy and forestry, many local governments have set
up working groups led by government leaders and
made up of departments concerning land, agricul-
ture, water conservancy, forestry, development and
reform and public finance to make decisions on
major issues of the pilots. Despite this, the actual
implementation is dominated by departments of
land and resources, and inadequate in multi-agency
coordination with related departments failing to
participate in the implementation in an effective
manner (He et al. 2012; Zhou et al. 2014).
3.4.2 Difficulty in guaranteeing reclamation funds
Local peoples governments at or above the county
level are the main bodies for reclamation of his-
torically damaged land. At present, the sources of
fund for land reclamation projects arranged by the
governments mainly include fees for newly-added
construction land, expenses for reclamation, charges
for land reclamation and land transfer fund for agri-
cultural development. In terms of these funds, there
are no available special national regulations on the
collection, application and management of charges
for land reclamation, and although some local gov-
ernments have issued their own regulations regard-
ing this, poor results were yielded altogether. There is
also no clear proportion or means for land reclama-
tion proposed in other financial terms of use. Most
of the local governments in China are not better off
under tax distribution system. In addition, there are
fewer channels for fund raising of land reclamation
as well as insufficient diversified incentive mecha-
nisms to attract social investment. And all these
problems above make it rather difficult to guarantee
reclamation funds (He et al. 2012; Zhou et al. 2014).
3.4.3 Simplicity in reclamation purposes
Generally, abandoned land reclamation in China
is developed in a single way. Although reclamated
abandoned land in some places was used as geo-
logical relics, mine parks or golf fields, it fails to
involve the concept of integrated utilization of
reclaimed land in an in-depth way. Local govern-
ments, guided by policies like Cultivated Land
479
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 479
Requisition-Compensation Balance and Planned
Supply of Construction Land, may first target the
cultivated land and then ecological land like forest
land when developing abandoned land reclama-
tion (He et al. 2012; Zhou et al. 2014).
3.4.4 Relatively extensive reclamation technology
Our abandoned land reclamation is still in its
infancy. Land for reclamation, abiding by the prin-
ciple of Starting with Easy Things First, involved
mainly quarries, brick-tile kilns, coal mines and
nonmetal mines in early times. Along with the
progress of the work, a large amount of abandoned
land with pollution and geological hazards, such
as abandoned land of chemical enterprises, waste-
rock yard of metal mines and tailings pond, was
involved in the reclamation. Correspondingly, it
has become difficult for reclamation technologies
dominated by engineering measures like surface
morphology repair, supporting water conservancy
and road infrastructure construction to meet the
needs of practical work. Whats more, little con-
sideration was given to the quality, pollution status
and geological hazards of the land subject to rec-
lamation in designing the reclamation technologies
(He et al. 2012; Zhou et al. 2014).
4 THOUGHTS AND SUGGESTIONS
ON IMPROVING SYSTEMS FOR
ABANDONED LAND BY HISTORY
RECLAMATION IN CHINA
4.1 Perfecting organizational structures
Since background of abandoned land reclamation
in Germany has a lot in common with the huge
amount of abandoned land produced during the
planned economy era of our country, we can learn
from it in terms of organization mode targeting the
abandoned land. It is suggested that united coor-
dination departments as well as special institutions
for organization and implementation on such recla-
mation be established to guarantee united organiza-
tion and implementation, fully absorb employment
and drive the related industries and technology
investment to form the reclamation industry.
4.2 Improving incentive policies
In the first place, it is essential for us to learn from
the establishment of land development right by the
USA and attract more social funds and enterprises
to participate in the land reclamation by means of
giving priority to land development right. In the
second place, it is suggested to establish special
reclamation funds by the central government via
learning from the experience of foreign countries in
8/27/2014 6:02:32 PM
 setting up land reclamation fund. Relying on proac-
tive fiscal and monetary policies such as central gov-
ernment subsidies and bank discount, it is expected
to motivate the local investment in reclamation of
abandoned land. Particularly, the abandoned land
reclamation of old industrial areas will be supported
as livelihood projects for job creation.
4.3 Diversifying purposes for reclamation
To achieve this target, we should first study the
renewable energy applications concerning aban-
doned land reclamation. Application of such
emerging industries as applying wind energy to the
primary farmland and promoting the development
of photovoltaic industry in central and western
regions are of particular significance for the eco-
nomical and intensive utilization of land resources.
Then, it is necessary to pay attention to the opti-
mization of landscape structure of reclaimed land
and biodiversity protection to shape gradually sta-
ble natural ecosystems.
4.4 Introducing advanced technologies
and concepts
First, it is essential to introduce the concept of risk
management. Risk assessment can be made on the
conditions, degree of damage and type of pollution
of the abandoned land for reclamation design based
on local conditions. Risks will be controlled within
the acceptable level of risk by means of controlling
pollutant dispersion, limiting land use and clean-
ing pollutants. Second, it concerns the application
of hierarchical, dynamic project management. This
requires adjusting the working strategies or plans
of projects dynamically based on the real-time data
analysis and levels and status of projects under
evaluation. Third, it relates to the introduction
of rapid measurement technologies and portable
equipment to make it convenient for supervisors
to learn about the reclamation quality and results
quickly. For example, handheld fluorescence spec-
trometer can be applied to measure the contents of
heavy metals in the soil in a rapid manner.
5 CONCLUSION
1. Experience of developed nations like the USA,
Germany and Australia in abandoned land rec-
lamation includes: improved legislation, specific
sources of funds, diversified incentives, special-
ized management institutions, collaborative
ways to organize and implement, hierarchical
and dynamic project management, multiple
purposes for reclamation, real-time measure-
ment technologies, etc.
480
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 480
2. Having a huge amount of abandoned land
which is unclear in distribution, China has cur-
rently initially formed the basic institutional
framework for abandoned land reclamation
at the legal level, and taken some reclamation
incentives with Chinese characteristics such as
Supplementary Cultivated Land quota and
Replacement of Construction Land quota.
However, there are still problems, such as man-
agement mechanisms to be improved, difficulty
in guaranteeing reclamation funds, simplicity in
reclamation purposes, and relatively extensive
reclamation technology.
3. It is essential for China to make improvement in
abandoned land reclamation by perfecting organ-
izational structures, improving incentive policies,
diversifying purposes for reclamation, and intro-
ducing advanced technologies and ideas.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Overview of international mine closure practices for capability

building in China

Y.Q. Zhao, B. Wang, Z.X. Li, C.P. Li & L. Zhang

Key Laboratory of High Efficiency Mining and Safety for Metal Mines, Department of Mineral Resources
Engineering, Ministry of Education, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The primary objectives of mine closure are to minimize environmental impacts from
mining activities and reduce financial risk to the shareholders of the company. All environmental
aspects are considered during closure planning. This paper presents typical mine closure approaches
by reviewing mine closure guidelines and best practices worldwide and promotes the understanding of
mine closure issues the building of mine closure capability for developing countries, particularly small-
and medium-sized enterprises. In particular, closure guidelines from international agencies such as the
World Bank and the European Union, selected nations such as Australia and Canada, and industrial
organizations such as the International Council on Mining and Metals are reviewed. It is summarized
that the major mine closure issues include regulatory frameworks, post-mining land uses, risk-based
and integrated planning, cost estimation and financial assurance, closure operations, closure comple-
tion criteria, closure monitoring and maintenance, relinquishment and record retention, and stake-
holder involvement.

1 INTRODUCTION and experiences have been learnt at international,

The global consensus on sustainability and cor-
porate social responsibility has brought numer-
ous changes in the mineral resource development
process. A typical problem in this field is mine
closure. The mining industry has learned that
plans to close mines and plant facilities, as well as
post-closure land use, must be communicated to
stakeholders in the community to obtain a social
license to operate. Therefore, mine closure plan-
ning should start from project conception and
continue throughout the entire service life of the
mine.
In view of the issues and problems in mine clo-
sure in China, international mine closure prac-
tices and experiences are reviewed and the major
subjects and approaches for mine closure are
summarized to facilitate the understanding of
mine closure problems and the building of mine
closure capacity and promote the sustainability
of mining communities in China as well as other
developing countries.
2 INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS
Institutionally, various organizations are con-
cerned with the issues associated with mine clo-
sure, and consequently progresses have been made
national, local and community, and industrial and
operational levels around the globe, and in particu-
lar in those developed nations.
2.1 International progresses
As one of the sustainability and corporate social
responsibility issues associated with the mineral
and mining industries, mine closure has received
considerable attention and motivated the efforts
of some international organizations to address the
issues.
As early as in 2000, the World Bank (WB) in con-
junction with the Metal Mining Agency of Japan
held a mine closure symposium and published a
report entitled Mine Closure and Sustainable Devel-
opment (Khanna 2000). According to this report, a
planned and rational approach is necessary to alle-
viate the direct and indirect impacts of mine clo-
sure on people and economies from the perspective
of social and national economy. In 2002, a guide-
line on the requirements for integrated mine closure
planning was issued by the WBs Oil, Gas, Mining,
and Chemicals Department and the International
Finance Corporation (IFC). The guideline, entitled
Its Not Over When Its Over: Mine Closure around
the World (WB & IFC 2002), provides a concise
and practical overview of issues involved in inte-
grated mine closure planning.

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 In the same year of 2002, the International Insti-
tute for Environment and Development (IIED)
and the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD) jointly issued a special
report titled as Research on Mine Closure Policy
(Cochilco 2002), discussing on typical legislative
frameworks for mine closure and related landscape
improvement, water quality, ecological resources,
land use, health and welfare, social and artificial
changes, economic development, and relinquish-
ment process of several countries. The report
also highlighted mine closure financial assurance
systems, the ability of governments, and public
participation.
In 2005, the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP), the United Nations Develop-
ment Programme (UNDP), the Organization for
Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
presented a report titled as Mining for Closure:
Policies, Practices, and Guidelines for Sustainable
Mining Practices and Closure of Mines as a result
of their joint Environment and Security project
(Peck 2005).
In the following year, the European Union
(EU) promulgated Directive 2006/21/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council on the
Management of Waste from Extractive Industries
and Amending Directive 2004/35/EC (EU 2006),
requiring the establishment of a closure plan for
waste facilities. Subsequently, the EU prepared
closure guidelines that aim to provide appropriate
direction to member states regarding land reclama-
tion plans for abandoned mines. Those documents
focused more attention to the risks posed by mis-
managing mine closure projects to the social devel-
opment than to economic factors.
In addition, the International Mine Closure
Conference series launched in 2006 have attracted
the active participation of numerous national
governments, companies, and civil societies. In
September 2013, the 8th annual conference was
held at Cornwall, United Kingdom and the event
attracted 180 delegates from 26 countries with over
60 presentations on various mine closure themes,
including community and social issues, regulatory,
financial and legal issues, ecosystem reconstruc-
tion and after care, geotechnical and hydrological
engineering, planning for closure, challenges and
new approaches. The 9th conference will be held in
Johannesburg, South Africa in October 2014, with
the themes of socio-economics, policy, regulation
and finance for mine closure; planning, modelling
and monitoring tools for mine closure; design and
construction for Mine Closure; mining legacies;
reclamation, remediation, rehabilitation and res-
toration; opportunities from Mine Closure; mine
exploration; ancient and historical mines; artisanal
482
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 482
and small-scale mining; social ecology; sustainable
livelihoods; mine transformation or closure; mine
closure and climate change.
2.2 National legislation and regulations
Some countries such as Australia, Canada, South
Africa, and the United States are typical with their
abundant mineral resources, high mining effi-
ciency, or accepted sustainability and corporate
social responsibility as associated with mining. As
such, legislative frameworks, governmental regula-
tions, local and community efforts, and industrial
and operational practices on mine closure are well
established.
1. Australia. In addition to the Commonwealth
legislation such as Environment Protection Act
1974, Mining Act 1978, Aboriginal Land Act
1991, Environment Protection and Biodiver-
sity Conservation Act 1999, the states and ter-
ritories in Australia have their own policies and
regulations to manage mining activities. At the
Commonwealth government level, coordina-
tion, communication channels, and other public
services are provided. For example, the Depart-
ment of Industry, Tourism and Resources issued
Mine Closure and Completion (Department
of Industry, Tourism and Resources 2006) in
2006 to guide the mining industries in reducing
the negative impacts of mineral production on
communities and the environment by following
the principles of leading practices in sustain-
able development. In 2011, the Government of
Western Australia Department of Mines and
Petroleum (WADMP) and the Environmental
Protection Authority (EPA) jointly published
Guidelines for Preparing Mine Closure Plans
(WADMP & EPA 2011), which assert that mine
closure planning should be an integral part of
mine development and operation planning.
The guidelines also concern with stakeholder
involvement, financial assurance, and comple-
tion criteria.
2. Canada. Mine closure practices in Canada are
similar to those in Australia. At the national
level, federal legislation such as Public Lands
Grants Act, Environmental Protection Act,
Environmental Assessment Act, and Fisheries
Act sets legal frameworks. The provincial gov-
ernments independently establish regulatory
mechanisms and implementation guidance to
support for mine closure.
3. South Africa. Relevant laws in South Africa
include the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention
Act 1965, Minerals Act 1991, Mine Health and
Safety Act 1996, National Environmental Man-
agement Act 1998, National Water Act 1998,
8/27/2014 6:02:32 PM
 and Nuclear Energy Act 1999. In particular,
the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Devel-
opment Act 2002 introduces the concept of life
cycle and considers environmental cost, as well
as economic and social factors. This law directly
affects regulations on mining, waste discharge,
mine closure, and after care in South Africa
(Swart 2003).
4. The USA. Relevant federal legislation in
US includes Solid Waste Disposal Act 1965,
National Environmental Policy Act 1969,
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1976,
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
1977, Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act 1980, Federal
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments 1984,
among others. Those laws contribute much to
the best practices of mine closure.
2.3 Industrial practices
With an effective institutional, legal and regula-
tory framework and stakeholders active participa-
tion, the mining industries and organizations must
play major roles in completing mine closures at
the operational level. Together with governmental
assistance, industrial consultation and guidance,
and civil society communications and consents,
mining companies should have the capacity for
planning and implementing mine closure, involv-
ing the problems of closure plans, stakeholder
involvement, financial assurance, operations and
criteria, monitoring and maintenance, and relin-
quishment. All efforts are geared toward achieving
the consented objectives and specifications.
For example, the Australian and New Zealand
Minerals and Energy Council (ANZMEC)
and the Minerals Council of Australia (MCA)
have developed guidelines for mine closure.
The Strategic Framework for Mine Closure
(ANZMEC & MCA 2000) is widely recognized
and accepted worldwide.
The work by International Council on Mining
and Metals (ICMM) proves to be another best
practice example at the international level, includ-
ing the Financial Assurance for Mine Closure and
Reclamation (Miller 2005), and the Planning for
Integrated Mine Closure: Toolkit (ICMM 2006).
The Policy Framework in Canada for Mine Clo-
sure and Management of Long-term Liabilities:
A Guidance Document as a result of the National
Orphaned/Abandoned Mines Initiative (NOMAI)
in Canada (Cowan et al. 2010) demonstrates efforts
to improve mine closures at national level.
The Chamber of Mines of Namibia sets out
the Namibia Mine Closure Framework (Chamber
of Mines of Namibia 2010) to provide minimum
standards for companies that are developing
483
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 483
Figure 1. Mine closure mechanisms and problems.
or operating medium- and large-scale mines in
Namibia.
At the corporate level, the Outokumpu Group
in Finland published the Mine Closure Hand-
book (Heikkinen et al. 2008) by cooperating with
NGOs. This handbook is a typical example of the
efforts being exerted by mining companies on mine
closure.
Those industrial best practices and guide-
lines have brought extensive and positive effects
on the continual improvement of mine closures
for the international mining industries. Based on
those discussions, the institutional mechanisms
for mine closure, their interactions, and the major
problems involved in the process are illustrated in
Figure 1.
3 APPROACHES TO MINE CLOSURE
As discussed in the previous session, the core
problems for mine closure involve closure plans,
stakeholder involvement, financial assurance,
operations and criteria, monitoring and mainte-
nance, and relinquishment. Those problems and
their approaches should be integrated into the
whole life of a mine project as shown in Figure 2.
3.1 Mine closure plan
Planning for mine closure is a critical component of
environmental management in the mining industry.
Internationally, leading industrial best practices
require planning for mine closure to start as early
as at the stage of mine feasibility studies. This
requirement should be fulfilled before mining can
begin and should continue throughout the service
life of the mine until mine closure and relinquish-
ment. Furthermore, a mine closure plan is dynamic
and should be regularly reviewed and progressively
developed and refined over time to ensure that its
8/27/2014 6:02:33 PM

Figure 2. Closure elements and approaches over mine
life cycle.
details reflect current knowledge and remain rel-
evant to the development status of the mine.
Several established elements of mine closure
plan are discussed in the international literature,
including project overview, identification of clo-
sure obligations and commitments, closure objec-
tives, stakeholder involvement, post-mining land
uses, closure technological and engineering ele-
ments, closure plan implementation and comple-
tion criteria, financial assurance, site monitoring
and maintenance, data management, and risk
assessment.
3.2 Stakeholder involvement
Stakeholders are parties that will be potentially
affected by mine closure, as well as those that will
influence the mine closure process and outcomes.
Typical stakeholders include project owners or
investors, company employees, governmental agen-
cies, local community, environmentalists or NGOs
or media, and business partners.
The stakeholder involvement and communica-
tion are important means for companies to per-
form their social responsibilities and contribute to
484
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 484
sustainable development of society and economy.
With regard to the autonomy and disclosure of
information, mining enterprises should con-
sider stakeholders as performance evaluators of
mine closure and provide means that will allow
stakeholders to become legitimately involved in
the process of mine closure. In addition, under
the concerted guidance of the government, the
stakeholder involvement should continue through-
out the various stages of the mine life cycle from
feasibility studies in the form of communications,
cognition, and compromises to the completion of
closure objectives.
3.3 Financial assurance
Financial assurance is the key component of the
mine closure because it ensures that adequate funds
are available at the time of closure implementation.
Financial assurance includes both estimating clo-
sure cost and financing.
As the minimum financial assurance, mine clo-
sure cost estimates should include those costs for
mine project, construction, community, and con-
tingency. Closure cost estimates should be reviewed
regularly to reflect changing situations.
After cost estimation, the means of financing
may be selected from a large number of options.
Various ways of financing may be appropriate
depending on financial strength of the mining
company, expectations of the stakeholders, and
time frame during which the liability will be extin-
guished. At present, there are generally three financ-
ing methods that can used to ensure mine closure,
including governmental regulatory approach that
frequently occurs in the form of margin deposits,
financial market approach that mainly occurs in
the form of bond issuing and closure guarantees,
and civil society approach that occurs in the form
of closure funds.
3.4 Implementation and completion criteria
Mine closure objects, domains and activities
involve site infrastructure, disturbed land, extrac-
tive processes, waste rocks and tailings, water
quality and quantity, ecological environment, geo-
graphical landscape, and cultural relics or historic
sites, and they have appropriate implementation
methods and completion criteria.
1. Site infrastructure
Methods: All useless infrastructures are removed
or may be retained for reuses.
Criteria: Auditing of the domain against the
final closure plan confirms that useless infra-
structure does not remain on site. The reclama-
tion results satisfy governmental requirements.
8/27/2014 6:02:33 PM
 2. Disturbed land 3.5 Monitoring and maintenance
Method: The land is capped according to guide-
Post-closure monitoring and maintenance fol-
lines and reclaimed.
low the main processes of mine closure such as
Criteria: The reclamation results satisfy gov-
demolition or reformation of facilities and land
ernmental requirements. Field surveys show no
reclamation. The primary reason for the continu-
increase in numbers of grazing animals above
ous monitoring of a post-mining site even after it
baseline conditions and consequent impacts
is closed is to ensure that remediation measures,
from this.
including earthworks, water treatments, and drain-
3. Extractive processes
age systems, are implemented as intended and in
Methods: Necessary civil constructions are built
accordance with closure criteria. In addition, site
to keep the site stable. Fencing is performed to
surveillance is necessary to ensure that the mine
isolate unrelated individuals or organizations.
site remains safe and poses no environmental or
The ecological environment is restored. Sewage
health risks during the monitoring period (typi-
facilities are installed. A water monitoring sys-
cally more than 5 years). Regular monitoring also
tem is established.
allows rapid and reasonable response when the
Criteria: Geotechnical assessment show that
rehabilitation process is found to be deficient or in
reinforced structures are physically stable. The
case of structural failure.
fence is sufficiently rugged. No injury or death
An efficient monitoring and maintaining system
has resulted from structure stability or access.
requires defined operating actors, assigned and
Professional assessment reports show that the
committed responsibilities, monitored items, and
ecological environment is efficiently restored.
maintained targets as shown in Figure 3.
Water quality and quantity are kept stable or
beneficial to the environment.
3.6 Relinquishment
4. Waste rocks and tailings
Method: Necessary civil constructions are built Relinquishment refers to the formal approval by
to keep waste rocks and tailings physically and relevant governmental departments, confirming
chemically stable. that the agreed-upon closure targets are achieved
Criteria: Geotechnical assessment shows that upon satisfying the criteria for closing a mine.
storages of waste rocks and tailings are physi- Those criteria should satisfy the concerned minis-
cally stable. No negative effect on the environ- tries after the end of the monitoring period. Once
ment is observed. signing off occurs, the mine will be in a position
5. Water quality and quantity to transfer liabilities to the subsequent owner. This
Methods: Water treatment facilities are installed, process involves both content definition and pro-
drainage ditches are constructed, and monitor- cedure as shown Figure 4.
ing systems are established. The relinquishment content defines the pro-
Criteria: Water quality is kept stable or improved. tection of the site ecological environment,
No ponding occurs in pits or in underground
operation sites.
6. Ecological environment
Methods: Wetlands are restored and reclaimed,
and vegetation is planted.
Criterion: Assessment reports are reviewed and
approved by concerned departments.
7. Geological landscape
Method: Landscape is embellished through nec-
essary processing and construction.
Criterion: Professional assessment reports
approved by the government show that land-
scape function and vegetation are resilient, self-
sustaining, and comparable with those in the
surrounding area.
8. Cultural relics and historic sites
Method: Fencing was performed to isolate
unrelated individuals or organizations, as well
as to provide special care.
Criterion: The operation report is reviewed and
approved by the administration for cultural Figure 3. Elements of monitoring and maintenance
relics. system.

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Figure 4. Relinquishment content and procedure.
maintenance and management of the remaining
engineering facilities, support to the economy
and culture of local communities, and response to
emergencies.
The relinquishment procedure involves provid-
ing an application by the person who is liable for
the closure, submitting integrity closure data and
information, receiving reviews or audits from the
concerned departments, defining the contents and
subsequent owner and documenting, posting, and
keeping necessary records.
4 MINE CLOSURE ISSUES IN CHINA
Mine closure regulatory instruments are set in the
Chinese Mineral Resources Law 1996, stipulat-
ing that a mine closure report and information
on operations, risks, land use, and environmen-
tal protection must be submitted when closing a
mine; the mine operator must apply for a review
and approval in accordance with the appropriate
provisions. In the Regulations for the Implementa-
tion of the Mineral Resources Law and some other
governmental rules, mine closure procedures, con-
ditions, and geology reports are required. Those
regulations are directed to address the problems
of mine surveys, mineral resource utilization, com-
parison of exploration and mining, hydrogeology,
engineering geology, conservation of reserves, and
requirements and procedures for mine closure
reporting, but less concerned with mine closure
environmental and community issues.
486
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 486
In 2002, the Specifications for Compiling Solid
Mineral Exploration and Mine Closure Geologi-
cal Reports (DZ/T0033-2002D) was published
as the governmentally recommended standard,
and set the Outline for Compiling Solid Mineral
Mine Closure Geological Report as the norma-
tive appendix of the standard. Compared with the
former closure regulation, this standard does not
only consider compiling mine closure geological
reports for managing mineral resources, but also
pays attention to the effects of abandoned mines
on their environment and geological disasters.
With the reformation and abolition of govern-
mental administrative examinations and approv-
als in China, local governments have formulated
relevant measures for mine closure management
based on their respective situations. For example,
Liaoning Province issued the Regulations on the
Management of Mineral Resources, establishing
some financial instruments for the environmental
governance and mineral exploitation and includ-
ing some punitive measures for certain negative
behavior and effects of mine closing companies.
In 2010, the Ministry of Land and Resources
of China promulgated a departmental directive
to advocate the development and construction of
green mines. This directive sets a voluntary mech-
anism for promoting the national industry-wide
assessment of green mine to achieve the goals of
resource saving and environment friendly mining.
The major indicators for green mines include
mining legitimacy, management standardiza-
tion, mineral resource conservation, technological
advancement, energy saving and waste reduction,
environmental protection, land reclamation, com-
munity development, and corporate culture.
In 2011 and 2013, the Chinese State Council
and its Ministry of Land and Resources issued the
Land Reclamation Regulation and the Measures
for the Implementation of Land Reclamation Reg-
ulation respectively. The regulations require min-
ing companies which are liable for mine closure to
undertake remedial measures to restore the land
disturbed.
It is evident that the current regulatory mecha-
nisms and industrial practices which consider the
problem of mine closure in China are more focused
on mineral resource conservation and mined land
reclamation than environmental protection, min-
ing community sustainability, and mine closure
integration into the life of mine. Specifically, the
following issues need to be addressed:
1. The term of mine closure has been narrowly
defined in regulatory mechanisms and indus-
trial practices in China, and mainly used for the
purpose of mineral resource reporting and geo-
logical disturbance recording. This needs to be
8/27/2014 6:02:34 PM
 changed for the mineral industries to contribute
to the sustainability of mining communities.
2. Many historically abandoned or orphaned
mines in China are in the state of negligence
and they pose environmental and ecological
and health impacts on mining communities and
safety risks on associated mining operations.
Those situations call for urgent care from the
public, industrial and civic sectors.
3. Mining activities bring considerable negative
externalities as well as positive ones to the mine
communities and its environment. As such, an
effective mechanism allowing for the participa-
tion and involvement of local civic sectors as
stakeholders in the life cycle process of mine has
been widely accepted as a socially responsible
code of conduct for mining corporations. But
due to the institutional constraints and cultural
impediments, the process of stakeholder par-
ticipation and involvement is heavily controlled
and needs to be improved.
To better contribute to the goals and objectives
of economic, social and environmental sustain-
ability in China, the mineral and mining industries
must adopt the internationally accepted best prac-
tices for mine closure.
5 CONCLUSIONS
International organizations, national govern-
ments, mineral industries, and civic sectors are
focusing attention to mine closure and developing
best practices. By contrast, the progress of rel-
evant studies and practices in China is slow and
inadequate.
To facilitate the process and promote the build-
ing of capacity for mine closure in China, the
concept of mine closure should be understood in
its broad sense. Mine closure includes the process
of mine closure planning and its implementation.
Mine closure planning continues throughout
the life of a mine, starting with conceptual clo-
sure plans prior to production, periodic updates
throughout the life of the mine, and a final decom-
missioning plan. Mine closure implementation or
decommissioning is the period of time when the
ore-extracting activities of a mine have ceased, the
final decommissioning, mine reclamation, and site
monitoring and maintenance are completed, and
the land is relinquished.
In addition to the legal frameworks and gov-
ernmental regulations, the industrial and civic
487
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 487
sector guidelines for mine closure will also con-
tribute the completion and improvement of
mine closures. Such guidelines could bring in the
international best practices oriented toward the
sustainability of mining communities, includ-
ing life-cycle mine closure planning, stakeholder
participation and involvement process, financial
assurance mechanisms, completion criteria, and
post-mining site monitoring and maintenance
systems.
REFERENCES
ANZMEC & M. C. A. 2000. Strategic Framework for
Mine Closure. Canberra: Australian and New Zealand
Minerals and Energy Council.
Chamber of Mines of Namibia. 2010. Namibia Mine
Closure Framework. Windhoek.
Cochilco. 2002. Research on mine closure policy. Mining
for the Future, International Institute for Environment
and Development, Paper (44): 12.
Cowan, W.R., Mackasey, W.O. & Robertson, J.G.A.
2010. The policy framework in Canada for mine closure
and management of long-term liabilities: A guidance
document. Ottawa: National Orphaned/Abandoned
Mines Initiative.
Department of Mines and Petroleum (DMP) & Environ-
mental Protection Authority (EPA). 2011. Guidelines
for Preparing Mine Closure Plans. Western Australia.
European Union. 2006. Directive 2006/21/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March
2006 on the management of waste from extractive
industries and amending Directive 2004/35. Official
Journal of the European Union 102: 1533.
Heikkinen, P.M., Noras, P., & Salminen, R. (eds).
2008. Mine closure handbook. Espoo: Vammalan
Kirjapaino Oy.
International Council on Mining & Metals (ICMM). 2006.
Planning for Integrated Mine Closure: Toolkit. London.
Peck, P. 2005. Mining for Closure: Policies and Guidelines
for Sustainable Mining Practice and Closure of Mines.
Geneva: UNDP, UNEP, NATO, OSCE.
See Miller. 2005. Financial Assurance for Mine Closure
and Reclamation. London: ICMM.
Swart, E. 2003. The South African Legislative Framework
for Mine Closure. The Journal of the South African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (10): 489492.
The Minister for Industry, Tourism and Resources. 2006.
Mine Closure and Completion. Canberra.
Tracey Khanna (ed.). 2000. Mine closure and sustainable
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Recultivation and sustainable development of post-mining landscapes

R.U. Syrbe
Leibniz-Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development, Dresden, Germany

ABSTRACT: Large mining regions are connected with complex environmental problems such as
groundwater loss or rising, acidification and iron accumulation in water bodies, landslide risk and others.
These regions have often limited capacities to solve the problems alone, but they do have capabilities that
should be identified and awakened. Three stages of mining conversion should be differentiated: First,
when mining is still running; second, the following phase of rehabilitation and; third, the new era of
sustainable development. The paper gives some hints to the sustainable development reflecting the experi-
ences from several types of post-mining landscape in eastern Germany. The presented key methods are
a framework for participative scenarios to figure out appreciated future development strategies and the
assessment of ecosystem services as indicators for sustainability.

1 INTRODUCTION (Lusatia and Central Germany) and one in Western

1.1 Post-mining landscapes in eastern Germany
Germany has a long mining tradition. Therefore,
there are post-mining landscapes from several ages
with different conditions. For instance, the ore min-
ing as one of the oldest mining activities already
started for the most areas in the middle ages. But
there is rarely ore mining yet; only two mines haul
ore today (iron and copper). The concerned former
ore mining regions had to convert already for a
long time. Only the cultural tradition and brown-
fields have remained. Of course, there are recently
considerations to open new mines again in future
if prices will raise further (particularly rare earths
and copper) in old and new ore regions (Ore and
Harz Mountains, Central Germany, Lusatia).
The German hard coal mining is economically
depending on subsidies that are determined to
expire by 2018. Therefore, even the last hard coal
mining regions have to switch to another economi-
cal basis and convert to a post mining development
completely. This turn is decided since 2007, thus all
recent coal mining regions had already started the
conversion process for long and gathered experi-
ences with it.
In contrast, the lignite mining had a strong
decline after the political change of the 1990ies
in Eastern Germany. There are a lot of mines
that had to close suddenly around 1990, and no
well-planned restoration could be implemented
therefore. Thus, Germany has much experience
with brownfield rehabilitation. But lignite is still
the main energy source of Germany. Three large
mining regions exist: two in Eastern Germany
Germany (Rhineland). The large opencast lignite
mines underlie strong planning regulations and
implicate severe controversies nevertheless.
There is also a widespread stone and earth
mining industry with somewhere conflict-laden
projects. But there are often no such large min-
ing regions with complex environmental problems
such as groundwater loss or rising, acidification
and iron accumulation in water bodies, landslide
risk like the coal mining causes.
1.2 Problems of post-mining landscapes
A special problem is connected with the past ura-
nium mining in Eastern Germany. At the instigation
of former Soviet Union, the huge German uranium
resources were exploited completely. The mining
activities caused serious environmental damages
and radiation-loaded landscapes. The polluted
areas had very difficult starting conditions for a
post-mining development under the hard competi-
tion for investors. The government expended much
funds to clean the environment but they couldnt
rehabilitate the concerned regions in Saxony and
Thuringia. Moreover, some mining sites that had
explored shortly after the World War II didnt come
under the law of sanitation and cannot even recov-
ered by the governmental program.
In most cases, the end of mining caused a
number of serious problems that is called by
Beaten et al. 1999 the unavoidable socio-economic
drama of pit closure. The problems were inves-
tigated by several projects and the rehabilitation
approaches were accompanied by research activi-
ties (e.g. With & Lintz 2007, Wirth et al. 2012).

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 Generally, the concerned regions have limited
capacities to solve the problem alone. The shrink-
ing industrial basis led to declining tax receipts.
The exodus and growing older of population limit
the skills of self-development and conversion.
Ecological damages harm people, but also confine
the available building land. Huge and often ugly
brownfields, mostly even blocked to access, inhibit
the regional consolidation and make connections
impassable. Additionally, the post-mining areas get
bad image that obstruct for instance new invest-
ments or touristic development. Because of this
situation simple solutions are not possible; more-
over, the problem is complex and cross-linking
(Wirth et al. 2012).
2 OPTIONS FOR POST-MINING REGIONS
2.1 Toward a sustainable development
of post-mining landscapes
Despite all the problems, post-mining areas do have
capabilities that should be identified and awaken.
Unfortunately, there is no sure formula for success;
moreover, the usual schemes of regional develop-
ment are likely to fail due to the above mentioned
issues. The main research questions are: How can
they build up capacities nevertheless? Are there
unconventional options available and what have to
be done to come to a social compromise about?
The search for solutions should differentiate the
following three stages of mining conversion: First,
what can be done anticipatory when mining is still
running? Therefore, we formulated and tested a
scenario framework to draft and agree on future
goals for regional development (see chapter 3).
Even the last mining activities can be shaped to
facilitate the future use if it is known. Second,
what is the essential task for the following phase of
rehabilitation after the mining period? Hereby, the
sanitation must go hand in hand with the startup
of new projects in order to avoid a loss of time,
of competences, and of chances. We can give some
hints to that phase as far as we have experiences
with several types of post-mining landscape in
Eastern Germany. Third, how can we lead into
a new era of sustainable development and what
means sustainable thereby? The point is to use the
existing chances to realize new visions of future,
which should be give people the possibility to over-
come environmental restrictions, to generate new
net product and create more social benefit and wel-
fare for everyone.
2.2 Possible solutions
A key for possible solutions is to capture and
upgrade the heritage and results of mining era.
490
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 490
Due to the matters loss, lakescapes will emerge or
be arranged in many places. A new and sometimes
more exciting relief will arise, even in previously
flat areas. Dumps get covered by new woods using
the raw oligotrophic soils and protecting against
erosion and landslides. Yet new open spaces can
have value for possible after-use. These after-use
options depend strongly on the characteristics and
the location of a post mining area. Lakescapes for
instance could be a good resort for nearby recrea-
tion or high-quality housing (that could sometimes
be exclusive from each other). However, wellness
and recreation require optimal environmental con-
ditions and a connection of water bodies, which
could be very challenging and expensive to create.
But that would be only successful if there is enough
financially powerful demand cities and increasing
industry near by.
If the population density and the pressure for
industrial development were lower, a succession of
new habitats, the protection of biodiversity and new
wilderness would be better options for a region.
Having exciting landscape conditions or well-known
treasures of nature, such soft location factors can
contribute to a more efficient use of regional poten-
tials. Aquatics and recreation, sports, wellness, and
health care can be developed for solvent user groups
and as attraction for possible investors.
The combination of cultural heritage and new
landscape conceptions have growing significance,
for instance by integration of memorials of past
industry and tradition as well as new arts and land-
scape architecture.
2.3 Renewable energy landscapes
The most advanced challenge is the creation of
new energy landscapes, which is one of the ongo-
ing research topics for the presenter in Germany
and China as well. Many post-mining areas were
shaped by fossil energy provision, which must be
end as soon as the limited resources are exhausted.
Hence, there is a sophisticated infrastructure
for energy production and distribution even to
remote consumers and not least many employees,
which are educated and experienced in energy and
engineering.
The type of post-mining landscape defines and
restricts the possible renewable energy use. For
lignite regions and comparable open-cast min-
ing areas, the construction of solar energy plants
and the cultivation of energy plantations are most
promising, while windmills on dumps and in lakes
as well as to pump up lake water for energy storage
would be more difficult but nevertheless possible.
For hard coal regions and comparable deep min-
ing areas, geothermal energy extraction combined
with energy storage by pump hydro underground
8/27/2014 6:02:35 PM
 stations could be more suitable. Such stations
already exist in German ore mining areas, but must
be further developed for coal conditions.
3 SCENARIOS AND
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
3.1 Why participative and scenario approaches?
Our ecosystems are impacted by several transitions
e.g. due to mining and post-mining developments
and the urban sprawl. A sustainable development
of post-mining regions needs at least participa-
tory approaches to integrate those people who
should live there and carry the future develop-
ment. Using scenarios, we can analyze the conse-
quences of several activity options and determine
how actors will be able to control these develop-
ments (Carpenter et al. 2006). The discussion of
scenarios is a key approach since it allows an exam-
ination of the future aspects of landscape develop-
ment among others to consider ecosystem services
(Rosenberg et al. 2014). Moreover, scenarios are
a bridging framework for interdisciplinary social-
environmental research (Santelmann et al. 2004).
Scenarios are the exploration of plausible
futures for ecosystems and human well-being based
on different assumptions about driving forces of
change and their possible interactions (MEA
2005). Their aim is therefore to draft and to com-
pare possible options of action. Instead of only fol-
lowing a single future trend, a tree of possibilities
can be explored (Oppermann 2008), enabling to
assess the desired and manageable among them.
The elaboration of scenarios can be done ana-
lytically by experts or together with lay actors.
Analytical scenarios are often quantitatively, while
participative discussions should be qualitatively.
There is also a difference between projective and
normative scenarios. The following methodical
framework is designed for scenarios of landscape
development that should be evaluated by ecosystem
services. It uses a projective forecast approach. It is
open-ended, i.e. there is no direction and range of
developments set from the beginning. Quantitative
and qualitative approaches can dominate or be
combined. The framework consists of seven steps
(Rosenberg et al. 2014).
3.2 Methodical steps to regional scenarios
Step 1 is the preparation of scenario process
including the formulation of a principal question
and eventually of core topics, too. The principal
question phrases the gross objectives as well as
time horizon and of study area. Several objects of
investigation may be defined by core topics.
491
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 491
Step 2 is the selection of driving forces and
ecosystem services to be considered. The scenario
team has to determine, what drivers are interesting
for the principal question and what impacts they
can cause to ecosystems.
Step 3 sets the logical structure of scenarios. It
has to be decided, what drivers shall be variable
within the scenario process. The scenario setting
can be achieved connecting these key drivers with
diverse trends. Other drivers are considered to be
similar between several future projections.
Step 4 implements the scenario structure. The
key drivers are connected with the above trends
as is interesting for the principal question. The
trends may be linear but also accelerating, retard-
ing or erratic. Only selected trends combinations
can be used because contradictions are possible.
At the end, a differentiation of future visions
results guiding the ways to describe scenarios as
follows.
Step 5 means the specification of scenarios.
Short names (so-called archetypes) characterize
the assumable end points in future. A cross-impact
analysis helps to consider the main effects. Also,
the participative scenario method involves stake-
holders to discussion. A proven tool to facilitate
such a discussion is to map scenarios. To draw
them into a map gives an imagination about spa-
tial dependencies. These maps are basics for the
following evaluation step.
Step 6 evaluates the scenarios outcome to give
answers to the principal question and to ensure the
quality of scenarios. The framework is to assess
ecosystem services using known methods (i.e.
Grunewald & Bastian 2014). But also the so-called
trade-offs (i.e. future cross-impacts of the services)
should be unfolded by delineating risk areas. The
purpose of this step is to draw conclusions from
scenarios to develop future strategies.
Step 7 comprises all measures of scenarios com-
munication and participation with the concerned
population. Therefore, data must be translated
into public comprehensible presentations. Lastly,
the scenario results have to be published to give
them a great public awareness and application.
3.3 Participation
Participation is the cooperation of actors, stake-
holders or interested individuals. The main reason
for the involvement of decision makers by par-
ticipative methods is the social appreciation of the
results. Additionally, participative scenario work-
shops reveal educational effects for the participants
(Alcamo 2008). But the work with lay people within
sophisticated methods is challenging. The essential
problem is to give comprehensive and interesting
information in normal language.
8/27/2014 6:02:35 PM
 Nature, our environment and the society are
complex systems. That means, the reaction of a
system is not totally predictable, even if we know
single effects precisely. An example for complex
systems is the stock exchange. Disturbance of
complex ecosystems might lead to severe and irre-
versible new problems (SRU 2007). Land manage-
ment can be considered to be a complex system
since land use affects nature in many ways, e.g.
water cycling, soil fertility, biodiversity or regional
value adding.
3.4 Ecosystem services
The degree of sustainability can be character-
ized using the conception of ecosystem services,
i.e. such an assessment give hints to optimize
the strategy for post-mining regions in regard to
the welfare of society. Ecosystem services are the
conditions and processes through which natural
ecosystems and the species they represent, sustain
and fill human life (Daily 1997). Their values are
generated in various relationships and interactions
between humans and nature. They are differenti-
ated into the classes providing services (such as
food, raw materials, water, energy), regulating
services (protecting against flood, storms, clean-
ing air and water, enhancing soil quality, yield and
others), and cultural services (landscape scenery,
habitat values, spiritual values etc.).
The following evaluation concepts can be dis-
tinguished by Potthast (2007) with reference to
biodiversity:
The economic exchange value measures the
market value of an object; the measuring value
is usually the price, which does not necessarily
say something about the real value.
The instrumental value assesses the potentials of
an object to function as a resource for human
economic and welfare purposes.
The inherent resp. intrinsic value declares the
appreciation for its own sake, simply because
it exists (existence value), because it has bio-
graphical or cultural significance (reminder
value, home), because it is unique and special
(character), because it allows experiences (e.g.,
wilderness), or because it is to be preserved for
posterity (heritage). Intrinsic values evade a
monetization in principle, but they are commu-
nicable, i.e. they are comprehensible for others,
and the value lies in the specific relationship
(Grunewald and Bastian 2014).
A comprehensive assessment of ecosystem
services can serve as a basis for politicians and
stakeholders to support decisions by involving all
492
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 492
different demands. Complex systems can be deter-
mined by observations of patterns. The concepts
of sustainability and of ecosystem services could
be seen as tools to give post-mining regions the
needed drive to a new direction for future well-be-
ing of their people. One of the objectives is to find
out in which ways that future well-being can be
influenced by specific activities and by planning.
Of course we also need a broad social consensus
about the designated future as well as the spirit of
optimism to meet it.
REFERENCES
Alcamo J. (2008): Environmental Futures: The Practice
of environmental scenario analysis. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
Carpenter S.R., Bennett E.M., Peterson G.D. (2006):
Editorial: Special Feature on Scenarios for Ecosystem
Services. Ecology and Society 11: 32.
Daily G. (Hrsg) (1997): Natures Services: Societal
dependence on natural ecosystems. Island Press,
Washington DC.
Grunewald K., Bastian O. (Eds. 2014): Ecosystem
ServicesConcept, Methods and Case Studies.
Springer, 287 pp.
MEA: Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005):
Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis.
Oppermann B. (2008): Zur Kunst der Landschaftsvorher-
sage. Gedankenanlsslich des FLL-Fachforums zum
Thema Zukunftslandschaften. Stadt + Grn: 3538.
Potthast T. (2007): BiodiversittSchlsselbegriff des
Naturschutzes im 21. Jahrhundert? Naturschutz und
Biologische Vielfalt 48, Bundesamt fr Naturschutz,
Bonn.
Rosenberg M., Syrbe R.-U., Vowinckel J., Walz U. (2014):
Scenario Methodology for Modelling of Future Land-
scape Developments as Basis for Assessing Ecosystem
Services. Landscape Online 33: 120.
Santelmann M.V., White D., Freemark K., Nassauer J.I.,
Eilers J.M., Vach K.B., Danielson B.J., Corry R.C.,
Clark M.E., Polasky S., Cruse R.M., Sifneos J.,
Rustigian H., Coiner C., Wu J., Debinski D. (2004):
Assessing alternative futures for agriculture in Iowa,
U.S.A. Landscape Ecology 19: 357374.
SRUSachverstndigenrat fr Umwelt (2007):
Umweltschutz im Zeichen des Klimawandels.
Umweltgutachten. Berlin.
Wirth P., Lintz G. (2007): Strategies of Rehabilitation
and Development in European Mining Regions. In:
Good (Best) Practice Cases in Regional Development
after Mining and Industry. Symposium, May 1718,
2006, Institute of Geography and Regional Science,
University of Graz, Austria. Graz: Institut f.
Geographie u. Raumforschung d. Universitt (Grazer
Schriften fr Geographie und Raumforschung 42)
7585.
Wirth P., Cernic B.M., Fischer W. (Eds., 2012):
Post-Mining Regions in Central Europe. Problems,
Potentials, Possibilities. Oekom 269 pp.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Analysis of mine land reclamation regulation system

from a new public management perspective

X. Zhou & Y. Zhou

Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Center, MLR, Beijing, China

Z.Z. Du
School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Land reclamation in China faces challenges, but the theoretical study of land reclama-
tion regulation system and the actual regulatory work are still insufficient. In this paper, the new public
management theory and method were employed to study the mine land reclamation regulation issue
in China and the framework and its elements of mine land reclamation regulation system were given
through analysis, i.e., regulatory rules (legal regulatory rules and technical regulatory rules), regulatory
objectives (macro-view, middle-view, micro-view), regulatory subjects and objects (vertically divided
into five levels and horizontally ensuring good inter-departmental coordination), regulatory procedures
(including conception, plan, implementation, acceptance check), regulatory means (administrative
approval, check and acceptance, information reporting and filing, fund supervision agreement, admin-
istrative penalty), etc.

Keywords: new public management; mine land reclamation; regulatory system

1 INTRODUCTION by the Ministry of Land and Resources for imple-

China is rich in mineral resources, and the exploi-
tation of mineral resources severely damages the
land resources. Due to incomplete land reclamation
regulation system and insufficiency of regulatory
work, reclamation is not timely implemented for
lots of damaged land. According to statistics, up to
2009, the area of the land that is damaged due to
the production and construction activities as well
as natural disasters is about 135,070,000 mu, with
about 33,820,000 mu reclaimed and 101,250,000 mu
unreclaimed. 53,150,000 mu of the unreclaimed
land is damaged due to the exploitation of mineral
resources. It is estimated that up to 2020 the area
of land damaged due to the exploitation of min-
eral resources will reach 81,304,500 mu (Yan, 2011,
Zhou et al. 2013).
The Regulation on Land Reclamation imple-
mented by the State Council on March 5, 2011,
together with the Measures for the Implementation
of the Regulation on Land Reclamation promulgated
mentation on Dec.27, 2012, constitute the funda-
mental institutional framework of Chinas land
reclamation. However, the unsound regulatory
authorities, incomplete regulatory mechanism,
inefficient regulatory means and under-developed
regulatory technology still have not been changed
since then (Zhou et al. 2014).
Many scholars have conducted studies on land
reclamation management and technology, but
the study on land reclamation regulation theory
and technical methods is still fragmented. Espe-
cially, no systematic, complete and intensive stud-
ies on the structure, content and means of land
regulation system have been conducted, and the
advanced concept of the management science
has not been actually applied to land reclamation
regulation.
The study on the construction of the complete
and efficient land reclamation regulation system
from the perspective of new public management is
of great significance theoretically and practically

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 for promoting the land reclamation work of Organization for Economic Cooperation and
China. Development (OECD): 1) The governments
service shall be public demand oriented; 2) The
government output, results, efficiency and qual-
2 THEORY AND METHOD OF NEW ity shall be stressed; 3) The administrative regu-
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT lation shall be loosened, performance objective
management put into trial implementation and
2.1 Origin of new public management measurement and evaluation for accomplishment
of performance objectives emphasized; 4) The
Since 1980s, western countries have carries out wide
government shall widely employ the management
scale large-scale government reforms to deal with
means such as cost-benefit analysis, comprehen-
financial crisis and governments trust deficit and
sive quality management and objective manage-
performance deficit. The operation mode of govern-
ment; 5) The monopoly of public service supply
ment management was transformed from traditional,
shall be canceled and some public sectors shall be
bureaucratic, hierarchical and inelastic administra-
privatized to make more private sectors engaged
tion into market-oriented, well-adapted and elastic
in the public service supply; 6) Human resource
public management. The wave of reform is endowed
management shall be emphasized to promote
with different names such as the New Right, New
the flexibility of personnel management. New
Governance, Managerialism, Entrepreneurial Gov-
public management emphasizes that the role
ernment and Market-based Public Administration,
of the government in social public affairs man-
collectively known as New Public Management
agement shall be changed, and the government
(Wang et al. 2008, Liu. 2010, Xue et al. 2002).
shall achieve the following transformations by
Governance means or technologies advocated in
reengineering: from paddling government to
the New Public Management movement are more
steering government; from power-oriented gov-
managerial than administrative. The govern-
ernment to responsibility-oriented government;
ment management mode emerging in the move-
from approval-oriented government to service-
ment is called as new public management mode.
oriented government; from commanding govern-
The theoretical basis of this mode is the manage-
ment to coordinating government; from unlimited
ment theory of economics and private sectors,
government to limited government (Wang et al.
including public choice theory, and new institu-
2008, Liu. 2010, Xue et al. 2002).
tional economics, etc (Wang et al. 2008, Liu. 2010,
Hoods insight on the new public manage-
Xue et al. 2002).
ment from the perspective of management
The new public management as a theory is
procedures, including includes seven aspects:
practically a new concept, new method and new
professional management of public policy area;
mode of government behaviors and government
explicit standard and evaluation of performance
management employed by governments to solve
management; especially emphasized output and
real problems. It aims to eliminate crises confronted
control; public sectors transformed from centrali-
by governments and promote governmental effi-
zation to division; more competitive development
ciency and legality. Theoretically speaking, the
of public sectors; more attention paid to private
mode is a management theory and mental effort
sectors; stronger enforceability and economy in
with economy, efficiency and performance as the
resource utilization (Wang et al. 2008, Liu. 2010,
basic value, which is developed on the basis of the
Xue et al. 2002).
consideration on the traditional public administra-
Owen. E. Hughes proposed a comprehensive
tion mode, the recognition of administration and
framework of the new public management on the
management concept, as well as the response to
basis of the general management framework. He
the attack to public sectors and reexamination for
thought that the content of the new public man-
the reforms of economic theories, private sectors
agement contains three sectors: strategy, internal
and technologies, focuses on the adjustment for the
factors of management and external factors of
national and social relationships and the remode-
management (Wang et al. 2008, Liu. 2010, Xue
ling of the governments self-management means,
et al. 2002).
procedures and mode and aims to solve the intrin-
sic errors in governmental and social management
(Wang et al. 2008, Liu. 2010, Xue et al. 2002). 2.3 Information Technology (IT)
and new public management
2.2 Representative views of new public
Western countries new public management reforms
management
generally aim to transform the original govern-
There are three representative views reflecting the ment into a simplified, innovative, effective and
connotation of new public management. versatile new government. Diversified strategies

494

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 and measures were employed in the reform,
wherein, a remarkable result is to apply informa-
tion technology to reengineer the government.
The development of the modern IT technology
provides tools for government reengineering in
real time and makes the government capable of
delivering services and creating new types of serv-
ices in novel ways. Western countries all propose
the administrative reform objective of building an
Electronic Government (EG) or on-line govern-
ment. The essence of the electronic government
is to apply information and communication tech-
nology to break the organization boundary of the
government agencies and build an electronic virtual
organization, which makes people acquire and use
governmental information and services via differ-
ent channels, so the traditional complex formalities
of written approval are canceled; the government
agencies and all social circles also communicate
with one another via electronic channel. Various
service options can be provided according to peo-
ples demand, forms available for people and the
time and place required by people (Dong & Su.
2004).
The development of modern information and
communication technology severely impacts the
concept of government management, the structure
of government governance, the process and work-
flow of government, government policy and policy
making. The comparative advantage of informa-
tization is revealed in raising the governments
responsiveness, promoting the governments com-
munication efficiency, promoting decision-making
quality and capacity, streamlining the government,
making good use of human resource, saving the
governments expenditure, enlarging the citizen
participation and innovating the governments
services. Thus, the realization of electronic govern-
ment is bound to combine with the government
reengineering. So far, the following forms of the
combination of information technology and gov-
ernment reengineering have been realized: the tra-
ditional hierarchical public organization structure
with information technology has been changed,
and a network organization established; the proce-
dures of government operation have been changed
and a seamless government established; the gov-
ernmental functions have been changed and a
steering government built; the dominant single
national management is transformed into the joint
management of the nation and society; the govern-
ment management concept has been reformed and
customer-oriented government established. It just
because the electronic government is of so great
significance and function that countries in the
world take the establishment of the electronic gov-
ernment as a strategic measure of national devel-
opment (Dong & Su. 2004).
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 495
3 DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE
OF MINE LAND RECLAMATION
REGULATION SYSTEM FROM A
PERSPECTIVE OF NEW PUBLIC
MANAGEMENT
3.1 Enlightenment of new public management
for mine land reclamation regulation
There are following three points of enlighten-
ment for the study in this paper from the modes
of demand as orientation and performance
objective management in the new public manage-
ment theory and the reform purpose of the elec-
tronic government:
1. Taking the demand of the society and public as
orientation, attaching importance to the public
participation and social supervision, optimiz-
ing the object of land reclamation management
and transforming power-oriented and approval-
oriented government to responsibility-oriented
and service-oriented government.
2. Implementing performance objective manage-
ment for land reclamation regulation and index-
ing and quantizing the regulation objectives to
make them measurable and evaluable.
3. Employing the reform ideas of electronic gov-
ernment to design an electronic land reclama-
tion regulation system; changing the traditional
practices such as official business handling and
transaction management methods with modern
information and communication technology to
realize the informatized management and serv-
ice of land reclamation regulation.
3.2 Definition of land reclamation
regulation system
Land reclamation regulation can be understood
as a series of restrictive and controlling activi-
ties (regulatory content and procedures) carried
out by regulatory subjects against regulatory
objects through a series of regulatory means
to realize regulatory objectives on the basis of
applicable regulatory rules. Land reclamation
regulation system is an organic whole constituted
by regulatory rules, regulatory objectives, regulatory
subjects and objects, regulatory procedures, regula-
tory means, etc (Zhou et al. 2014, He et al. 2012).
3.3 Structure of mine land reclamation
regulation system
Land reclamation regulation system is mainly con-
stituted by regulatory rules, regulatory objectives,
regulatory subjects and objects, regulatory proce-
dures, regulatory means, etc. The specific informa-
tion is shown in Figure 1.
8/27/2014 6:02:36 PM
 Figure 1. Structure of mine land reclamation regulation system.
1. Regulatory rules
Regulatory rules are the general term of laws
and regulations, policy documents and technical
standards on which the regulation is based. It is
the prerequisite and foundation for the develop-
ment of regulatory activities. Regulatory rules
of mine land reclamation in China are divided
into legal rules and technical rules. Both of the
two kinds of rules are applied to the current
mine land reclamation regulation framework,
but both need improving.
2. Regulatory objectives
Regulatory objectives are the expected results
of regulatory activities. Regulatory objectives
are characterized in nonuniformity. i.e., regula-
tory subjects at different levels may have differ-
ent expected regulatory results during the whole
process of the regulatory activity according to
their own positions in the regulatory system.
3. Regulatory subjects and objects
Regulatory subjects are the executives of regula-
tory activities, and regulatory objects are targets
of action in regulatory activities. The study on
the regulatory system mainly focuses on the def-
inition of the types and limits of authority of
regulatory subjects and the relationship among
regulatory subjects and between regulatory sub-
jects and objects that can make the whole regu-
latory system more effective. All the regulatory
subjects shall be positioned in the whole regula-
tory system and their duties shall be segregated
to make their rights explicit and achieve mutual
coordination with no interference.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 496
4. Regulatory procedures
Regulatory content is the concrete manifestation
of the regulatory objectives in practical opera-
tion. The regulatory content can be subdivided
into land damage situation, land reclamation
situation, land reclamation project implementa-
tion condition, deposit and use of land reclama-
tion fund, etc. according to the business features
of mine land reclamation regulation.
According to the time-related features of regu-
latory activities, each regulatory activity can be
divided into a number of procedures, and the
content specific at each procedure is more specific
to promote the efficiency of the whole activity.
According to the business features of mine land rec-
lamation and regulation and life cycle theory, mine
land reclamation regulation activity can be divided
into four procedures: conception, plan, implemen-
tation and acceptance check, which can be further
divided into seven sub-procedures: land reclama-
tion scheme, stage land reclamation plan, annual
land reclamation implementation plan, annual land
reclamation implementation report, annual accept-
ance check, stage acceptance check and overall
acceptance check.
3.4 Regulatory means
Regulatory means (also called as regulatory meth-
ods) are generally a group of regulatory measures
that can be employed to actually implement the
regulatory content at the level of operation, they are
8/27/2014 6:02:36 PM
 the specific administrative behaviors of governmen-
tal regulatory departments and regulatory and self-
discipline tools for other regulatory subjects. Except
common traditional management methods such
as approval, verification, registration, punishment,
takeover, etc., there are also some specific regula-
tory means, such as information disclosure, regula-
tory report, supervision and inspection, supervision
of accounting and auditing, talk with or inquiry to
senior executives, regulation rating, specific regula-
tory measures, regulatory compulsory measures,
flexible regulatory measures, punishment meas-
ures, etc. Since last century, various countries in
the world have began to rethink the existing regula-
tory means, some widely used regulatory means are
strongly questioned and meanwhile the soft regula-
tory means attract more and more attention.

4 CONTENT OF MINE LAND

RECLAMATION REGULATION SYSTEM
FROM A PERSPECTIVE OF NEW
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

4.1 Content of regulatory rules

4.1.1 Content of legal rules
The legal rules of land reclamation in China con-
stitute a system of legal regulatory rules of land
reclamation, which is developed on the basis of
Land Administration Law and Mineral Resources
Law, with Regulations on Land Reclamation as the
core, supported by the relevant departmental laws
and local laws and regulations and supplemented
by relevant policy documents of land reclamation.
See Figure 2 for details.
However, the existing laws and regulations
regarding land reclamation are incapable of solv-
ing all the current problems, so historical problems
are unavoidably left over. Meanwhile, the fast eco-
nomic growth will also cause new problems of land
reclamation system and regime, thus the establish-
ment, modification and cancellation of laws and
regulations on land reclamation are required to
solve such problems. Whereas, the legal rules of
land reclamation are dynamically developing and
shall be improved continuously in practice.
4.1.2 Content of technical rules
The technical regulatory rules of land reclamation,
i.e., standard system of land reclamation, is an
organic whole constituted by the technical require-
ments involved in the influencing factors, control
measures and control objectives during the whole
process of land reclamation according to their
specific intrinsic relations for the purpose of land
survey, evaluation, plan, design, budget, construc-
tion, monitoring and management. The situation
of constitution and construction of the standard
Figure 2. System of legal regulatory rules of land
reclamation.
system of land reclamation in China is shown in
Table 1 (Zhou et al. 2014, Wang et al. 2012).
4.2 Content of regulatory objectives
Regulatory objectives of land reclamation can be
understood from three levels.
In macro view, decision-making level is mainly
responsible for setting objectives and development
strategies. National regulatory departments imple-
ment the land reclamation regulation to assure the
ecological safety and protect arable land minimum,
i.e., to realize responsible control in macro view.
In middle view, coordinating level establishes
specific system and formulates measures. Provincial
and municipal regulatory departments implement
the mine land reclamation regulation to achieve
the expected objectives of the amount, quality and
income of land reclamation, i.e., to realize effec-
tive control in middle view.
In micro view, executing level mainly employs the
system and measures to solve the specific problems.
County-level regulatory departments implement
mine land reclamation regulation to supervise the
mine enterprises to earnestly fulfill their land recla-
mation obligations according to the land reclama-
tion scheme, stage land reclamation plan and annual
land reclamation implementation plan, i.e., to realize
flexible control in micro view (Zhou et al. 2012).
See Figure 3 for details.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 497 8/27/2014 6:02:37 PM

 Table 1. Situation of constitution and construction of standard system of land reclamation in China.

Degree of
Item No. Name of standard Status Preparation urgency

General 1 Terms of land reclamation. N/A

standards 2 Charting norm of land reclamation project N/A
3 Calculation method of land reclamation performance N/A
4 Test regulations of land reclamation N/A
5 Quality control standard of land reclamation Issued
Investigation 6 Damage prediction norm of reclaimed land N/A Under preparation
7 Investigation technology specification of land N/A
reclamation
8 Survey technology specification of land reclamation N/A
Assessment 9 Adaptability assessment guideline of land reclamation N/A Under preparation
10 Assessment guideline applied after land reclamation N/A
11 Environmental impact assessment guidelines of land N/A
reclamation
Conception 12 Preparation regulations of land reclamation plan N/A
13 Preparation regulations of land reclamation scheme Issued
Design 14 Project construction standard of land reclamation N/A Under preparation
15 Preparation regulations of land reclamation plan design N/A Under preparation
16 Stage plan of land reclamation N/A Under preparation
17 Annual implementation plan of land reclamation N/A Under preparation
Budget 18 Cost estimation standard of land reclamation N/A Under preparation
19 Budgeting rules of land reclamation project N/A
Construction 20 Construction norm of land reclamation project N/A Under preparation
21 Acceptance check regulations of land reclamation N/A Under preparation
project
22 Construction supervision norm of land reclamation
project
Monitoring 23 Monitoring technology specification of land N/A
reclamation
Management 24 Management regulations of land reclamation N/A Under preparation
project fund
25 Management regulations of land reclamation N/A
project implementation

Figure 3. Diagram of level-by-level objectives of land reclamation regulation.

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Figure 4. Regulatory procedures of mine land
reclamation.
4.3 Regulatory subjects and objects
of land reclamation
Professional and hierarchical regulatory authori-
ties need to be constructed and differentiated
regulatory duties defined according to the current
national conditions of mine land reclamation reg-
ulation in China.
Vertically, regulatory subjects and objects
of mine land reclamation are divided into five
levels, i.e., nation-province-municipality-county-
mine enterprise. The county-level national land
department is responsible for regulating mine enter-
prises, and the superior departments are responsi-
ble for regulating subordinate departments.
Horizontally, the regulatory department of mine
land reclamation at each level shall coordinate well
with the competent departments of the relevant
industries such as environment protection, agricul-
ture and forestry at the corresponding level.
4.4 Regulatory procedures of land reclamation
There are four procedures for mine land reclama-
tion regulation: conception, plan, implementation
and acceptance check. At the procedure of concep-
tion, the regulation is implemented according to
land reclamation scheme. At the procedure of plan,
the regulation is implemented according to the
land reclamation plan. At the procedure of imple-
mentation, the regulation is implemented accord-
ing to the annual land reclamation implementation
plan and annual executive situation report. The
procedure of acceptance check is divided into
annual acceptance check, stage acceptance check
499
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 499
and overall acceptance check. Wherein, the annual
acceptance check is conducted for the annual land
reclamation implementation plan and annual exec-
utive situation report. The stage acceptance check
is conducted for the implementation situation of
the stage plan. Overall acceptance check is con-
ducted for the land reclamation scheme.
4.5 Regulatory means
The following five means can be employed for mine
land reclamation regulation in China: 1) Adminis-
trative approval means related to the approval for
construction land and mining right. 2) Supervision
and inspection means with annual inspection, spe-
cial verification, routine inspection, on-line regula-
tion and acceptance check, etc. as the specific forms.
3) Information reporting and filing means, i.e.,
requesting regulatory reports being submitted by
mine enterprises to county-level land departments
and by subordinate land departments to superior
land departments. 4) The means of signing a fund
regulation agreement to regulate the deposit, use
and management of mine land reclamation funds
and ensure the mine enterprises to actually allo-
cate the land reclamation funds. 5) Administrative
penalty means, i.e., investigating the administrative
legal responsibilities of the obligors, regulatory
departments and personnel of land reclamation
arising from their various unlawful acts that may
occur in the land reclamation activity.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The construction of a complete mine land reclama-
tion management system is the requirement of the
Central Government for implementing the ecologi-
cal civilization construction and transforming the
governmental functions. In this paper, the mine
land reclamation regulation system framework and
elements were expounded in detail through prelimi-
nary analysis, i.e., regulatory rules (legal regulatory
rules and technical regulatory rules), regulatory
purposes (macro-view, middle-view, micro-view),
regulatory subjects and objects (vertically dividing
into five levels and horizontally ensuring well inter-
departmental coordination), regulatory procedures
(conception, plan, implementation, acceptance
check), regulatory means (administrative approval,
check and acceptance, information reporting and
filing, fund supervision agreement, administrative
penalty), etc. However, as Chinas land reclamation
regulation is still at its early stage, the theories rel-
evant with regarding mine land reclamation system
still need improving and completing in order to pro-
vide stronger theoretical basis and technical support
for the development of land reclamation regulation.
8/27/2014 6:02:38 PM
 REFERENCES
Dong Xinyu, Su Jun. Electronic Government and
Government Process ReengineeringAnd New Pub-
lic Management. Journal of Public Management, 2004,
1(4):4652.
He Zhenwei, Bai Zhongke, Zhang Jidong, et al.
Regulatory Situation and Stage Characteristics of
Land Reclamation in China. China Land Science,
2012, 26(7):5659.
Liu Yaping. Collaborative Public Management: Current
Situation and Prospect Journal of Wuhan University
(Philosophy & Social Sciences). 2010, 63(4):574582.
Quicken the Pace of Land ReclamationYan Zhiyao,
Director of Land Protection Division of the Ministry
of Land and Resources, Answers Reporters Questions
for Regulations of Land Reclamation. China Land
and Resources News, 2011-03-22.
Wang Dingyun, Wang Shixiong, et al. Theory Review
and Practice of New Public Management in Western
Countries. Shanghai: Shanghai Joint Publishing
Company, 2008.
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Wang Jinman, Bai Zhongke, Luo Ming, et al. Multi-level
Framework of Land Reclamation Standard System
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Chinese Agricultural Engineering, 2010, (5):312315.
Xue Lan, Peng Zongchao, Zhang Qiang. Public Manage-
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Management World, 2002, 2:4355.
Zhou Yan, Zhou Wei, Bai Zhongke. Analysis of Land
Damage Caused by Mineral Resource exploitation
and Reclamation Potential. Resources and Industries,
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Zhou Yan, Bai Zhongke, Luo Ming, et al. Problems and
Countermeasures of Land Reclamation Regulation
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8/27/2014 6:02:39 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Mining area land ecological restoration industrialization

with National Geopark as example

N. Yang & M.C. Fu

China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The wasteland after mining in China is facing the problem on transformation of resource
utilization. With the development of the mining industry, mine resources would exhaust and bring the
development bottleneck to the mining based economy. Mine wasteland, if not reclaimed, will lead to a
waste and hinder the regional economic development. Therefore, the utilization of the mining area will
become the future research focus. In this paper, we make further use of wasted lands as the main research
object, integrate the ecological restoration and tourism value of abandoned lands, and implement indus-
trialization. Taking National Geopark as an example, this paper infuses the concept of industrialization
and the whole plan of ecosystem restoration that have been proposed by the tourist industry. Finally,
the future challenge of the combination of ecological restoration and tourism industrialization has been
predicted.

1 INDUSTRIALIZATION design and construction. Domestic and foreign

OF ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
The ecological restoration for derelict lands in
mining areas is concerned with the process during
which natural ecosystems and natural ecological
functions in the mining areas that have been dam-
aged are rebuilt. The previous researches on this
theme seem to put emphasis on the environmen-
tal aspect, including the restoration of the soil,
water environment and atmospheric pollution.
However, the current studies on the ecological
restoration of the waste lands in the mining areas
focus on the reestablishment of the comprehensive
ecosystem that consists of social-economic and
natural aspects, which are intended to achieve the
functional value of reusing the abandoned lands
in many aspects. The reason for the change in
the studying focus is that people have more deep
understanding on the ecological restoration, and
they have realized that the reduction in the capabil-
ity of the ecological restoration for serving people
could prevent regional economy and society from
developing with the continuously extension of der-
elict lands of mining areas.
The previous studies mainly focus on envi-
ronmental and social economic aspects, and new
research mainly discusses the mining waste land
can be defined as the degradation of ecological
systems, its characteristics and bare similarity, the
negative effects on the surrounding environment
greatly, and wasteland restore and reconstruction
must follow the system, also must have reasonable
land reclamation of mining area is different, in the
management system, the reclamation technology
should be carried out to the abroad, land reclama-
tion in mining area based in China should be based
on the ecological reconstruction is very important
in the future, to restore the land productivity as the
goal. The abandoned mine land reclamation con-
cept also needs to be extended, the pure land scope,
construction, and not consider the long-term use is
not enough.
The developed countries in Europe, America,
Australia etc., in order to restore the land produc-
tivity, the reclamation work has been widely pro-
mote the reclamation, the goal is achieve the initial
level before being destroyed. America ecological
reconstruction to make the definition of ecological
reconstruction, it says there is no need to distin-
guish between ecological restoration and ecologi-
cal reconstruction. They point out, the ecological
reconstruction is through human activities and the
ecological system is destroyed by ecological resto-
ration technology with ecological carrying capac-
ity has biological diversity and dynamic balance.
2 THE OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH AREA
Nanjing Yeshan iron mine is located at Liuhe
district in Nanjing Province. It is next to Jinniu
lake parkland, Guizishanshizhulin parkland and
core zone of national geological park in Liuhe
of Jiangsu province. The Yeshan iron mine has a

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 profound culture background due to its long iron
ore mining and smelting history. The rich relics,
profound cultural history, unique mining human
resources and unique the particular geological rel-
ics resulted from geologic activities for eons have
a strong physical attraction and unique cultural
connotation of science and technology, which
have formed the firm base of the regional tour-
ism resource. The mine park contains a number
of special resources, including culture of mining
and metallurgy, mining relics and selection of iron
mine. It is a highly harmonious park that has an
integration of scientific investigation, leisure and
recreation and science popularization education.
It becomes the only one industrial tourism base in
the eastern China that provides the show on relics
of the selection of iron mine as the parks theme.
3 PLANNING OF THE
INDUSTRIALIZATION OF MINING
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
3.1 Objectives of the industrialization
of the mining ecological restoration
Firstly, it is intended to develop the ecological envi-
ronment of the mining and promote long history
and culture of the mining. Secondly, it aims to
accelerate the economic sustainable development
of economy of the Yeshan mining town, which
responds to the national construction policy two-
oriented society. Thirdly, it attempts to sufficiently
developing the touring capability of the mining
by reasonably excavating the touring resource of
abandoned mine in Yeshan, transferring waste to
treasure and studying the change in the land use
pattern of the Yeshan mining. Fourthly, it pro-
poses to establish the special tourist attraction to
drive the economic transition and development of
the mining town, which principally shows the min-
ing sights and provides the sightseeing and scien-
tific education.
3.2 Principles of industrialization
of the ecological restoration
The mine park considers the mining relic sights as
the key showing area, which is different with the
general parkland. It has the unique landscape of
great value as the planning base of the mine park is
the derelict land of the mining. The original condi-
tion of the derelict land will be maintained, together
with some appropriate adjustment; thus, not only
the original cultural history can be presented but
also the requirement of sightseeing by current
people can be satisfied. Moreover, the recycling of
the materials of waste land seems to construct the
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 502
mine park with the historical and cultural features
and be adapted to the trend of modern culture. In
order to achieve the above project, the following
principles should be followed:
1. The principle of echelon exploiting
Land rehabilitation and ecological reconstruc-
tion are the bases of the development of tour-
ism resources in Yeshan. The development
subsequence of the tourism resources may be
restricted by the precedence order of the min-
ing production and ecological restoration.
Hence, industrial tourism development should
be implemented firstly, followed by the eco-
tourism exploitation. Finally, the industrial
tourism and eco-tourism will be developed
jointly. For instance, specific tourist project
could be explored using relatively mature condi-
tions, and then exploitation level will be deep-
ened gradually resulted in the achievement of
comprehensive tourism integrating industrial
and ecological aspects. As a result, tourism
development in all levels could be enhanced
by drawing upon the experience gained on key
points to wider areas.
2. The co-building of zoology and production
Although there are two levels in the exploitation
of the smelting industry and ecological tourism
resources in the Yeshan mining area, these two
levels are inter-connected and indivisible. The
reason is that projects related to the ecologic
tourism have been included in the industrial
tourism resources. For example, the integration
technology of reclamation and mining shows
the inter-connection between the smelting
industry and ecological tourism resources. If
the principle on the confluent development of
industrial and ecological exploitation is not
complied with, it may lead to the deficiency in
the exploitation project.
3. Principle of similarity and difference of the land
utilization function
There is similarity and connection among
the elements of different function divisions in
the derelict land in the mine park, which is the
objective representation of the historical sites.
Moreover, the functions of different parking
areas are distinguished with each other, includ-
ing reception, presentation, natural sceneries
and mining relics travel.
4. Safety principle
There are a number of safety loopholes resulted
from the perennial mining digging activi-
ties. During the development of the tourism
resources, the precautionary measures for
the unsafe places should be paid attention to.
The hierarchical development and utilization
of the comprehensive resources of the mining
8/27/2014 6:02:39 PM
 areas should be based on the guarantee of secu-
rity of the mining areas.
4 THE OVERALL DESIGN
ON THE INDUSTRIALIZATION
OF ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
As the essential component of the construction of
the national mine park, the research will establish
the tourism industry system and typical demon-
stration area by restoring the waste mining lands
into travelling areas. Also, the industrial transfor-
mation and development in the similar industrial
zone will be motivated.
4.1 The overall design on the development
of the industrial structure
The ecologic remediation industry in the Yeshan
mine park mainly consists of three parts, including
industry for naturally ecological restoration, indus-
try for scientific education in the waste mining
lands and regional travelling industry. By achiev-
ing these perspectives, the economic benefit, social
benefit and ecological benefit can be integrated
and then improved, and then maximizing the ben-
efit of tourism industry.
Among these three parts, the industry related to
the naturally ecological restoration contains three
main systems, including the demonstration of the
ecological restoration of the mining areas, the con-
struction of the natural sightseeing zone and ecologi-
cal reclamation of waste land. The demonstration of
the ecological restoration is based on the restoration
of the iron mining areas. Natural scenery construc-
tion is based on the southeast protection zone in the
mine park. The reclamation of waste lands is based
on the ecological restoration areas. By comparing
the sceneries damaged and sceneries restored, the
techniques related to restoring the mining will be
shown, together with the achievement related to the
plant breeding and cultivation techniques during
the processes of land rehabilitation.
The scientific education industry in the mining
areas is constructed based on a few typical scen-
eries. In the aspect of the mining relics, it mainly
refers to the tunnel, digging level of 10 m, open-
air mining pits, the relics of the mining industry
and so on. The rigid protection of the mining relics
should be required to avoid the damage towards the
relics due to the various activities, including mining
production, facilities establishment and sightsee-
ing and travelling. Moreover, the authenticity of
the relics should be respected and maintained, and
the value of the relics should be assessed faithfully
which could provide reference for the determina-
tion of protection zone and the selection of the
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 503
Figure 1. Ecological restoration industry system.
methods of protection and presentation. Further-
more, factors related to the history and humani-
ties should be properly strengthened to shown the
cultural connotation of the relics and improving
the perceived degree of cultural background of
the mine park. In the aspect of the geological rel-
ics, the stability of the all kinds of the geological
relics in the mining should be guaranteed. The
environmental governance should be implemented
on the geological disaster, such as landslides and
collapses resulted from the mining. Based on the
environmental governance, the safety zone should
be delimited, and the security facilities should be
established. The knowledge about the principles,
processes, damages and defensive measures of the
geological relics should be shown visually in details
using narrative memoranda and representation of
the scenes.
The regional tourism industry in the Yeshan
national mine park is based on the ecological res-
toration of the mines which intends to protect the
special mining relics and mountains and plains. The
Mine Park and ShizhulinJinniu lake tourist area
depends with each other. The goal of the regional
tourist industry aims to develop the Yeshan min-
ing to become the comprehensive mine park and
supporting the sustainable development of the cor-
porate economy, cultural and environment in the
mining. The mine park is located in Nanjing, and
it takes the full advantage of the particular mining
geological features in the Liuhe district of Nanjing.
Also, the mine park may provide a new growth point
for the suburb economy and tourism. It has a vast
customer market which is importantly meaning-
ful to the economic development of Liuhe district.
Mine Park established could be regarded as the
unique travelling destination in the Yangtze River
Delta. With the transport improvement, the com-
munication with the outside world will be increased
gradually.
4.2 Tourism industry planning
In the traditional sense the factors of the tourism
industry are food, accommodation, visit and shop-
8/27/2014 6:02:39 PM
 ping. Today, the tourism industry has extended
food, accommodation, transportation, travelling,
shopping, entertainment, meeting, health, media
advertising, organization and Supporting facili-
ties. These factors integrate closely; form a closely
integrated tourism industry chain. The following
discusses the ecological restoration of abandoned
lands and the possibilities to be an important part
of the feasibility of the tourism industry.
4.2.1 Tourism market
Comprehensive analysis of the tourism market
development factors, we can divide three levels.
Basic marketaround the Nanjing city, Mainly
includes the urban residents in Nanjing, also
including some of the tourists who aim to do some
study and investing, nearly 7075% of the total
number of tourists.
Main marketThe surrounding areas and aim-
less tourists, about 1015% of the total number of
tourists.
Potential marketYangtze River delta region
and other parts of domestic tourists.
This part of the tourists, including a large part
of the expedition, adventure and thematic tour-
ism team, accounts for about 10% of the number
of tourists. Although its a small part, this part of
the tourist group generally has a high demand to
the requirement of tourism resources, Under the
condition of high cost or the traffic is not very
convenient, This part of the tourists to the scenic
spot is hard to satisfied, but when the park continu-
ously improves its service levels and facilities, it is
advantageous for the national park to become the
window of the Nanjing tourism, it has a good effect
in terms of its potential tourists, although this part
Table 1. Yeshan National park ecological restoration functional partition.
Ecological restoration
functional partition Area
Reception exhibit area Close to the Production areas
Landscape tour area West to east open-pit mining
pit subsidence
Mining relics East open-pit mining pit
conservation area
Natural landscape South of the park
conservation area
Ecological East and west of the park
restoration area
Production areas A large area to southwest
of mine park
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 504
of the tourists proportion is not high, the effect is
very obvious.
Therefore, the tourism market is: Based on
the local customers, strengthen the attraction to
the customers of surrounding areas, develop the
national tourist, Under the Nanjing cultural back-
ground and the strong tourist attraction, growing
inbound tourists.
4.2.2 Tourism industry planning
4.2.2.1 Park construction
Tourism resources development should fully
embody the scenic spots unique resources, history,
internal transportation and some other favourable
conditions. Highlight the core part of scenic area
tourist resources, To create one core, two sides, sev-
eral areas, tourism concept, the one core is the land-
scape tour area, two sides are respectively the mine
above the ground and underground part of the land-
scape, several areas are the other parts of the park.
Total area of the mining park is 3.5 hm2. Core
range includes the mountains mining area of open-
cast mining, and the surrounding area, In central
park, and gently topography of opencast mining is
the main area of geological environment manage-
ment, its planning on the basis of the construction
of infrastructure to improve vegetation, constitutes
a major leisure area, in the south and east of open-
pit mining pit, the south slope of natural vegetation
cover makes the north border of the park. The park
mainly divided into the following functional areas
(Table 1).
4.2.2.2 Ecological recovery industry planning
Industry planning is mainly from three sides, natu-
ral ecological restoration industry, mining aban-
The main function and landscape
Integrated use of all kinds
of favorable landscape resources.
Create different styles of recreation places; Vigorously
strengthen the construction of the landscape.
Reasonably organize tour line.
With geological subsidence, historical
and cultural landscape, mining pit mining
as the main landscape, including the distribution
of a number of mining sites
Native vegetation growth momentum is good,
presents for the repair of the natural landscape
The larger environment affected by the activities
of production and destruction,
the ecological environment needs to be restored
Fix both production and tourism resources
8/27/2014 6:02:40 PM
 doned land science and education industry and the
regional tourism industry.
1. Natural ecological restoration industry, Core
region for ecological restoration industry is
Ecological restoration area, invite investment
of some enterprises in Ecological restoration
area, According to the enterprise strength and
investment, designated repair demonstration
area, these enterprises should repair their area
actively, Other investment in the project con-
struction is held by the government, make full
play to combined effects of governments and
enterprises, At the same time, make a good
protection for demonstration. While restor-
ing the local mining area ecological landscape
and environment purification capacity, they
should construct resting places for the resi-
dents, make it a model of abandoned mining
area ecological restoration for the Yangtze
river delta region as a research base, increas-
ing the social, economic and natural ecological
benefits.
2. Mining abandoned land science and education
industry, the core region is Reception exhibit
area and Production areas, Provide people with
Yeshan historical development and the process
of mining all kinds of information.
Such industries can engage two kinds visi-
tors, On the one hand, ordinary tourists, their
main purpose to visit the mining park, the park
should arrange professional tour guides to
Interpret, the park is responsible for organizing
training and providing services, Mountain min-
ing smelting has a long history and rich tourism
resources type, all kinds of landscape resources
and mining sites have very high research and
science value, also have very high historical and
cultural value, they record and show the long
cultural history of mining; Another kind is a
professional scientific expedition team or Geo-
logical area students, team leader is responsible
for the contacting work, while the park should
do a good job for reception, These people
need close observation of the geological condi-
tions, if conditions are allowed, even sampling
the seam, soil and vegetation conditions, they
should arrange professional reception, Inspec-
tion process people should pay attention to
avoid the potential safety hazard, After analys-
ing the sampling data the team should feedback
information in time to make a further plan for
the mining park.
3. The regional tourism industry, The complete
Nanjing tourism market requires that the sce-
nic areas in the city have integrity, also requires
the characteristics of the scenic spot and clear
theme, each are not identical.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 505
Tourism industry association is by adjusting the
industrial structure and organization, and then to
optimal allocation of resources, Increase the force
of industrial development, and improve the indus-
trial competitive advantage, eventually reach the
optimal state, is the ultimate goal of Nanjing
tourism development. Great river landscape area,
Tangshan scenic spot, pearl spring Laoshan scenic
spot, Jinniu lake scenic area as famous Nanjing
several big scenic spots, when combined with the
Yeshan National park, the traffic convenience, the
landscape and tourism supporting is very appropri-
ate. Make the internal traffic trunk road in Nanjing
city as the development axis, along the scenic area,
to form tourist area. With the aid of the developed
traffic network and rich product system of regional
tourism, establishing the three-dimensional travel
patterns, comprehensively constructing a brand for
the new national park. Based on Natural scenery
and the humanities, regard leisure vacation and
folkway experience as the main point, added to
scientific fitness, the ecology, personality and spe-
cial tourism as a whole system, form the Nanjing
tourism circle, therefore, as part of the Nanjing
regional tourism resources, Yeshan national min-
ing park is essential.
4.3 Industry benefit evaluation
The economic benefits of mine park evaluation
mainly from two aspects, On the one hand is the
embodiment of the direct economic benefits, con-
sidered from the per capita income, tax and other
aspects, on the other hand the mine park can
bring with the increase of employment oppor-
tunity, chances of emerging around all kinds of
industries. Mine parks in and around industry can
provide many job opportunities, including guide
attractions, worker, transport, security, etc. This
trend is to transfer people to the second and third
industry to promote employment, is advantageous
to the three big industry labour reasonable config-
uration, solve the problem of local surplus labour
outflow, dealing with the problem of vulnerable
groups jobs, at the same time, provides high quality
of jobs, as we know, the construction of the park
as to play a role in promoting employment is very
obvious.
Ecological benefits, mainly combines mining
park planning and whole construction with the
types of appropriate ecological restoration of
abandoned lands of mines, improve the mine geo-
logical environment and ecological environment
improvement, The damaged mountain and aban-
doned land get restoration, also soil and water
conservation, mountain natural style and features
is able to reproduce. Natural ecological landscape
construction and greatly improve the ecological
8/27/2014 6:02:40 PM
 environment of the mines and traffic corridor, its
very important for the Jiangsu ecological province.
With the recovery of ecological environment, pro-
vides a beautiful environment for mine construc-
tion, And implements the formation of abandoned
lands of mines shall plant trees green, recycling,
the mining wastelands in the enriched liuhe dis-
trict tourism resources, at the same time, greatly
improve the local peoples living environment.
The social benefit, with the mining depth and
increasingly difficult of the exploitation, iron ore
resources are near to be exhausted. Construction
of the Yeshan national mining park will be con-
ducive to mining enterprises and industrial town
of economic transformation, strengthen the social
stability and promote the sustainable development
of mining enterprises. Mine park construction,
from the angle of cultural transmission, residents
quality, social relationships to raise awareness
of their recognition, increase the industry brand
value.
5 CHALLENGES OF
INDUSTRIALIZATION OF
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
The industrialization of ecological restoration of
mining wasteland has just started for a short period;
there are still many shortcomings. In particular
areas of restoration, eco-technologies often lack
506
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 506
stability and technical support of dynamic monitor-
ing. Ecological restoration is mainly effective small
areas, and the real economic effects and agglomera-
tion effects are not yet fully reflected. Many mining
cities are experiencing a critical period of industrial
restructuring, especially in resource-exhausted cit-
ies, that the development of ecological restoration
and the transition of regional industries will attract
the focus of further research.
REFERENCES
Butt K.R., Frederickson J., Morris R.M. 1993. An earth-
worm cultivation and soil inoculation technique for
land restoration. Ecological Engineering, 4:19.
Buultjens, Jeremy, et al. 2010. The mining sector and
indigenous tourism development in Weipa, Queens-
land. Tourism management, 31.5: 597606.
Conesa H.M., Schulin R., Nowack B. 2008. Mining
landscape: A cultural tourist opportunity or an Envi-
ronmental problem?: The study case of the Cartage-
nala Union Mining District (SE Spain). Ecological
Economics, 64(4):690700.
Marrs R.H., Bradshaw A.D. 1982. Nitrogen accumula-
tion, cycling and the reclamation of China clay wastes.
Journal of Environmental Management, 15:139157.
Molera L, Albaladejo I., 2007. Profiling segments of
tourists in rural areas of South-Eastern Spain. Tourism
Management, 28(3):757767.
Schulz, F., Wiegleb, G. Development options of
natural habitats in a post-mining landscape. Land
Degradation & Development, 11.2(2000):99110.
8/27/2014 6:02:40 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Management hierarchy building for land reclamation

of mining enterprises

Z.Z. Du
School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China

Z.K. Bai
School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China
Key Laboratory of Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation of the Ministry of Land and Resources, Beijing, China

Y. Zhou
Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Center, The Ministry of Land and Resources, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: This paper starts from the status quo of mining-induced land destruction in China, and
elaborates the status quo of foreign land reclamation management. Meanwhile, it analyzes the features of
mined land reclamation as well as problems in the land reclamation management of mining enterprises in
China. Based on the actualities of the implementation of land reclamation obligations by mining enter-
prises, and with existing problems as the entry point, this paper builds a three-tiered (decision making-
management-execution) management hierarchy regarding land reclamation by mining enterprises, and
divides it into land reclamation management links including planning management, bidding and tender-
ing management, construction process management, and basic inspection management, so as to enhance
mining enterprises efficiency in their land reclamation management.

Keywords: land reclamation; management; hierarchy building

In China, for a long time, in the process of indus-
trialization and urbanization, land and mineral
resources development supported the construction
of the production, but also left a large number of
abandoned land, which did not receive timely recla-
mation and utilization (Hu 2004, Bai 2000 & Bian
2000). By the end of 2005, mining activities had
triggered a goaf area of 809,600 hectares, a surface
subsidence area of 352,200 hectares, and an occu-
pied and destroyed land area of 1,438,900 hectares.
The destroyed land fell into farmland, forest land,
grassland, etc., with their destroyed area ratio being
2:1:1:6. According to 2010 Statistical Yearbook of
China Land and Resources, by the end of 2009, the
amount of destroyed land area caused by mineral
resources exploitation reached 2,509,200 hectares,
with an increase of 115,600 hectares over 2008.
In China, underground coal mining land dam-
age coefficient of average is 0.31 hm2/million t,
opencast mining land damage coefficient is
Relying on the project: Shanxi large ecologically fragile
area of land reclamation and ecological reconstruction
technology research and demonstration (2-7-2013-09-A).
0.10 hm2/million t, iron ore damaged land coef-
ficient is 0.30 hm2/million t, per million bricks
damaged land area of 13.33 hm2 (Zhou 2013). It
indicates that the mineral resources exploitation in
China has seriously destroyed its land resources.
Meanwhile, land reclamation has a long way to go.
And mining enterprises is facing grim challenges.
After the implementation of Land Reclamation
Requirements, all kinds of damage to the land rec-
lamation work by the great attention of the whole
society, making our land reclamation from 5%
to 12%, there is still a big gap with the advanced
countries (Wang 2010, Jin 2009 & Bai 2008).
In Australia, the applicant is managed by the
reclamation goals in four stages. The first one is
the application stage, in which the objective indica-
tors standard for reclamation evaluation is raised
in mining plans. The second one is the mining
stage, in which the indicators standard is further
detected, studied, and refined. The third one is the
reclamation process stage, in which the improve-
ment effect of the reclamation is to be attested.
The fourth one is the stage for the final reclama-
tion report, and this stage necessitates the moni-
toring and conducting of a series of evaluations,

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 including the evaluation of the standard attaining
of reclamation indicators, regional risk evaluation,
and regional risk cost evaluation, etc.
In the U.S., the land reclamation management
in its different stages must meet the requirement
of the reclamation regulations and planning for
different stages. The reclamation management
and control falls into three stages: in Stage I, if the
land, after undergoing a range of processes includ-
ing rock and soil backfilling, land leveling, topsoil
restoration, setting up irrigation and drainage
facilities and taking soil erosion control measures,
becomes available and meets the requirements, up
to 60% of the reclamation bond will be refunded;
in Stage II, upon further restoration of land pro-
ductivity and meeting the requirement, an appli-
cation can be submitted for refunding 25% of the
reclamation bond after the acceptance of Stage II;
while in Stage III, the acceptance application can-
not be submitted until the approved mined land
use is realized according to reclamation planning,
and vegetation grows to the agreed period (5 years
for ordinary areas; and 10 years for arid areas).
The remaining 15% of the reclamation bond can
be refunded upon qualified acceptance.
Mining enterprises are encouraged to actively
and voluntarily assume their social responsibilities
in environmental reconstruction, land reclamation,
and in facilitating the local economic and social
development. As a reform of the operation and
management approach of mining enterprises, land
reclamation management is of great significance
to improve responsibilities mechanism for mineral
resources reclamation management, building green
mines, and to accelerating the building of a new
mechanism for securing and promoting scientific
development.
1 MANAGEMENT OF MINE LAND
RECLAMATION IN CHINA
To cope with the confusion in the monitoring
essence of destroyed land reclamation in the min-
ing areas, the Ministry of Land and Resources
has initiated a five-tiered (State-Province-City-
County-Enterprise) supervision system regarding
land reclamation (Zhou 2014), under which mining
enterprises, as the terminal of the supervision, play
a direct role in implementing reclamation schemes,
staged reclamation tasks, and annual tasks; as
well as mastering the implementation of reclama-
tion projects, funding, and other macro goals of
supervision.
For mine land reclamation highly specialized
features, it is needed to set up a special land rec-
lamation regulatory agencies, with full-time staff
responsible for the supervision and management
508
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 508
of land reclamation. Land resources department,
and medium-sized mining enterprises to clear land
reclamation regulatory agencies and specialized
personnel, heavy reclamation task of local gov-
ernments should set up specialized land reclama-
tion regulatory agencies. Meanwhile, it is needed
to establish a hierarchy with differences of land
reclamation management mode among ministry,
provincial, city and county, which strengthens
coordination and interaction among the various
levels of regulatory authorities.
The land reclamation regulation mission of the
ministry of land and resources is to set up goals and
tasks of the national land reclamation supervision,
to develop national laws and regulations of land
reclamation and technical standards, to establish
institutions for land reclamation, to examine land
reclamation plans of production and construction
projects, to construct the national land reclama-
tion supervision information system, to examine
the progress of land reclamation, especially for the
basic farmland, to supervise the implementation
of land reclamation plan, and rectify the existed
problems, and publish the information of land
reclamation. To implement the reward and punish-
ment mechanisms which connect the construction
land and the land reclamation implementation, to
propagandize typical land reclamation projects.
The mission of the province is partly simi-
lar with the ministry of land and resources. In
provincial level, it should be based on the reality
and its own characteristics. Under the countrys
macroeconomic framework, it allows appropriate
adjustments.
What is the mission of city is to confirm the
goals and tasks of land reclamation supervision,
implement the laws and regulations and the rela-
tive technical standards, assist the examination of
the land reclamation plan, report the information
of land reclamation, examine the reported infor-
mation, and set up and examine land reclamation
projects of abandoned damaged land.
The mission of county is the most specific,
which is mainly to implement the goals and tasks,
technical standards and strengthen the owner-
ship management, sign the agreement for the use
of land reclamation fees with the obligors, imple-
ment the land reclamation projects of abandoned
damaged land and examine and supervise the land
reclamation.
Mine Land Reclamation regulatory system
involving multiple stakeholders, whose interests,
concerns and management objectives are differ-
ent (See Table 1). It is coordination with various
departments that achieve regulatory objectives
for land reclamation. Through the establishment
of the joint meeting, which allows multiple stake-
holders to fully express their demands, to reach a
8/27/2014 6:02:40 PM
 Table 1. Analysis of stakeholders for land reclamation regulatory system.
Stakeholders Concerns/object
Mining enterprises Mineral resources
to be developed
and utilized
Government Mining economic,
social, ecological
complex systems
Peasantry Land in mine
Mineral resources Mineral resources
management department to be mined
of MLR
Farmland protection Land of all or part
department of MLR using function
loss due to the
exploitation
Geology environment Destroyed geological
department of MLR environment due
to the exploitation
Ministry of environmental Contaminated or
protection damaged
environment due
to the exploitation
Ministry of water Surface of soil
resources erosion due to
the exploitation
Interest concerns/management objectives
Maximize development resources.
Reduce costs.
Maximize economic benefits.
Access to land and mineral resources to guarantee
economic development.
Protect the environment, maintain social harmony
Life protection
Rationally develop and utilize of mineral resources
Restore damaged land reclamation available for use.
Achieve farmland protection and recovery
Optimize land use structure.
Promote conservation and intensive of land use.
Prevent and control of geological disasters
and geological environment.
Pollution control.
Protect the environment.
Prevent, mitigate and manage negative environmental
impacts of production and construction activity.
Protect and rationally use water and land resources.
Prevent, mitigate and manage soil erosion
of production and construction activity.
Reduce the water, drought, wind and other disasters.

consensus on the basis of consultations, the parties Table 2. Mine land destruction type.
to abide by the rules of formation, improve deci-
Primary
sion-making more scientific and operability. classification Secondary classification
Code Name Code Name
2 THE FEATURES OF LAND 1 Excavated 11 Opencast mine
RECLAMATION OF MINING land 12 Borrow ground
ENTERPRISES AND PROBLEMS 2 Subsided 21 Non-ponding subsided land
IN MANAGEMENT land 22 Seasonal ponding subsided
23 land
2.1 The features of mine land reclamation Ponding subsided land
3 Occupied 31 Waste dump
2.1.1 The mined land takes on various land 32 Gangue dump
destruction types 33 Tailings reservoir
In the process of mining exploitation, the piling 34 Red mud disposal site
of overburden material or waste in both surface 35 Industrial site
36 Others
excavation and deep excavation can cause soil and
4 Others 41 Contaminated land
vegetation to massively migrate or to be buried
42 Others
by waste, damaging soil, vegetation, and water
resources, and reducing or even depleting the pro-
ductive and ecological functions of the soil. Various land destruction type, and according to excavation
mine types and mining technologies have led to a object, subsidence ponding degree, and surface
wide range of land destruction types. According to occupants, the secondary classification of land
the object and means of land destruction as well destruction type can be divided into: opencast
as mining technologies, the mined land destruction field, borrow ground, non-ponding subsided land,
type can be set as secondary classification; and the seasonal ponding subsided land, ponding subsided
primary classification for land destruction includes land, waste dump, gangue dump, tailings reservoir,
excavated land, subsided land, occupied land, and red mud disposal site, industrial site, and contami-
other land. Based on the primary classification of nated land, etc. (See Table 2).

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 2.1.2 The reclamation period is lengthy
and technically complex
The lengthy mining period of mines, especially for
the large and medium-sized mines, results in an
oftentimes lengthy land reclamation period. Also,
mined land reclamation is obviously characterized
by stage and process, and based on the engineer-
ing measures and biological measures it has to
undergo, mined land reclamation can be subdi-
vided into such stages as landforms reshaping, soil
reconstruction, revegetation, facilities provision,
and biodiversity restructuring, which realizes the
transition from the ecological damage stage to
the ecological prototype reconstruction stage (Bai
2000). Additionally, the reclamation measures and
technologies as well as building standards vary
dramatically from stage to stage of reclamation,
leading to quite a complex technical process for
mined land reclamation.
1. Landforms reshaping stage
According to the topography and landforms
characteristics of different mines, mining
design, mining technologies, and land destruc-
tion are took into consideration. And by means
of orderly abandonment and land restructur-
ing, the new landforms can be reshaped to sup-
press water and soil loss. This is the foundation
of reclamation.
2. Soil reconstruction stage
Recover, improve, and restructure soil pro-
ductivity in a short period of time in order to
recover or reconstruct soil, using engineering
measures and physical, chemical, biological,
and ecological engineering measures. This is the
core of reclamation.
3. Revegetation stage
With respect to different land destruction types
and degrees, configure, cultivate, and take care
of vegetation to stabilize phytoecommunity, by
taking into account climate, gradient, surface
composition, and effective soil layer thickness.
This is the guarantee of reclamation.
4. Facilities provision stage
Equip land of different reclamation directions
with irrigation, drainage, road, power supply, and
other infrastructure, so as to have integrated land
quality effectively promoted. This is the improve-
ment and promotion of reclamation quality.
5. Biodiversity restructuring stage
The biodiversity restructuring stage consum-
mates the land reclamation process. This stage
features the formulation of a restructuring mode
and an optimized pattern for biodiversity, based
on an analysis and evaluation of the biodiversity
in reclaimed mined land, thus protecting the bio-
diversity of mines and reconstructing the endur-
ing stability in the structure of the ecosystem.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 510
2.1.3 Land reclamation is oriented according
to local conditions
Mined land reclamation focuses on a series of con-
solidation measures taken to make the land avail-
able once more. The reclamation efforts should
be guided by the principles of localization and
practicism, and the reclamation directions should
be determined based on technical and economic
rationality, which advocates adjusting measures to
local conditions, for instance, farming on farming-
suitable land, foresting on foresting-suitable land,
fishing on fishing-suitable land, and building on
building-suitable land. Consequently, mined land
reclamation takes many directions, instead of only
the reclamation into farmland. The main directions
for mined land reclamation include farmland, for-
est land, garden land, grass land, fishery (including
breeding industry), artificial waters and parks, and
construction land.
2.2 Analysis of problems in the management
of land reclamation of mining enterprises
2.2.1 The management system of land
reclamation of mining enterprises is unclear
The vertical management system in the land rec-
lamation management of mining enterprises is
unclear. This means various management comes
without decision makers, and goes unmanaged and
unfulfilled, resulting in unclear responsibilities and
obligations amongst different links and depart-
ments. This causes failure to realize the system
foundation of hierarchal layout, focused control,
and precautions at guidance; unclear obligations,
in addition, will defy any implementation in land
reclamation management, and even trigger man-
agement blanks and loopholes, as well as repetitive
and overlapped management, lowering the man-
agement efficiency and sparking a serious waste of
management resources.
2.2.2 The management contents of land
reclamation of mining enterprises
are unclear
The horizontal management contents in the land
reclamation management of mining enterprises
are unclear. The lengthy mining period of mines,
especially of large and medium-sized mines, results
in an oftentimes lengthy land reclamation period.
In addition, mined land reclamation is obviously
characterized by stage and process, and based on
the engineering measures and biological measures
it has to undergo, mined land reclamation can be
subdivided into such stages as landforms reshap-
ing, soil reconstruction, revegetation, facilities pro-
vision, and biodiversity restructuring. According to
course management theory, various management
items constitute a universal yet practical course,
8/27/2014 6:02:41 PM
 with departmentalization, management span, and
management control technique being universally
applicable to various organizations and various
levels with these organizations. Land reclamation
management necessitates the enabling of course
control, uncertain management links and unclear
management contents, however, have defied the
guarantee of land reclamation quality.
2.2.3 The management means of land reclamation
of mining enterprises are unsound
The land reclamation management of mining enter-
prises has a naturally narrow scope for operation,
whats more, most mining enterprises put their focus
on interest growth, efficiency in mineral resources,
and mining safety. Means such as the monitoring
of land reclamation management is undervalued,
whereas the 3 s technology is widely used (Zhou
2012). However, in todays world with booming
Internet thinking, there are an explosion of network
management applications and mobile phone terminal
applications, which, coupled with the requirements
and challenges of the big data age, have cast lights on
the management mode of land reclamation.
3 MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY
BUILDING ON LAND RECLAMATION
OF MINING ENTERPRISES
3.1 Management hierarchy building on land
reclamation of mining enterprises
CIS theory mainly consists of MIS (Mind Iden-
tity System), BIS (Behavior Identity System), VIS
(Visual Identity System), with BIS and VIS led by
MIS. The application of CIS to land reclamation
management of mining enterprises, if possible, will
contribute significantly to the management hierar-
chy building of land reclamation (Yan 2012).
Figure 1. CIS-based map of the management system of land reclampation of mining enterprises.
511
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 511
3.1.1 CIS-based decision-making
hierarchy building
MIS, as the soul of CIS, is the flag and core in the
building of corporate culture. Mind is the founda-
tion and the logical starting point for an enterprise
to conduct overall design and overall information
selection, and mind also serves as the cultural
core to form corporate culture and the password
to organize cultural inheritance, and in addition,
mind also represents the pivot for organization
operation. With respect to land reclamation man-
agement of mining enterprises, empowered to
build corporate culture, the enterprise legal person
and executive director (board) will work towards
building a macro management philosophy of land
reclamation and corporate culture, and will, by
combining their operation history, development
goals, and strategic plans, help establish the core
value in its corporate culture.
3.1.2 BIS-based management hierarchy
building of land reclamation
BIS is a normative standard and an institutional
arrangement in the internal coordination and exter-
nal exchange of an organization. The main consid-
erations include the planning & design standard
regarding land reclamation, compilation approach
of reclamation schemes, operation standard for
reclamation engineering construction and use sys-
tem for reclamation funds, inspection system for
land reclamation, safety management system, and
environmental protection system.
The focus in the management of land reclama-
tion by mining enterprises, is the establishment of a
management structure for land reclamation featur-
ing 1+N, which in specific, is led by the land rec-
lamation department, and supplemented by Office,
Financial Department, Planning and Development
Department, Human Resources Department,
8/27/2014 6:02:41 PM
 Safety Supervision Department, Production Man-
agement Department, Engineering Management
Department, Public Security & Environmental
Protection Department, Disciplinary Inspection &
Supervision Department, Public Relations Depart-
ment, and Ventilation Management Department.
The overall focus of mining enterprises is on the
development of resources, and the reduction of
cost to maximize their economic benefits. The
Production Management Department, however,
focuses on the mineral resources to be exploited to
obtain the land and mineral resources for ensur-
ing economic development, in order to protect the
environment and maintain social harmony and
stability. While, what the Public Security & Envi-
ronmental Protection Department concerns is the
rational development and utilization of mineral
resources, and the protection and rational utili-
zation of water resources, in an effort to prevent,
alleviate, and harness water and soil loss during the
production and construction process and to lessen
flood, drought, sandstorm, and other disasters.
3.1.3 VIS-based execution hierarchy
building of land reclamation
VIS functions to integrate the image of an enter-
prise mainly through visualized identifying infor-
mation, and to permeate the philosophy of an
organization by use of physical environment. The
unified appearance in the execution of land recla-
mation is realized by building unified enterprise
logo, work environment, designated symbol, staff
clothes, corporate songs, and so forth. The execu-
tion units include the unit for the compilation of
land reclamation schemes, the engineering con-
struction unit for land reclamation, the engineer-
ing supervision company for land reclamation,
equipment maintenance center, and information
center, etc.
3.2 Management link division of land
reclamation of mining enterprises
3.2.1 Basic inspection and management
of reclamation schemes & plans
This refers to the planning and work plans that
a mining enterprise formulates to fulfill its legal
liability, for the destroyed or to-be-destroyed land
under implementation or to-be-implemented. For
those mines with lengthy production and construc-
tion periods, staged land reclamation plans and
annual land reclamation implementation plans are
also required to be included in the compilation of
the reclamation schemes.
The compilation of land reclamation schemes,
staged plans, and annual plans will facilitate the
implementation of reclamation tasks, measures,
plans, and funds, avoiding the blindness of recla-
512
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 512
mation engineering. The land reclamation depart-
ment of mining enterprises needs to conduct a
basic inspection regarding the reclamation scheme,
the reclamation plan in this stage, and the annual
plan, with emphasis on the basic information of
the reclamation areas, land destruction informa-
tion, the use of reclamation funds, and the expected
reclamation land types.
3.2.2 Bidding and tendering management
of land reclamation projects
The bidding and tendering scope of land recla-
mation engineering mainly includes land leveling,
filed roads, irrigation and water conservancy, and
other engineering. The bidding and tendering
should be carried out on an open, fair, impartial,
and credible basis, with tenderers on equal terms
competing on technology level, management level,
rational cost, and corporate reputation. The land
reclamation department should integrate with the
ecological environment and land bearing capacity
of the reclaimed land, strictly control the whole
bidding and tendering procedures, limit land price
to a rational scope, and seek an appropriate land
reclaimer, in an effort to achieve the reuse of the
abandoned land and improve land ecological envi-
ronment (Liu 2005).
3.2.3 The control and management of the
construction process of land reclamation
Land destruction is classified differently in min-
ing activities. The generalized land destruction
amounts to environmental destruction, while the
narrow land destruction means the destruction
to the land resources in the surface. Various land
destruction types include excavation, subsidence,
occupation, and contamination.
During the construction process, relevant land
reclamation department and public security & envi-
ronmental protection department are also required
to intensify supervision, inspection, and detection,
and never allow the official use of the reclaimed
land unless making sure that the reclaimed land has
met corresponding standards, such as the detection
of area, thickness, and soil quality as well as the
inspection of land drainage, diversion, and overall
layout regarding the covering soil of the reclaimed
previously-abandoned land used for farming; the
inspection of thickness, hardness, and flatness
regarding the land used for construction; and the
inspection of water quality regarding the land used
for fishery (Chen 2011). These inspections and
detections are all important measures that have
stake in the benefits of land use in later periods
and in the sound, sustainable development of the
overall environment. Therefore, the targeted and
directional reclamation must be carried out based
on different land destruction types (See Table 3).
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 513

Table 3. Reclamation mode table for different land destruction types.

Reclamation mode
Destruction
type Reclamation direction Soil reconstruction Revegetation Auxiliary project
Opencast Farmland, forest and grass Topsoil stripping and backfilling, Grow crops, plant trees and Drainage ditch, road engineering,
field land, fishery land, etc. formation works, and slope works shrubs, and sow grass seeds grit chamber, stilling pool, and
on the platform; and plant scarp
grass and shrubs on the slope
Waste Forest land and grassland Topsoil stripping and backfilling, Grow crops, plant trees and Drainage ditch, road engineering,
dump formation works, terraced fields shrubs, and sow grass seeds rainwater collection engineering,
engineering, soil amelioration, on the platform; and plant slope pitching, stilling pool, and
and land tilling grass and trees, and sow scarp
grass seeds on the slope
Subsided The ponding subsided land Formation works, upland peeling and Build an agricultural protection Drainage engineering, irrigation
land can be reclaimed into depression filling, deep excavation forest, and plant trees and and drainage engineering, and
513

fishery land or farmland
The seasonal ponding subsided
land can be reclaimed into
fishery land, farmland,
or forest and grass land
The non-ponding subsided
land can be reclaimed into
farmland, forest and grass
land, or construction land
Gangue Forest land and grassland
dump
Industrial
site
8/27/2014 6:02:41 PM
and high building, and topsoil
stripping and backfilling
Fill coal gangue, coal ash, building
stones, ooze, and construction
waste; topsoil stripping and
backfilling, and terracing
Fill and cram pits and cracks,
land formation, and build
bench terrace
Topsoil stripping and covering,
slope cutting, formation works,
and matrix improvement
Cleaning-up engineering
and land tilling
shrubs and sow grass seeds
Build an agricultural protection
forest, and plant trees and
shrubs and sowing grass seeds
Plant trees and shrubs and sow
grass seeds, and build an
agricultural protection forest
Set a tree and shrub protected
zone in the surrounding places,
and grow trees and shrubs
on the platform and slope
Grow crops, plant trees and
shrubs, and sow grass seeds
road engineering
Irrigation and drainage engineering
and road engineering
Small reservoir, land weir,
horizontal ditch, fish
phosphorus pit, check dam,
and road engineering
Drainage ditch, road engineering,
irrigation and drainage
engineering, grit chamber,
stilling pool, and scarp
Irrigation and drainage engineering
and road engineering
 3.2.4 Basic inspection and management
of land reclamation
In order to achieve the level supervision goal in
land reclamation, before moving to the supervision
and acceptance link regarding county-level land
reclamation, mining enterprises need a self-in-
spection featuring pre-inspection and leak repair-
ing targeting the reclamation acceptance of land
authorities. This pre-inspection, on one hand, is to
re-inspect whether the land quality has met the rel-
evant standards, and inspect whether the reclaimed
land is able to bear the current engineering con-
struction, based on existing construction proto-
types; and on the other hand, the pre-inspection is
to inspect whether the construction work has met
the standards, and whether the construction work
has a rational layout, and the pre-inspection also
includes the inspection of the construction work
in order to avoid surface projects and jerry-built
projects. The land reclamation supervision is con-
summated by the acceptance of land reclamation,
which includes the annual acceptance correspond-
ing to the annual plans, staged acceptance cor-
responding to the staged plans, and the overall
acceptance that corresponds to the reclamation
schemes. Targeting the reclamation acceptance
above of three stages and degrees, the land rec-
lamation department of mining enterprises need
to make the inspection regarding engineering
information, such as the basic information of the
reclaimed areas, land destruction information, rec-
lamation construction information, the deposit,
use, and withdrawing of the reclamation funds,
landforms reshaping, soil reconstruction, revegeta-
tion, and monitoring and maintenance. Moreover,
the land reclamation department needs to carry
out on-site inspection regarding the tail-in work,
in an effort to ensure that land reclamation meets
both national and regional industrial standards.
4 CONCLUSIONS
China is experiencing a grim situation of land
destruction. Coupled with the lengthy period
and technically complex process of land reclama-
tion, the land reclamation management got the
attention of enterprises, governments and the
public. The management level of land reclama-
tion, however, directly restricts the implementation
of land reclamation. In China, a special manage-
ment department for land reclamation is actually
non-existent in most mining enterprises, resulting
514
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 514
in blanks or repetition in the management of land
reclamation. This paper focuses on the building of
hierarchical management for mining enterprises.
Based on a CIS model, this study establishes a
three-tiered management hierarchy (decision
making-management-execution), and also divides
the management links into four parts as basic
review, bidding and tendering management, proc-
ess control and basic inspection. The four links act
as the core and pivot in the management of land
reclamation, standardizing land reclamation of
mining enterprises, and improving the efficiency
of reclamation management.
REFERENCES
Bai Z.K., Li J.C., Wang W Y, et al. China opencast coal mine
in Shanxi Antaibao ecological restoration of degraded
land study. China Land Science, 2000, 14(4):14.
Bai Z.K., Yun W.J. A case study on Pingshuo mining
area: Land rehabilitation and reutilization in mining
district. Resources & Industries, 2008, 10(5): 3237.
Bai Z.K., Zhao J.K. Land Reclamation and Ecological
Reconstruction. Beijing: China Agricultural Science
Press, 2000.
Bian Z.F. Summary of Land Reclamation Study of Coal
Mining Areas in China and Abroad. China Land
Science, 2000, 14(1): 611.
Chen G.W. Discussion of New Land Reclamation
Management. Beijing Agriculture, 2011, 9: 149.
Hu Z.Q., Zhao Y.L., Zhao S., et al. Analysis of reclama-
tion feasibility in land reclamation planning. Transac-
tions of the CSAE, 2004, 20(4): 2641267. (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Jin D., Bian Z.F. Polices, laws and regulations on land
reclamation and the implications: comparing China
with other countries. China Land Science, 2009,
23(10): 6673.
Liu J. Discussion on rational land bidding mechanism
design. China Real Estate, 2005(9):15.
Wang J.M., Bai Z.K., Luo M., et al. China and other
sequence-based professional multi-level land recla-
mation standards system. Agricultural Engineering,
2010(5):312315.
Yan T.X., Fu Z.G. CIS-based Management Culture
Building in Coal Enterprises. Zhongzhou Coal,
2012(1): 104105.
Zhou W., Cao Y.G., Bai Z.K., et al. Discussion of Moni-
toring Index of Land Reclamation in Coal Mining
Areas. China Land Science, 2012, 26 (11).
Zhou Y., Bai Z.K., Luo M., et al. Problems and Coun-
termeasures in the Supervision System of China Land
Reclamation. China Land Science, 2014, 2: 5764.
Zhou Y., Zhou W., Bai Z.K. Analysis of Mineral Resources
Exploitation Damage and Land Reclamation Potential.
Resources and Industry, 2013, 15(005): 100107.
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 Part 8: Surface mined land reclamation
and ecological restoration

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Development of methods for post-mining land use planning for coal

mines in urban areas in Quang Ninh, Vietnam

K. Broemme, H. Stolpe, C. Jolk, S. Greassidis, A. Borgmann & B. Zindler

Environmental Engineering + Ecology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, NRW, Germany

T. Mien
VINACOMIN, Hanoi, Vietnam

ABSTRACT: Post-mining land use planning is an important task for mining sites and should be per-
formed as early as possible in order to integrate it into the overall mine planning and to keep the restora-
tion costs low. In Quang Ninh, Vietnam, hard coal is mined since about 160 years. The mining areas are
embedded into rapidly developing urban areas next to Ha Long Bay, one of the touristic hotspots of the
country. With a gradual shifting from open pit to underground mining, manmade landscapes dominated
by abandoned pits and waste rock dumps are left behind. Questions on a post-mining land use that is suit-
able for this landscape and the surroundings led to RAMEs (Research Association Mining and Environ-
ment) research project on post-mining land use planning. RAME since 2005 develops methods to reduce
the environmental impacts due to hard coal mining in Vietnam. The research includes technical measures,
environmental management and planning.

1 INTRODUCTION information, an environmental information sys-

1.1 Project overview
In 2005, the Research Association Mining and
Environment (RAME) and the Vietnam National
CoalMineral Industries Holding Corporation
Limited (VINACOMIN) agreed on a collabora-
tion in order to develop environmental concepts
and measures for Quang Ninh hardcoal min-
ing areas. RAME is funded by BMBF (German
Federal Ministry of Education and Research) and
is coordinated by the Institute of EE+E Environ-
mental Engineering+Ecology, Ruhr-University
of Bochum (Prof. Dr. Harro Stolpe, Dr. Katrin
Brmme).
The subjects of the joint research project RAME
are related to the main environmental problems of
hard coal mining in Quang Ninh Province, Vietnam
(Brmme et al. 2007). The RAME research project
consists of six subprojects.
1.1.1 Environmental management, environmental
information system, capacity development
(subproject I, 20072011)
Decisions on environmental measures require
knowledge about emission sources, transmission
paths, immission areas etc. Furthermore, knowl-
edge about environmental technologies, hazards,
legislation, the available budget and the costs of
measures is required. In order to manage all these
tem and annual environmental reports were devel-
oped. The annual environmental reports are an
instrument for environmental management. They
contain information about the status of the envi-
ronment and recommendations for monitoring
and remediation measures.
The subproject was carried out by the Institute of
Environmental Engineering and Ecology at Ruhr-
University of Bochum and CBM GmbH, Aachen,
which was responsible for capacity development.
1.1.2 Stabilization of waste rock dumps
(subproject II, 20082013)
The task of the subproject was to quantify the sta-
bility risks on waste rock dumps and to develop
solutions to reduce them. The project site was a
waste rock dump typical for Quang Ninh region
filled with heterogeneous waste rock materials
using the sidehill fill dumping method. Stability
risks are caused by the segregation of waste rock
particles, mechanically labile material layers inside
the dump and subsidence processes due to uncom-
pressed materials (Ahmad et al. 2009, Deissmann
et al. 2008, Martens et al. 2009, Diss Ahmad).
The research of the subproject had two main
components. The first component investigated the
dump stability by monitoring dump movements,
other signs of failures and seepage water flows as
well as geomechanical conditions by drillings and

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 trial pits. This component also investigated the risk
of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) from the dump. It
was found that the internal structure of the waste
rock dump is very heterogenous. Inactive parts
and slopes are geotechnically quite stable while the
safety factors in active parts and slopes are much
lower to critical. The erosion on slopes is very criti-
cal, especially during the rainy season where surface
water is running down the slopes. The AMD poten-
tial is high due to a low concentration of the buff-
ering carbonate phase siderit. Recultivation of the
dump will reduce the surface runoff, the interflow
and the seepage flow significantly and it can also
mitigate the AMD processes. Anyway, the waters
draining from the dump will be polluted long term
and need to be treated. Suitable measures for the
dump include slope flattening, recultivation and an
effective water management and treatment.
The second component was a large scale test of
an alternate dumping in layers including compres-
sion by trucks under controlled conditions. Techni-
cal guidelines for the dumping process in the future
were developed which included recommendations
for additional materials like lime or ash to mitigate
the AMD processes.
The subproject was carried out by the Institute
of Mining Engineering I, RWTH Aachen Uni-
versity and the company Brenk Systemplanung,
Aachen.
1.1.3 Mine water treatment
(subproject III, 20072012)
Within the framework of subproject III, a mine
water treatment plant for an underground anthra-
cite mine in Quang Ninh was developed. Boundary
conditions for the development of a suitable treat-
ment process have been the limited size of the con-
struction area, the tropical and humid conditions
and the prerequisite of the Vietnamese partners
to run the plant with a low amount of additional
chemical substances besides lime.
Because of the high volume fluxes and the lim-
ited space, an active treatment technology was
selected. While iron and coal particles can be
removed by classic oxidative mine water treatment
(neutralisation by lime, oxidation, flocculation,
sedimentation), manganese removal was more
demanding. Thus, most effort was spent on devel-
oping a suitable manganese removal. Based on
preliminary tests, sorption to parallel precipitating
iron hydroxides and catalytic oxidative manganese
removal was chosen as removal method (Kurtz
et al. 2010, Kurtz 2011, Kurtz et al. 2011).
The implementation planning was finished with
great support of the Vietnamese partners in 2010.
It was then supplied to the Vietnamese partners,
who realized the construction. The plant success-
fully started its operation in August 2012.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 518
The subproject was carried out by the companies
LMBV, eta engineering AG and GFI Dresden.
1.1.4 Dust mitigation and monitoring
(subproject IV, 20092013)
The project site for the dust mitigation subproject
includes open pit mines, large waste rock dumps,
coal and waste rock transport routes, coal screen-
ing areas and a coal processing plant as well as a
coal harbour. Furthermore, the area is located very
close to residential areas of Ha Long City which
are especially sensitive to dust emissions. The task
for the subproject was to perform an extended dust
monitoring in the area following the production
chains of the coal.
As a result, the most relevant dust sources were
identified. The daily dust emission in the investi-
gated mine site amounts to 56 t of dust where the
main sources are the transport and the wind ero-
sion. The researchers estimated that this amount
can be reduced down to 28 t of dust by dust miti-
gation measures like (i) optimization of the water
spraying system on roads, (ii) improved mine road
construction, (iii) water spraying at the coal screen-
ing sites, (iv) technical measures like housing and
wind shields at the coal screening sites as well as
(v) reduction of non-vegetated areas, recultivation
of unused areas (Martens et al. 2013).
The subproject was carried out by the Institute
of Mining Engineering I at RWTH Aachen Uni-
versity and the companies Brenk Systemplanung
and CBM GmbH, both in Aachen.
1.1.5 Plant based methods for waste rock
dump recultivation and mine water
treatment with constructed wetlands
(subproject V, 20082011)
The first part of the subproject developed a long-
term stable and sustainable concept for a recultiva-
tion of dump sites. The subsequent step includes
recultivation measures aiming to assist nature by
utilizing natural succession. Locally adapted plant
species, occuring already in the original natural
vegetation, are grown in distinct islands serving
as colonization initials. The chosen methodol-
ogy aims at developing a fully functioning, self-
sustaining system that involves, besides plants,
natural processes of soil development and nutri-
ent cycling.
In order to develop the method in detail, the
subproject designed recultivation experiments. The
experiments compared tree species and grass spe-
cies as well as different ways of soil improvement
using rice straw and filter ash. Furthermore, the
recultivation results are compared with already
established plantations using traditional recultiva-
tion trees (Kuka et al. 2010, Finkenbein et al. 2010,
Finkenbein et al. 2013, Kuka et al. 2013).
8/27/2014 6:02:42 PM
 The most promising soil improvement meas-
ures were the sieving of waste rock material which
increases the fine material fraction and thus
remarkably improves substrate quality as well
as the use of charred rice straw which positively
effects pH-value, base saturation and water storage
capacity.
For the species selection in general a large suita-
ble native species pool is available. As different spe-
cies use available resources (light, water, nutrients)
more effective it could be concluded that the plant-
ing of species in a random pattern is most benefi-
cial. Species propagation and cultivation can be
further enhanced by specific seed manipulations.
In the second part of the subproject a mine
water treatment concept by constructed wetlands
was developed for an area where the acid water in
a lake strongly affects the agricultural production
downstream. Beside other mine influenced waters,
Figure 1. Location of Hon Gai.
seepage water from a waste rock dump drains into
the lake.
The subproject showed that this type of water
can be treated successfully through a constructed
wetland. The constructed wetland was designed
as a passive biological treatment facility with two
treatment steps in two subsequent basins. The
first basin contains a limestone drainage passage
covered by mixed manure. The second basin con-
tains a planted gravel filterbed. The pilot scale
constructed wetland has a designed capacity of
4.4 m3/h (Gerth 2009).
The subproject was carried out by the Helm-
holtz Centre for Environmental ResearchUFZ
in Leipzig and the company BioPlanta GmbH in
Leipzig.

1.1.6 Methods for post-mining land use planning

(subproject VI, 20112015) Figure 2. View over Hon Gai, southern part (photo:
This subproject is presented in more detail in this RAME).
publication.

touristic center of the province. It is situated about

1.2 Project region Hon Gai
The Hon Gai region in the province Quang Ninh
in northeastern Vietnam (Fig. 1) represents a typi-
cal situation in Vietnamese hard coal mining where
mining areas are located right in the neighbor-
hood of residential areas (Fig. 2). Additionally,
the region lies next to Ha Long Bay which is one
of Vietnams international touristic hotspots. Ha
Long Bay is listed as a World Natural Heritage Site
by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 1992 and
was chosen as one of the New Seven Natural Won-
ders of the World in 2011.
The Hon Gai region is a part of Ha Long City,
the provincial capital of Quang Ninh province.
Ha Long City is the administrative, economic and
170 km north-east of Hanoi. The Hon Gai region
is a peninsula, east from the Bai Chay bridge which
connects the two main parts of Ha Long City,
Bai Chay and Hon Gai. The total area is about
12,400 ha. The peninsula is divided into 13 urban
districts with about 150,000 inhabitants in total.
The natural landscape of Hon Gai is dominated
by rock formations reaching up to 450 m asl in the
center of the peninsula (Fig. 3). This is the area
where mining takes place. Flat lowland areas can
only be found along the coastline where the urban
areas are concentrated. Dotted lime stone forma-
tions from Ha Long Bay in the southern coastal
and lowland areas complete the picture. Large
scale land reclamation through backfilling takes
place along the southern and western coastal lines.

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Figure 3. Topography, morphology, current situation.
Figure 4. Land use, location of mines.
Hon Gai is surrounded by water on three sides:
in the north-west the Dien Vong River separates
the peninsula from the mainland, in the west lies
Hon Gai Bay and the southern border is formed
by Ha Long Bay. Most of the rivers in the area are
small and short, some exist only periodically in the
wake of rainfall events.
The land use of the area is characterized by for-
ests and green lime stone rocks that account for
about 28% of the land surface (Fig. 4). Mining
activities in the center of the peninsula account for
19% of the area. Urban areas and tourism in the
southwestern coastal parts account for 35% of the
area. Only 1% of the area is used for agriculture,
i.e. rice paddy and vegetables. The percentage of
agricultural land is decreasing due to the urbaniza-
tion of Ha Long City. Water surfaces account for
3%, other land uses for 14%.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 520
Environmental and land use conflicts occur due
to contradicting land uses e.g. urban areas vs. min-
ing areas vs. green spaces. Reclamation of new land
from sea is not a sustainable solution as it poses
a threat to the natural resources of Hon Gai and
Ha Long Bay. Another possibility to reclaim land
is the stepwise transition from open pit to under-
ground mining. Mining industry and local authori-
ties agreed on closing the open pit mines in the area
within the next 510 years. A regional post-mining
land use planning concept is urgently needed in
order to find an environmentally sustainable bal-
ance between various land use requirements after
the open pit mines closed down.
1.3 Coal mining in Hon Gai
The Quang Ninh hard coal mining area is the
largest of its kind in Vietnam. It produces 95% of
the domestic hard coal. The mining activities in
Quang Ninh are organized under the state-owned
Vietnam National CoalMineral Industries Hold-
ing Corporation Limited (VINACOMIN). Hard
coal is mined in three main areas: Dong Trieu/
Uong Bi in the west, Hon Gai in Ha Long City
inbetween and Cam Pha in Cam Pha City in the
east. All three areas include both open pit and
underground mines of different sizes. About 60%
of the coal is produced in open pit mines, but the
number of underground mines is currently increas-
ing as deeper coal seams have to be mined.
In the Hon Gai region, currently nine mines exist
which are organized under six different coal com-
panies (Fig. 4). Five coal companies are daughter
companies of VINACOMIN, one is an external
coal company. There are three large open pit mines,
three mines with open pit as well as underground
mining and three underground mines. Further
mining facilities in the area include a coal process-
ing plant, coal stores and coal ports.
Six open pit mines will be closed down between
2014 and 2018. One of them will continue opera-
tion with a new underground mine right under
the former open pit. The underground mines and
associated mining facilities will continue their
operation until 2030 and beyond. The remaining
areas above ground will be reclaimed and reused.
The coal processing plant is located inside residen-
tial areas on the southern coast. In 2015 it will be
moved to a new location near the coal ports on the
northern coast.
2 POST-MINING LAND USE PLANNING
The plans for mine closure in Hon Gai area call
for an integrated planning concept on post-mining
land use for Hon Gai.
8/27/2014 6:02:44 PM
 The objective of RAME is the development
of an exemplary planning concept and the corre-
sponding methodology which are transferable to
other mining areas in Vietnam and countries with
similar structures in regional planning.
2.1 Stakeholders in the post-mining land use
planning process
Five stakeholder groups take part in the post min-
ing land use planning process (Table 1).
The project focuses on the three main stake-
holders Quang Ninh Province, Ha Long City
and VINACOMIN. They prepare various plans
for Hon Gai area. The plans are either prepared
by the responsible technical departments or by
external consultants. The plans are approved on
provincial level and on national level by the Gov-
ernment and the responsible ministries. The plans
from different stakeholders and with different
thematic scopes are influencing the post-mining
land use planning process and therefore need to
be considered.
An integrated regional land use planning
requires a good communication between the local
stakeholders. Therefore, the project also had the
task to develop concepts for and to initiate a stake-
holder communication. The task included:
Collection and evaluation of information on
approved plans
Agreement on the need for an integration of
different regional and local plans
The communication itself between different
stakeholders and the integration process of
the post-mining land use planning with other
regional and local plans
In the beginning, the project contacted with the
stakeholders VINACOMIN, Ha Long City and
Quang Ninh Province in order to collect docu-
ments and spatial data on approved plans for Hon
Gai area. The project team discussed the plans
with the stakeholders in detail in order to under-
stand their ideas and intentions correctly and to
clarify questions.
In workshops and meetings, RAME demon-
strated the potentials of an integrated planning
concept and an optimized post-mining land use
for the stakeholders and for the region. The stake-
holders agreed on the need for an integrated post-
mining land use concept.

Table 1. Stakeholder groups.

Stakeholder
group Group members Relevant plans and decisions

National Government Approval of coal industry master plan

Level MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Approval of environmental rehabilitation
Environment (General Department of Environment, plans
Department of Geology and Minerals) Approval of mining licenses
MOIT Ministry of Industry and Trade
Province Peoples Committee; Masterplan on socio-economic
Quang DPI Department of Planning and Investment; development
Ninh DOC Department of Construction; Regional masterplan
DONRE Department of Natural Resources Land use plan
and Environment; Environmental plan
DCST Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism Tourism plan
Ha Long Peoples Committee Masterplan on socio-economic
City DOC Department of Construction development
DUM Department of Urban Management Masterplan on urban development
DONRE Department of Natural Resources Construction masterplan
and Environment Land use plan
Ha Long Bay Management Department Environmental plan
VINACOMIN Management Coal industry master plan
Relevant technical departments Plan on waste rock dumping and
Coal companies waste water drainage
Consulting companies Environmental plan
Environmental rehabilitation plan
(separate for each mine)
Other External coal company Environmental rehabilitation plan
External consulting companies Environmental project plans
International organizations (environmental City development study
NGOs, donor organizations)

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 The project initiated the communication on
post-mining land use between the stakeholders.
Currently, the project develops necessary steps to
start an integration process of the post-mining
land use planning with other regional and local
plans. The steps include:
Definition of the planning boundary between
VINACOMIN and local authorities
Regular exchange of information on plan modi-
fications on both sides, exchange of basic data
layers (on a technical level)
Regular comparison and discussion on plan
adaptations on both sides (on a technical level)
Regular presentation of updated plans and
approval on both sides (on the management
level)
The integration of the post-mining land use
planning is a regular and continuous process as the
underlying thematic plans are modified regularly
by the stakeholders.
interrelated with each other. Therefore, a set of
planning maps was prepared which support the
planning process and the related stakeholder
communication.
The developed planning maps visualize the cur-
rent situation and the future situation including
the following maps:
Topography, morphology (current & future sit-
uation) (Figs. 3 and 5)
Land use (current & future situation) (Fig. 4)
Open pits and waste rock dumps (future situa-
tion) (Fig. 6)
Mining facilities (current & future situation)
Underground mining activities (future
situation)

2.2 Planning data and data management

The planning data, necessary for an integrated
planning of post-mining land use in Hon Gai area,
had to include basic topographic data describing
the current situation as well as data describing the
future situation according to all the existing plans
from the different stakeholders.
As the data originate from various sources with
heterogeneous data quality, data format and data
projection, each new dataset has to go through a
careful pre-processing before it can be added to the
central project geodatabase which was established
under ArcGIS 10.2.
The data pre-processing included data con- Figure 5. Topography, morphology, future situation.
version (from CAD, Mapinfo, Microstation to
ArcGIS), georeferencing and projection into one
common coordinate system (VN2000), correc-
tion and completion of geometry, topology and
attribute data. The following steps were carried out
in order to build a consistent geodatabase:
Plausibility evaluation: Examination of data
content
Consistency evaluation: Technical examination
of geodata
Post processing: Definition of digitization rules,
meta-information and attribute tables.
The current geodatabase consists of 85 vector and
raster datasets including open pit and underground
mine borders, mining facilities, digital elevation mod-
els, hydrological data, infrastructure, land use, etc.

2.3 Planning maps

Land use planning is a visual process consid-
ering many different spatial factors which are Figure 6. Planning elements, planning boundary.

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 Mine water management (current & future
situation)
Infrastructure: road network, water supply,
power supply (future situation)
For the first time, the separate mine plans were
combined into one overall Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) that is showing the future morphology of
the mining areas. Furthermore, this information
was combined with elevation and land use data for
the surrounding urban areas. Conflicts between
different plans could be identified.
A planning boundary (Fig. 6) was defined based
on the analysis of the information from different
plans as well as land use rights of the mining com-
panies, land use boundaries of the urban land use
planning, and the real situation of current land
use. The planning boundary separates the areas
with mining activities, now or in the future, from Figure 7. Planning units, planning concept.
the surrounding urban and industrial areas. The
total area inside the planning boundary accounts
for about 3500 ha. 3.2 Concept for post-mining land use planning
The resulting planning maps reveal that large
The RAME project defined several planning cri-
waste rock dumps and backfilled former open pits
teria in order to decide about the assignment of
become the dominating landscaping elements in
post-mining land use types in the planning units.
the future. The dumps are large sized landmarks
Higher value land uses like residential areas or
with steep slopes which are visible from almost all
industrial zones should be established on flat ter-
perspectives. The final level of former open pits is
rain and close to existing urban areas. Green parks,
much lower and the terrain is flat. According to the
recreational areas and forest should be established
future plans, these mining relicts will nearly fill up
on hilly terrain and slopes. Large waste rock dumps
the central area of Hon Gai peninsula. The area of
are reserved for special land uses. Green corridors
remaining untouched natural topography is small
are established in order to connect the forest and
in comparison.
recreational areas with each other.
Based on the defined criteria, the first planning
concept was developed (Fig. 7, Table 2). It contains
3 RESULTS
six planning units in the western parts reserved
for higher value land uses like residential areas or
3.1 Planning units
industrial zones. A mixture of recreation, sports,
The defined planning area was divided into 13 adventure and public park area was suggested for
smaller planning units (Fig. 7). The planning the central waste rock dump Chinh Bac Nui Beo.
units are used to structure the planning area The dump plateau is intended as a local recrea-
before assigning different types of potential post- tion area for coal miners and their families and the
mining land use. The delineation was based on residents of Hon Gai in general. The dump slopes
mine boundaries and large landscaping elements can partly be used for adventure, sports. In general,
like waste rock dumps and open pits which form they will be revegetated. In two eastern planning
homogeneous topographical units. The planning units open pit mining activities will go on. The
units were named based on the names of the mines remaining four planning units should be park and
or the geographical location. forest areas.
A fact sheet, called Planning Unit Report The concept connects the surrounding urban
(PUR), was developed in order to summarize all areas with flat terrains inside the former min-
important information for each planning unit. The ing areas. Connections to the existing infrastruc-
PURs support planners, stakeholders and decision ture networks like roads, power supply and water
makers during the planning process. They include supply can be established easily. Parks and forest
structured thematic information on (1) regional areas for recreation frame the urban land uses and
planning, (2) soil and slope stability, (3) water man- provide nice views as well as fresh cool air and a
agement, (4) recultivation and (5) pollution risk healthy local climate.
assessment, as well as recommendations for meas- The developed planning concept represents a
ures and suggestions for post-mining land use. regional integrated planning concept which serves

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 Table 2. Planning units, planning concept.

No. Former land use Suggested future land use Remarks

1 Open pit mine
2 Underground mine
3 Waste rock dump
4 Underground mine
5 Underground mine
6 Open pit &
underground mine
7 Open pit mine
8 Open pit &
underground mine
9 Waste rock dump
10 Underground mine
11 Open pit mine
12 Open pit mine
13 Open pit &
underground mine
Residential and/
or industrial area
Residential and/
or industrial area
Local recreation area,
view points, sports,
open air museum
Residential and/
or industrial area
Mining Museum, green
area, park, recreation
Residential and/
or industrial area
Residential and/
or industrial area
Residential and/
or industrial area
Green space, park,
recreation
Green space, park,
recreation
Still used for open
pit mining
Still used for open
pit mining
Forest
Preferably industrial area, close to thermal power
plant, national road
Suitable for scattered residential areas, stability
measures against subsidence necessary
Landmark of the area, various infrastructure for
recreation, slope stability measures necessary,
no heavy constructions on the top plateau possible
Suitable for small scale residential areas, stability
measures against subsidence necessary
Transfer of a former underground mine site into a
Mining Museum surrounded by green park areas
Suitable for small scale residential areas, stability
measures against subsidence necessary, long term
underground mining
Flat parts suitable for residential areas, hilly parts suitable
for green areas, slope stability measures necessary
Huge flat areas on inpit dumps, suitable for large scale
residential areas, waiting period due to underground
mining and settlings to fade out
Dump near river valley, good potential for ecological
zones combined with park, big environmental
rehabilitation efforts needed
Hilly terrain, area suitable for public park
and forest land use
Redesign of the open pit mine not yet finished
Managed by an external coal company
Hilly terrain, far from the urban areas, suitable
for forestry

as a basis for the detailed environmental rehabilita-

tion planning of the mines, the alignment with the
urban planning and the design of further neces-
sary complimentary measures.

3.3 3D visualization
The planning concept is visualized through GIS
maps and a photorealistic 3D model. 3D visualiza-
tion is an important instrument for the communi-
cation with local stakeholders. The 3D images give
them a much better idea of the future landscape
after the rehabilitation of the former mining areas
(Fig. 8). The 3D model is based on the terrain infor-
mation. Furthermore, textures close to the look of Figure 8. 3D visualization (example).
real surfaces have to be developed and applied on
the terrain model. The 3D visualization is devel-
oped by using the software tools Biosphere3D and plans had been done mostly independently without
Vegetation3D (Mlder & Strickmann 2012). information exchange with other stakeholders, the
GIS team found inconsistencies and overlappings
when comparing different plans for the same area.
3.4 Planning conflicts
Some of these conflicts could be resolved in direct
The project had to incorporate many different discussion with the stakeholders during the data
thematic plans from different stakeholders. As the preparation. The remaining planning conflicts

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 were collected in a list and illustrated in a map.
These conflicts have to be solved stepwise during
the further planning and implementation process.
3.5 Roadmap
A successful implementation of the post-mining
land use plan needs a well coordinated manage-
ment, especially as this is a task easily lasting 20
to 30 years. The implementation includes meas-
ures during the ongoing mining activities and after
mine closure as several decisions (for instance on
the final morphology) have to be made in a very
early stage. The RAME project supports this proc-
ess by developing a roadmap which visualizes the
development of the area in future.
4 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
As the first mine closures in Hon Gai area are
imminent and Ha Long City is planning its future
urban development, both planning processes
should be closely coordinated with each other.
RAME developed the first integrated planning
concept on post-mining land use for the Hon Gai
area which incorporates the final post-mining mor-
phology as well as the environmental rehabilitation
plans of all mines and at the same time takes into
account the plans which were approved for the sur-
rounding urban areas.
From the development of an exemplary post-
mining land use concept in Hon Gai methodologi-
cal implications can be derived for mining near or
within urban areas in Vietnam or socioeconomi-
cally similar countries:
A frame-like land reuse planning on a regional
scale and a roadmap of activities should be
elaborated before the start of mining activities.
The concrete planning of local land use can be
made on the basis of such a coordinated frame-
work planning.
The post-mining planning should not be seen
solely as an environmental concept but also as
an economic concept especially for higher value
land use types.
The relevant stakeholders should agree on the
regional planning goals also including special
issues (border buffer zones, infrastructure etc.)
at an early stage. A standing stakeholder com-
mittee should accompany the planning process
permanently.
Due to the specific characteristics of the leg-
islation in countries like Vietnam there should
be expected a not ending and permanent plan-
ning procedure and permanent adaptation of
planning.
525
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 525
Under these boundary conditions, the applica-
tion of GIS, satellite images and mobile GIS
devices etc. are useful tools. The visualiza-
tion of local planning concepts constitutes an
important support for the decision making
processes.
Overall, during the planning process for the
example Hon Gai due to step by step data access
and unclear responsibilities the planning of post-
mining land use was a very time consuming proc-
ess. A legal basis for a definition of the necessary
planning steps, the planning maps and data bases
to be used and the involvement of stakeholders
could facilitate the post-mining land use planning
in similar situations.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, S. et al. 2009. Mine Waste Dumping and Cor-
responding Environmental Impacts at Chinh Bac
Waste Dump in Vietnam. Securing the Future and 8th
ICARD, 2326 June 2009, Skelleftea, Sweden.
Ahmad, S. 2013. A contribution to open pit hard coal
mine waste rock management: comparing sidehill fill
with layered dumping. PhD thesis. RWTH Aachen.
Brmme, K. et al. 2007. Developing Environmental
Concepts for Vietnamese Coal Mines. SWEMP
2007 10th International Symposium on Environmental
Issues and Waste Management in Energy and Min-
eral Production, 1014 December 2007, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Finkenbein, P. et al. 2010. A succession based technol-
ogy for reclamation of coal mining areas in Northern
Vietnam. SWEMP 2010 12th International Sympo-
sium on Environmental Issues and Waste Management
in Energy and Mineral Production, May 2426, 2010,
Prague, Czech Republic.
Finkenbein, P. et al. 2013. Soil enzyme activities as bio-
indicators for substrate quality in revegetation of a
subtropical coal mining dump. Soil Biol. Biochem. 56,
8789
Gerth, A. 2009. Usage of passive biological water treat-
ment technologies in Latin America, Vietnam and
Hungary (in German), Symposium Wasser: Leben-
squell und Wirtschaftsbasis, TerraTecInternationale
Fachmesse fr Umwelttechnik und -dienstleistungen,
Leipzig.
Kuka, K. et al. 2010. Increase of substrate quality on
dumps in open cast mining areas to enable plant
growth. International Mining Conference and Exhibi-
tion 2010Advanced Mining for Sustainable Develop-
ment, 2325 September 2010, Ha Long, Vietnam.
Kuka, K. et al. 2013. Investigation of different amend-
ments for dump reclamation in Northern Vietnam.
J. Geochem. Explor. 132, 4153.
Kurtz, S. et al. 2010. On-Site-Monitoring and Process
Investigations on the Prognosis of Sludge Character-
istics in a Vietnamese Mine Water Treatment Plant
in case of Mine Waters rich in Coal Dust, Iron and
Manganese (in German). Tagungsband 61. Berg
und Httenmnnischer Tag. Freiberg, Germany.
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 Kurtz, S. 2011. Investigation of the Mn(II) removal proc-
esses during waste water treatment from coal min-
ing in Vang Danh (Vietnam) and development of a
Manganese removal technology for mine waters (in
German). PhD-Thesis at the BTU Cottbus, Proceed-
ings des Dresdener Grundwasserforschungszentrums
e.V., Heft 46.
Kurtz, S. et al. 2011. Mine drainage water treatment in
Vietnam. Water Wastewater Technology. Special Issue
2011:2023.
Martens, P.N. et al. 2009. Opportunities for a sustainable
development at Chinh Bac mine waste dump in Viet-
nam. SDIMI 2009Sustainable Development Indica-
tors in the Minerals Industry 2009 Conference, 68 July
2009, Gold Coast QLD, Australia.
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Martens, P.N. et al. 2013. A Contribution to Sustain-
able Development in Vietnamese Hard Coal Mining
by Mine Dust Mitigation and Waste Rock Dump
Stabilization. Conference Proceedings Sustainable
Development in the Minerals Industry (SDIMI) 2013
Conference, Milos, Greece.
Mlder, J. & Strickmann, M. 2012. Ems3DCommu-
nicating Landscape Change. In: Buhmann/Ervin/
Pietsch (eds), Digital Landscape Architecture. Proc.
at Anhalt University of Applied Sciences, Wichmann,
Heidelberg: 249255.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Assessment of visual impact due to surface mining with the Lvi method

V. Dentoni, B. Grosso & G. Massacci

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: Surface mining and quarrying typically generate a number of environmental concerns
among which landscape alteration is one of the most significant. Although landscape and visual impact
does not directly affect public health, it usually generates a negative reaction among potential observ-
ers, sometimes influencing the socioeconomic development of the surrounding impact territory. The
landscape and visual impact assessment involves individual perceptions, aesthetic tastes and visual com-
prehension; however, some aspects of landscape modification can be objectively measured in order to
quantify the magnitude of change. The article summarizes the results of previous studies focused on the
implementation of the Lvi (Level of Visual Impact) method to a variety of cases within the European
territory and discusses the adequacy of the method in providing an objective estimation of the visual
damage produced by surface mining and quarrying. The visual impact indicator Lvi takes into account
two parameters among those physically measurable: the extent of the visible alteration and the chromatic
contrast between the color of the bare rock and that of the surrounding landscape. Both parameters can
be quantified by processing one or more digital images taken from the most significant viewpoints (public
roads, towns, villages, touristic sites, etc.). The article also includes the results of a recent study where the
use of a global impact factor LVI to be associated to a given route has been proposed, in order to account
for the variability of the visual impact along the route. Other studies proved the visual impact indicator
Lvi to be significantly correlated with the subjective perception of potential observers, the results of a test
carried out in the University of Cagliari are briefly reported in this article. Some critical aspects regard-
ing the variability of the results on the basis of the shooting conditions (type of camera, season and time
of the day, etc.) are discussed, as well as the possibility of developing the assessment procedure as to
include the estimate of the ante-operam quality of the impact territory under exam and the number and
type of people who are likely to observe the landscape modification.

1 INTRODUCTION wealth and occupational opportunities (Dentoni &

Surface mining, quarrying and civil engineering
works involving excavation generate a number of
environmental impacts among which landscape
alteration can be considered one of the most sig-
nificant. Although landscape alteration does not
directly affect public health it usually generates a
negative reaction within potential observers and in
some cases strongly influences the socio-economic
development of the surrounding territory.
A recent study proved the presence of active
or non-reclaimed mines to be a fundamental con-
tributor to the negative perception of the whole
landscape (Svobodova et al. 2012). In particular,
landscape alteration might be perceived very nega-
tively by observers who do not live in the mining or
post-mining area and are not prepared to accept
incongruities in the natural landscape. Local resi-
dents, on the other hand, tend to justify landscape
modifications due to industrial activities, because
they associate such evidences with a source of
Massacci 2013).
Differences in the residents and non-residents
visual perception were observed in a recent inves-
tigation (Sklenicka & Molnarova 2010) aimed at
comparing the respondents judgment with refer-
ence to different habitats adopted for post-mining
reclamation. The investigation proved that older
people who live in post mining-areas prefer habi-
tats with evidences of productive functions while
younger and more educated respondents who live
outside the post-mining areas prefer habitats with
ecological, aesthetic and recreational characters.
As a matter of fact, the assessment of land-
scape and visual impact due to surface excavation
involves individual perceptions, aesthetic tastes
and visual comprehension (Nicholson 1995). How-
ever, some aspects of landscape modifications can
be objectively measured in order to quantify the
magnitude of change. The Lvi parameter proposed
here integrates two objective elements of landscape
modifications: the extent of the visible alteration

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 and the chromatic contrast between the color of
the bare rock exposed by excavation and the colors
of the surrounding natural landscape.
The article reports the results of the application
of the Lvi (Level of Visual Impact) indicator to a
variety of cases within the European territory and
discusses the adequacy of the method in providing
an objective estimation of the visual damage pro-
duced by surface mining and quarrying.
1.1 Extent of visible land alteration
Considering an observation point P, it is possible
to assign an objective value to the extent of the
visible alteration by considering the solid angle v
subtended by the altered area, according to equa-
tion (1):
n da
v = (1)
r2
Sv
where Sv is the visible altered surface, da is the dif-
ferential area (i.e. the area of an infinitesimal sur-
face element of Sv), n is the unit vector along the
direction from P to da and r is the distance from P
to da. Equation (1) may be simply rewritten as:
Av
v = (2)
r2
where Av is the projection of the altered sur-
face onto a sphere centred on P with radius rs
(Fig. 1). Since in practical cases the solid angle
takes values ranging from 0 to a few tens of
thousandths of sr, the use of a logarithmic func-
tion has been suggested (Pinzari & Re 1990).
According to the method discussed here the geo-
metrical aspect of the visible alteration is defined
Figure 1. Extent of the visible alteration defined by the
solid angle v from the viewpoint P.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 528
by Equation (3), where v is divided by a chosen
reference value 0.
v
Lv = 10 l g (3)
0
Its worth noting that the standard definition of
normal visual acuity (1.0 or 20/20 vision) is the abil-
ity to distinguish alternating black and white lines
separated by a visual angle of one minute arc, a
smaller angle would make the pattern to appear as
a mass of solid gray. In equation (3) 0 is the solid
angle corresponding to two plane visual angles of
one minute along two perpendicular directions; the
resulting value 0 = 8.46 108 sr can be considered
as the visibility threshold under maximum contrast
conditions in a black and white space (Dentoni
et al. 2004). As regards the maximum measurable
value of the visibility level, it has to be considered
that the human visual field embraces 180 of azi-
muth angle and 110 of zenith angle, accounting
for the eye and head mobility: the two plane angles
correspond to a solid angle of 5,14 sr and a maxi-
mum visibility level of 77,8 dB.
The solid angle v subtended by the altered area
can be easily calculated from the digital image of
the alteration taken from an observation point P,
according to equation (4):
Na
v p (4)
Np
where p is the solid angle subtended by the entire
picture, Na and Np are respectively the number
of pixels representing the altered area and the
total number of pixels of the picture. p is easily
determined, provided that the focal length and the
CCD (Charged Coupled Device) area are known
(Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Calculation of the solid angle v from a dig-
ital image taken from the viewpoint P.
528
8/27/2014 6:02:49 PM
 1.2 Degree of chromatic contrast
The chromatic contrast between the bare rock
and the surrounding area can be calculated with
reference to a specific color space (RGB, Luv,
Lab etc.).
Common digital cameras normally use the RGB
coordinates system, however, previous studies
proved the CIE Luv and the CIE Lab coordinates
to be more satisfactory than the RGB system in
representing a perceptually uniform space (i.e.:
the chromatic distance of two given points better
represents the chromatic contrast perceived by the
human eye). The conversion of the RGB coordi-
nates into CIE Luv or the CIE Lab coordinates can
be carried out using the appropriate algorithm.
It has to be considered that the use of the CIE
Lab color system is prevalent compared to the
CIE Luv system; moreover, the CIE Lab color
space has been applied to estimate the perception
of chromatic differences in other visual impact
related issues (Bishop 1997). Nonetheless, some of
the results of previous studies reported in the fol-
lowing part of this article are based on the use of
the CIE Luv system.
No matter what the color space in use, the chro-
matic contrast between two given points can be
evaluated as the Euclidean distance E defined by
equation (5):
E x 2 + y2 z 2 (5)
where x, y and z are the differences between
the values of the three chromatic coordinates of
the two points in the color space under considera-
tion (RGB, Luv, Lab etc.).
1.3 The Lvi indicator
The two parameters v and E indicating the
landscape modification are integrated in the visual
impact indicator Lvi, according to equation (6):
E v
Lvi = 10 log (6)
EBW 0
where E is the mean value of the Euclidean dis-
tance from the mean color of the bare rock and
the color of each pixel included in a compari-
son surface immediately around the excavation
perimeter. In fact, the application of Lvi is based
on the assumption that the chromatic contrast
produced by any modification mainly depends on
the chromatic characteristics at the boundaries of
the excavation. Therefore one or more comparison
surfaces need to be selected in order to quantify
the degree of chromatic contrast (Dentoni et al.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 529
Figure 3. Selection of two different comparison sur-
faces (A1 and A2) around a limestone quarry (Dentoni
et al. 2004).
2004). Recent studies confirmed that people tend
to compare the exposed excavation with the adja-
cent area, instead that with the sky or with more
distant areas (Menegaki et al. 2014).
Figure 3 shows the selection of two different
comparison surfaces around a limestone quarry
seen from a main road in the Sardinian country-
side: considering the variable pattern of the veg-
etation cover, two different comparison areas were
selected.
In this case, the quarry face visible from the
road is of a light color, but red predominates. The
hillside where the quarry has been cut is charac-
terized by rock outcrops alternating with typical
Mediterranean bush (surface A1) whereas lower
down the hillside rock outcrops are few and far
between (surface A2).
The mean value E calculated for each of the
two selected surfaces is divided by the Euclidean
distance EBW between black and white, in order
to obtain the mean standard chromatic contrast
E/EBW. The value of EBW is 100, both in CIE
Lab color space and in the CIE Luv color space.
As a first example of the Lvi application, the
results of the elaboration for the quarry in Figure 3
are reported in Table 1 and include: the solid angle
subtended by the quarrys face, the mean chro-
matic contrast for the two comparison surfaces in
the Luv color space, the standard deviation of the
chromatic contrast and the resulting visual impact
level Lvi.
The histograms of Figures 4 and 5 show the
frequency distribution of the standard chromatic
distance E/EBW for A1 and A2. As regards
A1, it can be seen from the picture that the area
includes a large proportion of light colored
rock outcrops that contrast with the dark veg-
etation: the frequency distribution of E/EBW
(chromatic distances from the mean color of the
529
8/27/2014 6:02:53 PM
 Table 1. Visual impact parameters for the case in Very few rock outcrops exist in the selected area
figure 3 (Dentoni et al. 2004). A2; the frequency distribution of E/EBW is there-
fore unimodal, with a slightly higher mean value
Case v [sr] E/EBW E Lvi [dB] than A1 (E/EBW = 0.378) and a relatively limited
A1 0.0474 0.354 0.121 53.0
dispersion (std. dev. E = 0.091).
A2 0.0474 0.378 0.091 53.3 The application of the Lvi method in the case
under exam highlights the sensitivity of Lvi to the
choice of the comparison area, even though the
difference between the two cases (A1 and A2) is
negligible (0.3 dB).
Its worth noting that in the variety of cases con-
sidered in previous studies by the authors of this
article Lvi was found in the range between 25,6 dB
and 53,5 dB; so that the quarry in Figure 3 must
be considered one of the most critical case studies
taken into consideration.
In addition, the method make it possible to
evaluate the cumulative visual impact arising
from two or more quarries which are simultane-
ously visible from the same viewpoint (Dentoni &
Massacci 2013). However, it has to be considered
that the proposed indicator Lvi does not account
for the shape of the visible excavation and for the
modification of the mountains profile.
Figure 4. Frequency distribution of E/EBW for A1
(Dentoni et al. 2004). 1.4 Variability of visual impact along
a given route
A further development of the research regarding
the assessment of visual impact due to surface min-
ing and quarrying has been discussed in a recent
article where the possibility of calculating a global
impact level LVI to be associated to a given route
has been proposed (Dentoni & Massacci 2012).
In order to account for the variability of the
visual impact caused by two mines, currently
exploited for the production of feldspar (case a)
and talc (case b), along the same public road, the
use of equation (7) has been suggested:

1 LviiJ
V = 10 l g j =110 10 dj
n
LVI (7)
D

Figure 5. Frequency distribution of E/EBW for A2
(Dentoni et al. 2004).
bare rock and each pixel included in the selected
comparison surface) is therefore bi-modal and
scattered, with a mean value E/EBW of 0.354
and standard deviation E of 0.121. The main
mode (E/EBW = 0.388) corresponds to the
predominating contrast between the vegetation
and the quarry, whereas the secondary mode
(E/EBW = 0.20 approx.) refers to the limited
contrast between the quarry and the natural rock
outcrops.
where D is the length of the road from where the
alteration is visible; n represents the number of
selected viewpoints; Lvij is the level of visual impact
at the jth viewpoint; dj is the pertinent distance of
constant visibility for the jth viewpoint.
The application of Equation 7 to the case study
under investigation resulted in a global impact
level LVI of 47,9 dB for case a and 49,3 dB for
case b.
Aside from the results found in that specific
case, the estimation of a global impact factor LVI
can be useful when comparing the quality of dif-
ferent routes with different characteristics of visual
impacts or different degrees of naturalness.

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 1.5 Landscape value and number of potential
observers
In order to assess the visual impact of those land-
scape modifications which may be perceived as det-
rimental by potential observers, its quite important
to define the quality of the territory under investi-
gation, as well as the number and type of people
who are likely to observe such modifications.
With specific reference to the assessment
method described here, the future development of
the research will be the definition of the weighting
factors to be applied to the level of visual impact
Lvi to account for those aspects and therefore
allow the comparison of landscape alterations at
different locations.
As regards the quality of the landscape, in par-
ticular, the following parameters will be taken
into consideration: the provisions of territorial
and urban plans, the presence of protected areas
(EU Sites of Interest, Natural Parks and Natural
Monuments, Archeological sites, etc.), the prox-
imity of touristic destinations, the actual or the
potential use of the surrounding territory, the
immediacy of industrial sites or other anthropic
installations which may have already jeopardized
the quality of the area under investigation, etc.
To account for the number and type of potential
observers, the subsequent aspects will be consid-
ered: the number and type of settlements within
short distances, the population density of those
settlements, the number and type of roads from
which the landscape modification is visible, the
number of vehicles per day which drive along those
roads, etc.
1.6 Definition of threshold limit values
A further step to be included in the impact assess-
ment procedure is the impact evaluation; i.e.: the
comparison of the estimate impact level (Lvi in
this case) against one or more threshold limit
values.
The issue had been taken into consideration by
the early EU decision 272/02 (Commission Deci-
sion, 2002), which established the ecological crite-
ria for the award of the Community eco-label for
hard floor-coverings. With reference to a number
of environmental impact parameters described in
the EU Decision, 4 classes of visual impact were
defined: excellent, good, sufficient and exclusion
hurdle.
In particular, two parameters among others
were indicated in the Decision to account for the
impact due to surface excavation: the Rehabilita-
tion Simultaneity Degree, defined as the ratio of
the excavated area to the surface of the authorized
area, and the Visual Impact Indicator, described by
equation (8):
531
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 531
Table 2. Evaluation classes according to the EU
decision (Dentoni & Massacci 2013).
Exclusion
Score Excellent Good Sufficient hurdle
x (%) 010 1020 2030 >30
Lv (dB) 059 58,958,8 58,860,4 >60,4
h2
x= 100 (8)
( L tan 30)2
where 30 is the average angle of the human eye
vision cone, h2 approximates the base surface of
the visibility cone of the compromised area, (L tan
30)2 approximates the base area of the average vis-
ual cone of the human eye.
Its worth noting that a recent revision of the
EU decision (Commission Decision, 2009) has
changed the name of the Rehabilitation Simultane-
ity Degree into Quarry impact ratio and abolished
the Visual Impact Indicator (x).
The threshold limit values established by the
early EU decision 272/02 for the indicator x are
reported in Table 3, together with the correspond-
ing limit values Lv calculated according to Equa-
tion (3). In particular, the threshold limit values
of Lv correspond to the limits of the evaluation
classes indicated by the European Decision when
square-shaped quarries are taken into account (i.e.
when the aspect ratio w/h is equal to 1, where w is
the visible quarry width and h is the visible quarry
height), in the hypothesis of a chromatic contrast
E = EBW.
According to the class limits reported in Table 2,
all the quarries and mines investigated in previous
studies (Lvi in the range 25,6 53,5 dB) should
be in the excellent class; that appears quite inap-
propriate and suggests a more accurate definition
of the evaluation classes in accordance with the
results discuss in paragraph 2, regarding the cor-
relation between Lvi and the actual perception of
potential observers.
2 CORRELATION BETWEEN Lvi
AND OBSERVERS PERCEPTION
2.1 Assessment of visual quality:
Direct and indirect methods
The evaluation criteria typically applied to
assess landscape visual quality are classified
into two categories: direct and indirect methods
(Shafer 1969, Briggs and France 1979). The first
method consists in checking the landscape qual-
ity through a single straight step, for example,
8/27/2014 6:02:57 PM
 Table 3. Visual impact parameters and the Lvi The perception test was performed according
indicator for the 10 quarries under investigation to the Thurstone scaling procedure (Oppenheim
(Dentoni & Massacci 2007). 1992): to each interviewee a set of 10 pictures
was shown in a random order together with a
Quarry v [sr] E/EBW Lvi [dB]
brief containing the answering instructions and
TE 0,31 0,100 25,6 the final aim of the test. The interviewees were
CO 1,05 0,066 29,1 asked to rapidly examine all the pictures and
TR 1,99 0,067 32,0 then pick the two corresponding to the minimum
MO 5,59 0,132 39,4 and maximum visual impact perception (score 1
NU 5,80 0,155 40,3 and 10 respectively). The interviewees could then
FO 7,08 0,281 43,7 associate a score between 1 and 10 to the other 8
SA 16,25 0,295 47,5 photos, without any particular constraint in the
SE 17,14 0,277 47,5 choice.
FL 20,68 0,343 49,2 From the same pictures submitted to the 2 sam-
SI 49,12 0,384 53,5 ples of students, the geometric extent and the
chromatic contrast arising from the quarries were
calculated in order to determine the visual impact
level Lvi, according to the method described above.
by means of a customary investigation on visual The visual impact parameters and the Lvi values
perception involving potential observers; the for the 10 cases under investigation are reported
second method attempts to indirectly assess the in Table 3, where each quarry is identified by a
landscape quality by measuring a number of conventional abbreviation. The chromatic contrast
landscape components. E/EBW was estimated with reference to the CIE
Currently, the prevailing tendency is based on Lab color system.
the application of psychophysical models, where
direct and indirect criteria are integrated. The 2.3 Test results
psychophysical approach allows the definition of
a regression model between the value judgments Table 4 shows the parameters of the frequency
expressed by a sample of observers and a number distributions of the scores given to each of the
of objective variables measured on the landscape 10 quarries by the two samples: S50 and S75 S25 are
under investigation (Shafer et al. 1969). respectively the median and interquartile range.
The use of photographic images to assess the Table 5 summarizes the results obtained when
quality of a given landscape has proven to be satis- checking the linear correlations between the median
factory when compared with the perception of the of the scores S50 resulting from the perception test
observers expressed directly on site (Shuttleworth and the parameters v, E/EBW and Lvi.
1980). This image-measurement approach is now- For both samples S50 proved to be quite well
adays evolving towards the use of 3D models for correlated with v and with the product v,
visual analysis of the landscape (Bishop 2003). E/EBW. Better correlations were found with
the chromatic contrast E/EBW and especially
2.2 Perception test
Table 4. Frequency distributions of the scores given to
In a previous study, the correlation between the each of the 10 quarries by the two samples (Dentoni &
visual impact indicator Lvi and the actual per- Massacci 2007).
ception of potential observers has been investi-
gated (Dentoni & Massacci 2007). Following a Sample 1 Sample 2
psychophysical approach, 10 pictures containing
opencast quarries or mines were submitted to two Quarry S50 S75 S25 S50 S75 S25
samples of students of the University of Cagliari.
Sample 1 included students of the Environmen- TE 1,43 2,10 1,00 1,20
CO 1,07 0,65 1,67 1,50
tal and Land Engineering course, in this case the
TR 4,30 1,58 3,62 1,30
interviewees could be considered in some measure
MO 5,57 1,36 6,00 1,82
experts or at least sensitive to environmental pro-
NU 5,38 1,19 5,00 1,87
tection issues. Sample 2 was composed of arts stu-
FO 5,00 1,69 6,21 1,56
dents (literature, history, philosophy, psychology,
SA 5,90 1,46 5,40 2,40
foreign languages) and therefore used as a control SE 7,70 1,34 7,50 2,16
group, considering that the interviewees probably FL 9,28 0,54 9,27 0,57
had the same sensitivity to the issue as any other SI 7,73 1,34 7,09 2,98
generic university student.

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 Table 5. Linear correlation results (Dentoni & modest, at most 1.1 dB (Dentoni & Massacci
Massacci 2007). 2008).
Where the vegetation is made up by broad-leaved
Correlation deciduous trees the chromatic contrast in spring or
coefficient r
Independent Dependent summer can be higher by about 50% (as an order
variable variable Sample 1 Sample 2 of magnitude) if compared with the winter season,
provided that the air transparency is comparable
v [sr] S50 0,691 0,622 (Dentoni et al. 2008).
E/EBW S50 0,818 0,820 The chromatic contrast regularly decreases with
v E/EBW [sr] S50 0,629 0,560 increasing distances due to the atmospheric scat-
Lvi [dB] S50 0,913 0,909 tering. This reduction contributes to the overall
reduction of Lvi for a value between 0.5 dB and
0.9 dB with each doubling of the distance when
good visibility conditions are considered (Dentoni
Table 6. Results of linear regression analysis Massacci 2008).
S50 = a + b Lvi (Dentoni & Massacci 2007).

Sample a b
1 5,163 0,257
2 5,005 0,252
1+2 5,084 0,255
with the indicator Lvi. In the latter case a correlation
coefficient of about 91% was found for both samples.
A linear regression analysis between S50 and
Lvi was therefore performed, obtaining the results
shown in Table 6.
3 VARIABILITY OF THE RESULTS
AND CRITICAL ASPECTS
In previous research work a number of critical
aspects, influencing the variability of the results,
have been investigated.
Color errors of digital cameras are quite low: 10
CIE Lab E units on average, i.e. 10% when divided
by EBW (Orava et al. 2004). The global variability
of E for a surface excavation is typically higher
(up to 33%), as it also depends on the variability
of the chromatic characteristics of the elements
included in the comparison surface (Dentoni &
Massacci 2008; Dentoni et al. 2008).
The precision in the v evaluation increases
with the number of pixels included in the quarry
surface, which depends on the photo resolution
and on the focal length used to take the picture,
as well as on the distance between the quarry and
the viewpoint (Dentoni et al. 2008). The variabil-
ity of v is generally smaller than that of E: in
most cases it is comprised between 3% and 10%
(Dentoni & Massacci 2008).
Taking into account the compensation of dif-
ferences in E and v, sometimes wide but with
opposite sign, the variability of Lvi values are
r 4 CONCLUSIONS
0,913
The article summarizes the results of the appli-
0,909
cation of the Lvi method to a variety of quarries
0,911
and mines located in Europe and discusses the
adequacy of the method in providing an objective
estimation of the visual damage produced by sur-
face excavation.
The Lvi method is based on the elaboration of
digital images, taken from the most representative
viewpoints around the mining areas (public roads,
towns, villages, touristic sites, etc.), which provide
both the solid angle subtended by the altered area
from a given observation point and the chromatic
contrast of the bare rock with a comparison sur-
face representing the dominant colors of the sur-
rounding landscape.
The results of previous studies discussed in this
article also show the possibility of calculating a
global impact factor LVI to be associated with a
given route, in order to account for the variability
of the visual impact with the curvilinear abscissa
of the route itself.
Future developments of the research will include
the definition of the weighting factors to be applied
to the level of visual impact Lvi, to allow for the
number of potential observers and the quality of
the landscape; this last aspect could easily be esti-
mated on the basis of objective parameters, such
as the provisions of territorial and urban plans
and the presence of protected areas within a cer-
tain distance.
An additional aspect to be looked into more
depth is the definition of the evaluation classes
in accordance to the actual perception of poten-
tial observers. In fact, a recent research proved the
subjective visual impact perception determined
by surface excavation (measured by the median
of the judgement values expressed by a group of
interviewees) to be significantly correlated with the
visual impact indicator Lvi.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Investigation carried out in the framework of pro-
jects conducted by IGAGCNR (Environmental
Geology and Geoengineering Institute of the
National Research Council), Cagliari, Italy, and by
CINIGeo (National Inter-university Consortium
for Georesources Engineering, Rome, Italy).
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difference using the Internet. Landscape and Urban
Planning, 37(34): 187196.
Bishop, I.D. 2003. Assessment of visual qualities, impacts,
behaviours, in the landscape, by using measures of
visibility. Environment and Planning B: Planning and
Design, 30: 677688.
Briggs, D.J. & France, J. 1980. Landscape Evaluation:
A comparative study. Journal of Environmental Man-
agement, 1980, 10: 263275.
Commission Decision 2002/272/EC of 25 March 2002
establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the
Community eco-label to hard floor-coverings. OJ No
L 94, 11.04.2002: 1327.
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establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the
Community eco-label to hard coverings. OJ No L 208,
12.08.2009: 2138.
Dentoni, V., Massacci, G. & Meloni, R. 2004. Landscape
and Visual Impact Assessment of Opencast
Mining. In A.G. Pasamehmetoglu, A. Ozgenoglu &
A.Y. Yesilay (Eds.), Proc. of the 8th International
Symposium on Environmental Issues and Waste Man-
agement in Energy and Mineral Production (SWEMP
2004), Antalya, Turkey, 17th20th May 2004: 113118.
Atilim University, Ankara. ISBN 975-6707-11-9.
Dentoni, V., Massacci, G. & Radwanek-Bk, B. 2006.
Visual impact of quarrying in the Polish Carpathians.
Geological Quarterly, 2006, 50(3): 383390. Polish
Geological Institute, Warsaw, ISSN 1641-7291.
Dentoni, V. & Massacci, G. 2007. Visibility of Surface
Mining and Impact Perception. International Journal
of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, 2007, 21(1):
613. Taylor & Francis, ISSN 1748-0930 print, ISSN
1748-0949 online.
Dentoni, V. & Massacci, G. 2008. Visibility of surface
excavation and impact assessment. In Proc. of the
2nd International Workshop in Geoenvironment and
Geotechnics (GEOENV 2008), Milos island, Greece,
8th9th September 2008: 157162. Heliotopos Con-
ferences, Athens. ISBN 978-960-6746-01-7.
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Dentoni, V., Massacci, G. & Radwanek-Bk, B.D. 2008.
Visual Impact of Surface Mining and Quarrying. In
Proc. of the XXI World Mining Congress, Krakw,
Poland, 7th11th September 2008: 4960. Drukarnia
Patria, Krakw. ISBN 978-83-88519-82-6.
Dentoni V. & Massacci G. 2012. Assessment of Visual
Impact Generated by Surface Excavation. In Proc. of
the 21st International Symposium on Mine Planning &
Equipment Selection (MPES 2012), New Delhi, India,
November 2830, 2012: 173183. CD ROM pub-
lished by The Reading Matrix Inc., Irvine, CA, USA.
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Mehrotra, eds. ISSN 2167-3322.
Dentoni, V. & Massacci, G. 2013. Assessment of visual
impact induced by surface mining with reference to
a case study located in Sardinia (Italy), Environ Earth
Sci 68:14851493, ISSN 1866-6280. DOI 10.1007/
s12665-012-1994-3.
Menegaki, M., Koutiva, I. & Kaliampakos, D.
2014. Assessing the chromatic contrast in open surface
excavations: a comparative study between subjective
and quantitative approaches. International Journal of
Mining, Reclamation and Environment, DOI:10.1080/1
7480930.2013.866791.
Nicholson, D.T. 1995. The Visual Impact of Quarrying.
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sua utilizzazione nella redazione automatica della car-
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Italo-Brasiliano Cagliari, A. Trois: 919 (in Italian).
Shafer, E.L. 1969. Perception of natural environments.
Environment and Behavior, 1: 7182.
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8/27/2014 6:02:58 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Fundamental study on application of fly ash as topsoil substitute

for the reclamation of mined land in Indonesian open cut coal mine

N. Inoue, A. Hamanaka, H. Shimada, T. Sasaoka & K. Matsui

Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: Nowadays the amount of fly ash disposed as industrial wastes is increasing with increas-
ing coal demands all over the world. Although fly ash is generally disposed by landfill, the demand of
effective utilization of it is increasing because of the limitation of the disposal site. Moreover, there are
few studies to use it as topsoil substitutes in coal mine. In this paper, the applicability of fly ash as topsoil
substitutes at mined land in Indonesian open cut coal mine is discussed by means of physical and chemi-
cal analyses. Considering the obtained results, it was suggested that the utilization of fly ash as topsoil
substitutes becomes possible by mixing topsoil and fly ash based on the physical characteristics and the
amount of boron eluted from fly ash.

1 INTRODUCTION utilized as a material for cements though less of

them are disposed by landfill. Thus, considering
Indonesia is the largest coal exporter in the world the preparation of landfill area and environmental
in 2012. Nowadays coal production and the problems, it is very meaningful to discuss the utili-
amount of exported coal are drastically increas- zation methods of fly ash except a cement usage.
ing: these are growing at an annual average rate Therefore, this paper discusses the applicability
of more than 10% since 2000. Due to this situa- of fly ash as a topsoil substitute by means of physi-
tion, Indonesian coal companies are increasing cal and chemical analyses in a laboratory.
coal production and redeveloping coal mines in
order to accommodate the heavy coal demands all
2 SITE DESCRIPTION
over the world. Moreover, it is estimated that coal
production increase continually and it also reaches
2.1 KPC mine
361 million tons in 2020, and 430 million tons in
2030 respectively. Furthermore, it is also predicted The KPC mine is the biggest open cut coal mine
that the domestic demand of energy in Indonesia in Indonesia located in East Kalimantan (Fig. 1).
increases with a high rate of economic growth. In The mine site belongs to a tropical rainforest
order to accommodate these demands, Indonesian climate: the average annual precipitation shows
government regarded coal as an important source
of energy supply in domestic, and they are con-
structing new coal-fired power plants. Therefore,
it is predicted that domestic coal demand mainly
for generation of electricity increases rapidly and
exceeds the amount of export in 2022 (New energy
and industrial technology development organiza-
tion 2011).
However, vast amount of coal ash is produced as
the industrial wastes in a coal-fired power plant and
it is expected that the amount of industrial wastes
also increase with construction of additional power
plants (Shimada et al. 2010). Although fly ash is
generally disposed by landfill, the demand of effec-
tive utilization of them is increasing because of the
limitation of the disposal site. Fly ash accounts for
about 90% of the coal ashes and 80% of that are Figure 1. Location of KPC mine.

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 20004000 mm and the average temperature
varies from 26 to 32C (Hamanaka et al. 2011).
Mining area of KPC is about 90,938 ha in total
and it is divided into two mining areas which are
called Bengalon and Sangatta respectively.
This mine commenced a coal production in
1991 and the annual production reached about
41 million tons in 2011. Nowadays the amount
of coal production is increasing with increase coal
demands domestically and internationally. Bitu-
minous coal has been produced and exported to
overseas especially to Japan and India. However,
a domestic coal consumption is expected to be
increased.
2.2 Characteristics of topsoil
Topsoil has an important role for establishing a
suitable plant base. In this research, the soil sam-
ples were collected from natural forest area (Fig. 2)
in order to determine the basic characteristics of
the topsoil by the distribution of particle size anal-
ysis and Atterberg limits test.
From these tests, the typical soil properties can
be estimated such as soil permeability and com-
pressibility. Basically, compressibility decreases
with an increase in sand rate in the soil and perme-
ability decreases with an increase in clay content
(Inoue et al. 2013).
Table 1 shows the results of laboratory tests.
From these results, topsoil contains small size of
particle which is classified into clay. Moreover,
from the results of atterberg limits test shown
in Figure 3, topsoil containing clay at a high
rate tends to consolidate after dried, decrease of
permeability and interrupt the root expansion.
Therefore, it is considered that a soil improvement
is needed to establish the suitable plant base.
Furthermore, not only the physical properties
but the chemical properties must be considered for
establishing a plant base. It is predicted that top-
soil is prone to become acidic caused by eluviation
of a base because of heavy rainfall (Fujiwara et al.
1996). Therefore, pH and Electric Conductivity
(EC) which are one of the basic field investigation
parameters were measured.
Table 2 shows that pH and EC which means a
total amount of water-soluble salt in soil are not
satisfied with the standard values. Therefore, it is
considered that topsoil in KPC is highly acidic
and poor in nutrient elements. Moreover, it is sug-
gested that a soil improvement is necessary for the
favorable plant growth because interruption of the
absorption of phosphorous, shortage of calcium,
magnesium and boron are expected to be occurred
under an acidic soil (Japan Landscape Contractors
Association 2005).
It was revealed that topsoil contains a large
amount of clay and is acidic. Thus, it is suggested
that an appropriate soil management such as an
improvement of physical property of soil and an
amendment of soil acidity for a favorable plant
growth.

Figure 3. Plasticity chart.

Figure 2. Soil sampling area.

Table 2. Results of pH and EC investigation.

Table 1. Results of physical test of soil.
pH EC (dS/m)
Liquid Plastic Plasticity
Sand Silt Clay limit limit index Standard EC Standard
(%) (%) (%) WL (%) WP (%) (IP) pH value (dS/m) value

10 30 60 62.0 25.3 36.7 Topsoil 3.67 4.57.5 0.151 0.11.0

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 3 FLY ASH

3.1 Classificaiton of coal ash

Coal ash is a residue after coal combustion in a
pulverized coal-fired boiler and is equivalent of
ash content of coal. In coal-fired power plant,
finely-milled coals were burned at 1200 to 1600C.
Almost all of carbon and hydrogen are burned
during combustion process, and then combustion
ash composed SiO2, Al2O3 is produced with com-
bustion gas. Combustion ash produced inside of a
boiler sometimes adheres on the surface of inside
wall and falls on the bottom of boiler, however
most of them move to a downstream of a gas duct Figure 4. Coal ash production in KPC mine.
with a combustion gas. Coal ash which falls on the
bottom is called clinker ash and it is collected at
the bottom of a boiler. On the other hand, a com- Table 3. Particle size of fly ash.
bustion gas which move to a downstream of a gas
duct passes through the electric precipitation and Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%)
collected as a fly ash.
Coal ash is divided into three types based on the 89.32 6.26 4.42
collecting area and methods as follows:
1. Fly ash; It means fine combustion ash collected
at the electric precipitation. Table 4. Results of Atterberg limit test.
2. Cinder ash; It means combustion ash collected
when a combustion gas through the air pre- Sample Liquid Plastic Plasticity
mixture rate limit limit index
heater and the boiler economizer. (Fly ash : Clay) WL (%) WP (%) (IP)
3. Clinker ash; It means a combustion ash col-
lected at the bottom of a boiler. 100 : 0 NP NP NP
Fly ash accounts for about 90% of coal ashes 40 : 60 NP NP NP
and clinker ash also accounts for about 10% of 30 : 70 65.41 62.67 2.74
them. Cinder ash accounts for small percent of 20 : 80 60.51 39.84 20.67
coal ashes. In general, cinder ash is often regarded 10 : 90 60.86 25.63 35.23
as a fly ash. NP: Non Plastic.

3.2 Fly ash in KPC mine

Bituminous coal has been applied at a coal-fired
power plant in KPC mine and calorific value of
it is about 6000 kcal/kg. Coal ash production is
about 17 m3/day and fly ash accounts for about
12 m3/day of them. Fly ash production is decreas-
ing since 2009. However, it is expected to increase
because new power plants are under construction
(Fig. 4). Moreover, fly ash has been utilized since
2006 and almost all of them are for a road base
usage. However, considering the increase of fly ash
production, it is important to discuss the effective
utilization methods except a road base usage.
3.3 Physical property of fly ash
Characteristics of fly ash differ depending on the
coal type and specification of power plants. There-
fore, characteristics of fly ash must be investigated
in order to discuss the effective utilization.
Particle size analysis, Atterberg limits test,
ignition loss analysis, and elemental composition
analysis were conducted to understand physical
characteristics of fly ash.
From the result of particle size analysis shown
in Table 3, it is found that particle size of fly ash
is larger than that of general one. In Japan, the
average particle diameter of fly ash produced by
combustion of pulverized coal is approximately
25 m (Yoshida et al. 2013). Moreover, from the
result of Atterberg limits test shown in Table 4, fly
ash is classified as non-plastic. However, Atterberg
limits have changed when fly ash is mixed with clay
artificially. Atterberg limits are the one of index to
know the physical characteristics (The Japanese
Geotechnical Society 2004). Therefore, it is con-
sidered that physical parameters of soil improve
mixture with clayey topsoil and fly ash.
Besides, major elemental composition of fly
ash is roughly equal to that of soil. Therefore, the

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 Table 5. Elemental composition of fly ash. Table 6. Particle size, pH and EC of crushed fly ash.

Ig. EC Sand Silt Clay

SiO2 Al2O3 FeO CaO MgO K2O loss Sample pH (mS/cm) (%) (%) (%)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Fly ash 8.73 0.243 89.3 6.3 4.4
31.57 15.29 6.73 2.95 2.70 1.45 36.99 original
Fly ash 8.23 0.373 79.2 14.5 6.3
medium
application of fly ash does not change the elemen- Fly ash 8.09 0.545 70.5 24.7 4.8
tal composition of soil drastically (Kinoshita small
2009). However, fly ash contains 37% of unburnt
combustible contents and this value is very high
compared to that of general one. Fly ash which Table 7. Results of dissolution test (ppm).
has many unburnt combustible contents has the
potential for negative effects on the environment Sample As B Cd Cr Pb Se
(Aydilek & Cetin 2013). Therefore, elution of harm-
Fly ash 0.0413 4.148 ND ND ND ND
ful elements from fly ash must be considered. original
Fly ash 0.0586 3.877 ND ND ND ND
3.4 Chemical property of fly ash medium
Fly ash containing large amount of unburnt com- Fly ash ND 4.809 ND ND ND ND
small
bustible contents may have harmful effects on envi-
ronment and human health. Moreover, harmful ND: Not Detectable.
elements elutes when fly ash makes contact with
water because fly ash has a hydrophilic surface.
Furthermore, the reactivity of fly ash increases with
a decrease in the particle size caused by weathering
when it is applied to the fields (Zygadlo & Wozniak
2010). Thus, a dissolution test of fly ash which was
crushed at any size was conducted based on the
soil environment standard.
From the results of these tests, it is found that
electric conductivity tends to increase with a
decrease in the particle size and harmful elements
seldom elute without boron. It is conjectured that
the reactivity of fly ash increases because of an
increase of a specific surface caused by a decrease
of particle size.
It is known that excess boron may affect environ-
ment, on the contrary, boron is the necessary trace
element for the plant growth (Fujiwara et al. 2005). Figure 5. The amount of eluted boron.
Moreover, a solubilization of boron progresses on
the acidic soil and boron is prone to runoff with
a rainfall. From the result of the dissolution test Thus, in order to reveal the behavior of pH and
shown in Figure 5, boron seldom elutes on acidic EC of eluate from fly ash, a column leaching test was
topsoil. Therefore, it is suggested that utilization of conducted assuming the precipitation in Indonesia.
fly ash as a supply source of boron becomes pos- Assuming half-year precipitation, ten cycles of elu-
sible by applying the appropriate amount fly ash tion was conducted. Moreover, considering Indone-
to acidic topsoil. sian climate, the room temperature was kept at 25 C
and two types of solution were eluted at 48 hour
intervals. The first one of solution is pure water and
3.5 Column leaching test
the other is sulfuric acid water (pH = 4) in order to
KPC mine belongs to a tropical rainforest cli- discuss elution of acidic water from acidic soil.
mate and annual precipitation shows more than From the results of leaching test, pH and EC
2500 mm. Harmful elements contained in fly ash decreases with an increase in the cycle of elution in
elute by reaction of fly ash and water. Therefore, the case of using pure water and sulfuric acid water
it is important to reveal the elution behavior of respectively. Moreover, the amount of eluted boron
them. also shows a tendency to decrease with an increase

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 Figure 6. Behavior of pH change. Figure 7. Behavior of EC change.

Table 8. Results of eluate analysis.

Sample As B Cd Cr Pb Se

Fly ash acid 1 day 0.012673 7.6729 ND ND ND ND

Fly ash acid 5 day ND 1.4861 ND ND ND ND
Fly ash acid 10 day ND 1.0065 ND ND ND ND
Fly ash pure 1 day 0.003852 4.8912 ND ND ND ND
Fly ash pure 5 day ND 1.2637 ND ND ND ND
Fly ash pure 10 day ND 0.91902 ND ND ND ND

ND: Not Detectable.

the cycle of elution. It is considered that it is due to
increasing the cycle of reaction of fly ash and water
associated with an increase the number of elution.
However, pH and EC still kept steady values; there-
fore, it is conjectured that fly ash has continuous
effects of neutralization and ability as a supply
source of boron after half-year precipitation.
4 CONCLUSION
Fly ash accounts for about 90% of coal ashes and
establishment of effective utilization methods of
fly ash has been considered because of the limita-
tion of the disposal sites. This paper discussed that
the applicability of fly ash as a topsoil substitute at
mined area in Indonesian coal mine.
From the results of topsoil investigation, physi-
cal and chemical analyses of fly ash, it was found
as follows:
1. Topsoil spread to investigation area in KPC mine
contained a large amount of clay and was acidic.
2. Fly ash produced at a coal-fired power plant in
KPC mine consists of large size of particle com-
pared to general one.
3. Most of harmful materials elutes less than refer-
ence value except boron.
4. Although pH and EC tends to decrease with
increasing the elution cycle, they still keep
steady values.
It is suggested that an improvement of physi-
cal property of soil and buffer of soil pH becomes
possible mixture of fly ash and topsoil. Moreover,
it is considered that fly ash has a potential to uti-
lize as a topsoil substitute at mined land based on
the physical property of soil and the amount of
eluted boron. However, further experiments such
as a plant growth test must be needed to make the
applicability of fly ash more reliable.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Stability effect of water content on dominant loess dumping areas

D.H. Zhang, N. Inoue, A. Hamanaka, T. Sasaoka, H. Shimada & K. Matsui

Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: The first large scale dominant loess dumping area in China, South external dumping
area of Antaibao open pit coal mine occurred failure on October 29, 1991. The volume of sliding mass
was approximately 11 Mm3. The loss is 6 persons lives and a huge wealth. After 1987, many large-scale
open pit coal mines were established. Six open pit mining areas have loess distribution of total nine open
pit mining areas. Large-scale dominant loess dumping areas are formed and will be formed in China.
More effort must be implemented to control stability risks of dominant loess dumping area. A field
investigation was carried out in East open pit coal mine. It is including geological overview, hydrogeo-
logical conditions, water content of waste loess, floor conditions of external dumping area, and stable
problem statements. A series of experiments are conducted. Test results show that the density of waste
loess increases as the water content increases. The Youngs modulus and angle of internal friction of
loess decrease as the water content increases from 15% to 25%. The cohesive strength of loess decreases
dramatically as the water content increases from 15% to 25%. In the working face, the water content of
loess should be as low as possible to decrease the transport costs. In roads of dominant loess dumping
area, the water content of waste loess should be maintaining a suitable value to promote the quality of
roads. In the dominant loess dumping area, the water content should be as low as possible under the con-
ditions that meet environmental protection and land reclaiming.

1 INTRODUCTION Dumping work is an important part of open pit

The first large scale dominant loess dumping area
in China, South external dumping area of Antaibao
open pit coal mine occurred failure on October 29,
1991. Figure 1 shows the overview of South dump-
ing area failure from the coal bunker point. The
process lasted approximately 10 minutes. The vol-
ume of sliding mass was approximately 11 Mm3
(Zhu, 1994; Duan et al., 1999). The dumping area
sliding caused a huge loss to Antaibao open pit
coal mine. The loss is 6 persons life, 14 devices, car
wash area, guard room of mine, 2 houses of citi-
zen, 0.73 km highway, 0.44 km drainage channel,
and highway in the industrial area.
In 1987, the first large-scale Antaibao open pit
mine was established in Shuozhou, Shanxi. Subse-
quently, many large-scale open pit coal mines were
established. Table 1 shows characteristics of open
pit mining area at China. It shows that 6 open pit
mining areas have loess distribution of total 9 open
pit mining areas.
Currently, large-scale dominant loess dumping
areas are formed and will be formed in the China.
Meanwhile, the first large scale dominant loess
dumping area occurred failure. More effort must
be implemented to control stability risks of domi-
nant loess dumping area.
mining (Kennedy, 1990; Wang et al., 2011; Golder,
1976; Blight, 2008). Under overburden, stripped
and waste rocks or soils are transported to dump-
ing areas to expose and extract coal seams. Dumping
areas typically have little if any practical use and may
represent a long-term liability as a potential pollu-
tion source or stability hazard (Huang et al., 2007;
Luo, 1995; Byrnes et al., 1988). Moreover, dumping
areas have an effect on costs and land reclaiming of
open pit mine. Thus, dumping area must be carefully
designed. In this study, we focus on stability hazards
of dominant loess dumping area at open pit coal
mine. At present, systematic studies on dumping
area stability are limited. Large-scale landslides con-
tinue to take place in dumping areas (Kocasoy et al.,
1995; koelsch et al., 2005; Huvaj & Stark, 2008).
Figure 1. Overview of South dumping area failure
from the coal bunker point.

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 Table 1. Characteristics of open pit mining area at China.

Representative mines Design capability (Mt/a) Loess distribution Put into production Open pits

Antaibao 22 Yes 1987 3

Huolinhe 8 No 1992 2
Yiminhe 5 Yes 1998 3
Yuanbaoshan 10 Yes 1989 2
Shengli-1 20 Yes 2007 5
Xiaolongtan 4.8 No 1995 2
Hongshaquan 3 No 2010 >=7
Baiyinhua-1 15 Yes 2005 4
Hedaigou 23 Yes 1999 2

The water on dumping area stability has a detri-

mental effect upon stability (Duncan & Christopher,
2003). Water pressure reduces the stability of the
slopes by diminishing the shear strength of poten-
tial failure surfaces. Changes in water content of
some soil, particularly loess, can cause collapsed
deformation and a decrease in shear strength.
Freezing of ground water can cause wedging in
water-filled fissures due to temperature-dependent
volume changes in the ice. Erosion of soil by sur-
face water, and of low strength infillings by ground
water can result in local instability where the toe
Figure 2. Location of East open pit coal mine.
of a slope is undermined, or a block of rock is Source: Google map, 2014.
loosened. Excavation costs can be increased when
working below the water table.
To clarify the effect of water content on dominant
loess dumping area stability, an investigation in East
open pit coal mine, series laboratory tests with loess,
and numerical simulation was conducted. In the East
open pit coal mine, the geology overview, hydrogeol-
ogy conditions, water content, floor conditions, and
stable problems were investigated. In the laboratory
tests, series of experiments were conducted to meas-
ure loess property under different water content.
Based on field investigation and laboratory test, the
results of laboratory tests were discussed and some
treatments were proposed. And then, build a geo- Figure 3. Overview of East open pit coal mine.
logical model based on the geological conditions of
external dumping area at East open pit coal mine. the output of raw coal is 8 Mt/Y. The design out-
Input the test results into the geological model to put of raw coal is 20 Mt/Y. The recoverable reserve
analyze the effect of water content. In the end, some was 1459 Mt. In East open pit coal mine, have the
significant results can be concluded. East external dumping area and the North external
dumping area.

2 FIELD INVESTIGATION IN EAST

OPEN PIT COAL MINE
Field investigations are useful to govern dump-
ing areas (Siegel et al., 1990; Xie & Pang, 2003;
Costa & Schuster, 1988; Machado & Karimpour,
2010). East open pit coal mine is a new one that is
located in Shuozhou, Shanxi. The location of East
open pit coal mine was shown in Figure 2. In 2012,
2.1 Geological overview
East open pit coal mine belongs to low mountains
and hills of the Loess Plateau. Loess distributing
in all the mining area. The vegetation is scarce. The
erosion of land is serious. It is having many gullies.
The depth of gullies is from 30 m to 50 m. The
elevation is from 1214 m to 1538 m. Figure 3 shows
the overview of the East open pit coal mine.

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 From south to north is 6.5 km to 10.3 km in the Table 2. Water content of waste loess sample in dump-
mining area. From east to west is 4.4 km to 5.5 km. ing areas at East open pit coal mine.
The exploration area is 48.7 km2.
Water content Average value

2.2 Hydrogeological conditions Number 1 sample 12.95% 12.78%

12.68%
The annual precipitation is from 428 mm to
12.72%
449 mm. The annual evaporation is from 1787 mm
to 2598 mm. In the mining area, have a Maguan Number 2 sample 21.16%
river, Maying river. The elevation of coal seam 20.64% 20.60%
floor is higher than the water table of the Yellow 20.00%
River. There are two methods for drainage. One Number 3 sample 15.14%
method is natural infiltration and natural evapora- 9.38% 9.32%
tion. Another method is making the water flow into 9.26%
the pit, then collecting water. In the toe of external
Number 4 sample 3.90%
dumping area, there is water outflow. Rainfall has
7.63% 7.51%
an important effect on dumping area stability of
7.39%
East open pit coal mine.
Aquifer from bottom to top is: Number 5 ample 6.74%
7.05% 6.74%
a. Zone of weathering of bed stone. It has weak 6.43%
watery, unconfined aquifer or micro-confined
aquifer. Number 6 sample 3.92% 3.78%
b. Loess. It has strong watery, distributed in large 3.72%
valley or river bed nearby. 3.70%

Watertight layer is clay layer. It is a wide distri- Number 7 sample 2.15% 2.21%
bution. It is a good watertight layer. 2.26%
The main intake source is rainfall, secondly is 2.21%
surface water. Number 8 sample 7.35% 7.39%
7.22%
2.3 Water content of waste loess 7.61%
Number 9 sample 7.69% 7.32%
The samples are come from East external dumping
7.32%
area and North external dumping area of East open
6.94%
pit coal mine. Water content tests were conducted
in the Laboratory of Rock Engineering and Min- Total average value 8.63%
ing Machinery of Kyushu University in September,
2012. Table 2 shows the water content of waste loess
sample in the dumping areas at East open pit coal
mine. The number 2 sample is come from the toe of
East external dumping area. The water content is
high. It shows that the water content of waste loess
is from 2.21% to 20.60%. The total average value of
water content of waste loess is 8.63%.

2.4 Floor conditions of external dumping areas

The strata are from top to bottom as following.
First stratum is diluvium. It is constituted by loess,
sand, and gravel. The thickness is from 0 to
40 m. The average thickness is 10 m. It is uncon-
formable contact with underlying stratum.
Second stratum is loess. The thickness is from 3 to
47 m. The average thickness is 24 m. It is regional
unconformity contact with underlying stratum.
Third stratum is clay. The thickness is from 0 to
77 m. The average thickness is 15 m. It is uncon-
formable contact with underlying stratum.
Figure 4. Gully in dominant loess dumping area at East
open pit coal mine.
Fourth stratum is weathered sandstone. The aver-
age thickness is 14 m.
The loess seam and the clay seam are easy to be
a weak seam as it to be a floor of external dump-
ing area. The clay seam is watertight layer, causes
the water easy accumulates in the loess seam and
the clay seam. Meanwhile, the strength of loess

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 is approximately 10 m. The interval distance is
approximately 80 m. Figure 4 shows gully in
dominant loess dumping area at East open pit
coal mine in 2012.
b. Water accumulates in dumping area.
Figure 5 shows the water accumulates at dump-
ing area in 2012.
c. There are having been many cracks in the
dumping area. It is due to uneven subsidence.
Figure 6 shows the cracks at the surface of
dumping area in East open pit coal mine, 2012.
d. It is having a serious subsidence at the domi-
nant loess dumping pile in East open pit coal
mine. The truck is trapped in the dumping pile
frequently. Figure 7 shows the truck is trapped
Figure 5. Water accumulates at dumping area in 2012. in loess bench of the East open pit coal mine
in 2012.
e. The roads were destroyed frequently by rain-
water flowing along roads in the dumping area,
especially for temporary roads. In most place of
dumping area, do not have drainage channel.
The truck cannot work during rainy day in the
dumping area.

3 LABORATORY TESTS FOR LOESS

Series experiments are carried out to clarify the rela-

Figure 6. Cracks in the surface of dumping area at East
open pit coal mine.
tion between water content and properties of loess.
The density, Youngs modulus, cohesive strength,
and angle of internal friction of loess were measured
under different water content in the laboratory of
rock engineering and mining machinery of Kyushu
University in 2013. The loess is come from external
dumping area at East open pit coal mine in 2012.

3.1 Process of laboratory tests

Figure 8 shows the overview of the shear appara-
tus in the laboratory.
The process of testing as follows.
a. Make the water content is 0%. Put the loess
sample into the oven, more than 24 hours.
The temperature is 105 degrees in the oven.
Figure 9 shows the loess sample and the oven.
Figure 7. Truck is trapped in loess bench of the East b. Let 500 g loess and water mixed, the water is
open pit coal mine. 75 g, 100 g, and 125 g respectively. The water
contents are 15%, 20%, 25%. Divide the mixture
into four samples to fix water content. Samples
and clay decreases dramatically as the water con-
are packaged by plastic wrap. Figure 10 shows
tent increase.
the sample for test.
c. Impact twice with the compactor to make the
2.5 Stable problem statements compaction coefficient maintained constant
value. Then, cut off excess soil from cutting ring
The problems are as follows.
with a soil cut knife, weight and record the cut-
a. It is having many gullies in the loess dumping ting ring and the soil sample. Figure 11 shows
pile caused by rainfall. The width of the gully the compactor.

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 Figure 8. Overview of the shear apparatus.
Figure 9. Overview of loess sample and the oven.
Figure 10. Sample for test.
d. Put the sample into shear apparatus, setting the
pressure. The pressure is 10 kg, 20 kg, 30 kg,
and 40 kg. Compress the sample, record the
compression strain as the time goes. The com-
pression process was finished until the compres-
sion strains less than 1 um / min.
e. Start the shear process when the compression
process finished. Note the shear force as the
shear strain goes. The shear process was fin-
ished as the shear force began reducing or the
shear deformation up to 7 mm.
f. Repeat step c) to step e) four times, and then
repeat step a) to step e).
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 545
Figure 11. Compactor.
Table 3. Relation of density of waste
loess and water content.
Water content 15% 20% 25%
Samples 14 16 10
Density 1.66 1.72 1.86
3.2 Results and discussions
Table 3 shows the test results, the relation of den-
sity of waste loess and water content. It shows that
the density of waste loess increases as the water
content increases.
In the working face, the transport costs
increases as the water content increases. The den-
sity of waste loess increases as the water content
increases. The weight of waste loess increases as
the density of waste loess increases. Meanwhile,
the transport costs increases as the weight of waste
loess increases. We assume the transport cost is 1/t.
Figure 12 shows unit transport cost of waste loess
under the conditions of different water content of
waste loess based on test results. It shows that the
unit transports cost increases as the water content
of waste loess increases.
The transport cost will be increases in rainy day.
In the rainy day, the water content will be increases.
It causes the transport cost increases. The meas-
ures of decreasing water content including two
methods. Some measures should do to decrease
the water content of waste loess that need to be
transported. At first, the transport activity of the
truck can be reduced or canceled in the rainy day.
8/27/2014 6:03:08 PM
 Figure 12. Unit transport cost of waste loess under the
conditions of different water content. Figure 13. Maximum total height of dumping area
under the conditions of different water content.

Second, optimize drainage operation to make the

rainwater outflow quickly and not easy into the Table 4. Relation of water content and Youngs modu-
surface in the working face. lus, cohesive strength, and angle of internal friction.
On the other hand, maximum total height of
Water content 15% 20% 25%
dumping area decreases as the water content of
waste loess increases due to the density of waste Samples 11 15 8
loess increases as the water content increases. The Youngs modulus (MPa) 1.81 1.62 1.43
pressure on the floor cannot be more than the ulti- Cohesive strength (KPa) 109 96 41.5
mate bearing capacity of the floor. The maximum Angle of internal friction (degree) 42.1 34.5 32.7
total height of dumping area Ht can be expressed
as Equations (1) (Peng, 2010):
Pp
Ht = (1)

HtMaximum total height of dumping area

PpUltimate bearing capacity
Density of waste loess
We assume the ultimate bearing capacity of
loess in floor was 2.15 Mpa. Figure 13 shows maxi-
mum total height of dumping area under the con-
ditions of different water content. Maximum total
height of dumping area decreases as the water con- Figure 14. Water spray in the road of the dumping area.
tent of waste loess increases based on test results.
The maximum total height of dumping area was
from 118 m to 132 m as the water content of waste In the field investigation, the roads were
loess from 25% to 15% of East open pit coal mine. destroyed frequently by rainwater flowing along
Table 4 shows that the relation of water con- roads in the dumping area, especially for tempo-
tent and Youngs modulus, cohesive strength, and rary roads. In the surface of the temporary roads
angle of internal friction. It shows that the Youngs of dumping area, have a loose loess seam. The
modulus and angle of internal friction of loess thickness is from 5 to 40 cm. The truck is few. The
decrease as the water content increase for water road does not have a long time. The road is built
content from 15% to 25%. The cohesive strength simply. All the materials of the road is loess. Mean-
of loess decreases dramatically as the water con- while, East open pit coal mine in a semi-arid area,
tent increases for water content from 15% to 25%. the water content is low. Damage of loose loess
Based on the results of laboratory tests, we can seam as follows.
see that the shear strength and compressive strength
a. It is easy erosion in the rainy day, make the road
decrease as the water content increases for water con-
destroyed.
tent from 15% to 25%. Meanwhile, the shear strength
b. Make the truck transport difficultly
and compressive strength of waste loess is few as the
c. Cause a big dusting when truck transport
water content is 0%. There is an optimum water con-
tent of waste loess. The waste loess has good den- The key point is low water content cause low
sity, compressive strength, and shear strength as the cohesive strength of waste loess. East open pit coal
water content is optimum water content. mine is located in a semi-arid area. Low cohesive

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 strength of waste loess causes the waste loess is
loose. Meanwhile, the transport of truck causes
the waste loess more loose. The treatment meas-
ure is water spray to increases the water content
of waste loess. Figure 14 shows water spray in the
road of the dumping area. The water spray rate Wa
can be expressed as Equations (2):
Wa = L Wr Er
WaWater spray rate
LLength of road
WrWidth of road
ErEvaporation rate
For instance, in the external dumping area of
East open pit coal mine. The length of road is
1000 m. The width of road is 30 m. The evapo-
ration rate is 0.4 mm per hour. The water spray
rate = 1000 30 0.4 103 = 12 m3/hour.
After water spray in the road of the dumping
area, the water content will increase. The waste
loess has good cohesive strength, compressive
strength, and shear strength. The loess is not loose.
The transport of truck has a compactive effect
on road of waste loess. As time went by and the
road be compacted, make the road have good
density, compressive strength, and shear strength.
And then, the road is not easy to be destroyed fre-
quently by rainwater flowing along roads. Make
truck transport easy and decrease the dusting.
In the working face, the transport costs
increases as the water content increases. The
transport cost will be increases in rainy day. The
transport activity of the truck can be reduced or
canceled in the rainy day. Meanwhile, optimize
drainage operation to make the rainwater out-
flow quickly and not easy into the surface in the
working face. Maximum total height of dumping
area decreases as the water content of waste loess
increases based on test results. The maximum total
height of dumping area was from 118 to 132 m
as the water content of waste loess from 25% to
15% of East open pit coal mine. The Youngs
modulus and angle of internal friction of loess
decrease as the water content increase for water
content from 15% to 25%. The cohesive strength
of loess decreases dramatically as the water con-
tent increases for water content from 15% to 25%.
Water spray should be carried out in temporary
Table 5. Parameters of external dumping area.
Dumping pile height 15 m
Angle of dumping pile 30 degrees
Length of safety bench 20 m
Piezometric line Underground 20 m
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 547
roads of dominant loess dumping area to control
the damage of loose loess.
4 NUMERICAL SIMULATION FOR EAST
OPEN PIT COAL MINE
In this part, the water content was changed to ana-
(2) lyze the effect of water on dumping area stability
with Phase software.
Phase software is a two dimensional elasto-plas-
tic finite element method for calculating stresses
and displacements around slope and underground
openings, and can be used to solve a wide range
of mining, geotechnical and civil engineering prob-
lems (Gillie et al., 2010; Chakraborti et al., 2012;
Che et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2012). For the soft-
ware, shear strength reduction technique is used to
analyze the slope stability.
4.1 Build a geological model based on East open
pit coal mine
A model was build based on geological conditions
of external dumping area at East open pit coal
mine. Table 5 shows the parameters of external
dumping area.
Figure 15 shows that the geological model of
external dumping area in East open pit coal mine.
Figure 16 shows that the safety factor and the
maximum shear strain. It shows that the safety fac-
tor is 1.37, meet the request of Code for design of
open pit coal mine of coal industry in China (GB
50197-2005). According to the Code for design
of open pit coal mine of coal industry in China,
the safety factor is required to be from 1.21.5 for
external dumping area when its service life is more
than 20 years. It shows that the failure model is cir-
cular failure. The maximum shear strains central-
ized in clay seam and waste loess seam.
4.2 Results and discussions
The laboratory results of Table 3 and Table 4 were
inputted the geological model, and other param-
eters were constant. Figure 17 shows safety factor
of dumping area under the conditions of differ-
ent water content. It shows that the safety factor
decreases as the water content increases for the
water content are from 15% to 25%.
Total height of dumping area 135 m
Total angle of dumping area 19 degrees
Angle of floor 6 degrees
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 Figure 15. Geological model of external dumping area
in East open pit coal mine.
Figure 16. Safety factor and maximum shear strain.
Figure 17. Safety factor of dumping area under the
conditions of different water content.
The total angle of the dumping area was cal-
culated in the geological model based on the
properties of waste loess. The safety factor is
maintained constant as 1.37. The area of dump-
ing area is maintained constant. Figure 18 shows
total angle of the dumping area under the condi-
tions of different water content. It shows that the
total angle of dumping area decreases as the water
content increases for the water content is from 15%
to 25%.
The volume capacity of the dumping area was
calculated in the geological model based on the
properties of waste loess. At first, the maximum
total height of dumping area can be calculated by
the ultimate bearing capacity of the floor based on
the density of waste loess. Second, the total angle
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 548
Figure 18. Total angle of the dumping area under the
conditions of different water content.
Figure 19. Volume capacity of the dumping area under
the conditions of different water content.
of dumping area can be calculated based on the
conditions of total height, safety factor, area of
dumping area and properties of waste loess. We
assume the volume capacity of dumping area are
equal to the cross-sectional area of the dumping
area times 1.5 km. Figure 19 shows volume capac-
ity of the dumping area under the conditions of
different water content. It shows that the volume
capacity of dumping area decreases as the water
content increases.
In the dominant loess dumping area, the
water content of waste loess as low as possible to
increase the safety factor, total slope angle, and
volume capacity of the dumping area. Mean-
while, the water content of waste loess must meet
the request of environmental protection and land
reclaiming. As a result, the water content of waste
loess should be as low as possible under the con-
ditions of meeting environmental protection and
land reclaiming.
8/27/2014 6:03:13 PM
 5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the field investigation in East open pit
coal mine, rainfall has an important effect on
dumping area stability. The water content of waste
loess is from 2.21% to 20.60% based on laboratory
test. The loess seam and clay seam are easy to be
a weak seam as it to be a floor of external dump-
ing area. The stable problems are gullies, water
accumulate, cracks, subsidence, and erosion in the
dumping area.
The density of waste loess increases as the water
content increases. The Youngs modulus and angle
of internal friction of loess decrease as the water
content increase for water content from 15% to
25%. The cohesive strength of loess decreases dra-
matically as the water content increases for water
content from 15% to 25%.
In the working face, the water content of loess
should be as low as possible. The transport cost
will be increases in rainy day. At first, the transport
activity of the truck can be reduced or canceled
in the rainy day. Second, optimize drainage opera-
tion to make the rainwater outflow quickly and not
easy into the surface in the working face.
In roads of dominant loess dumping area, the
water content of waste loess should be maintaining
a suitable value to promote the quality of roads.
The treatment measure is water spray.
In the dominant loess dumping area, the water
content should be as low as possible under the
conditions of meeting environmental protection
and land reclaiming. The maximum total height
of dumping area increase from 118 to 132 m as
the water content from 25% to 15% in the dump-
ing area. The safety factor, total slope angle, and
volume capacity of dumping area increase as the
water content decrease. Meanwhile, the water con-
tent of waste loess must meet the request of envi-
ronmental protection and land reclaiming.
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Luo, R.M. (April, 1995) Repose angles and rock size dis-
tributions of Yinziyu waste dump. Mining and metal-
lurgical engineering.
Machado, S.L., Karimpour-Fard, M. (2010) Evaluation
of the geotechnical properties of MSW in two Brazil-
ian landfills. Waste management 30(12), 25792591.
Peng, H.G., Influence mechanism of the mining distur-
bance on slope stability in surface coal mine, China
University of mining and technology, Xuzhou city,
China, 2010, pp 39.
Siegel, R.A., Robertson, R.J., Anderson, D.G. (1990)
Slope Stability Investigations at a Landfill in South-
ern. Geotechnics of Waste Fills: Theory and Practice
1070, 259.
Wang, G.J., Kong, X.Y., Gu, Y.L. (2011) Research on
slope stability analysis of super-high dumping area
based on cellular automaton. SREE Conference on
Engineering Modelling and Simulation, 248253.
Xie, X., Pang, C.H. (2003) Fractal characteristic of size
distribution of bulky rock material in waste dump of
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Zhu, G.L. (March, 1994) Discussion on the character-
istics and slide mode of loess based on earth dump,
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Evaluation of the current system for waste rock treatment considering

the rock conditions in open pit coal mine, Indonesia

S. Matsumoto, H. Shimada, T. Sasaoka, A. Hamanaka & K. Matsui

Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is one of the serious environmental problems in mining
activities with the expansion of coal production in Indonesia. Some studies suggest that rock weathering
can affect AMD; however, the effects on AMD are different depending on the rock properties, the min-
ing operation, and field conditions. In this study, sample analysis was performed to characterize the rock
samples: sequential extraction by strong acids, slaking test. Based on the results, the rock samples have
a potential to cause acidic water. Additionally, AMD could be promoted due to the disintegration of
rocks by physical and chemical factors. Both factors which promote AMD were confirmed in the wetting
and drying process. Therefore, AMD is promoted by both factors in the mining area while waste rocks
are stored and weather, suggesting that the current system for the treatment of waste rocks is one of the
triggers of AMD.

1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 Acid mine drainage

Development of resources often leads to environ-
1.1 Coal production in Indonesia
mental problems especially in open pit coal pro-
Coal is an essential resource for our daily life. The duction since surface layer is removed with the
demand for coal has been increasing every year vegetation at the first stage of the development.
with development in the technology in the world. AMD is one of the serious environmental prob-
Indonesia is one of the major coal-exporter and lems caused by mining activity. When a surface
coal-producing countries; therefore, the coal produc- layer is removed in mining activity, sulfide minerals
tion is planned to be increased in the future with the are exposed to oxygen and water, and the minerals
increase of the demand for coal all over the world. react with them. Hydrogen ion which is produced
Kaltim Prima Coal (KPC) mine is one of the by the chemical reaction leads to a decrease of pH,
largest coal mines in Indonesia, and the coal and the acidic condition has a negative impact
production is expected to increase in the future. on the surrounding environment (Jennings et al.
Environmental problems are also expected to 2008). Harmful heavy metals such as chromium or
increase with the expansion of coal production lead, moreover, dissolve in water with a decrease
in the mine site. AMD which is caused by mining
operation is currently one of the serious prob-
lems in this mine site. KPC mine is located in
Kalimantan islands near the equator and it belongs
to a tropical climate as shown in Figure 1. The cli-
mate has wetting and drying cycles caused by high
temperature and heavy rain. The wetting and dry-
ing process is related to weathering of rocks which
affects the reaction rate of the oxidation of miner-
als, indicating that AMD should be discussed by
considering the field condition especially in such a
tropical climate (Lobb et al. 2007). However, a field
condition is different depending on a location or
a procedure of the mining operation. Each condi-
tion should be considered to discuss AMD. In this
study, rock samples obtained in KPC mine were
used in all experiments to focus on the field condi- Figure 1. Location of KPC mine: red mark indicates
tion in this mine site. the location.

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 of pH. AMD should be prevented in mining activ-
ity for the impact on the surrounding environment.
The main chemical reaction of AMD proceeds in
the reaction below:
FeS2 + 7/2O2 + H2O Fe2+ + 2SO42 + 2H+
Fe2+ + 1/4O2 + H+ Fe3+ + 1/2H2O
With a decrease of pH caused by the progress of
the reaction above, the chemical reaction proceeds
as below:
Fe3+ + 3H2O Fe(OH)3 + 3H+
FeS2 + 14Fe3+ + 8H2O 15Fe2+ + 2SO42 + 16H+
The main factors causing AMD are oxygen and
water as shown in the reaction above. Most of the
countermeasures for AMD are to cut the supply of
water and oxygen to sulfide minerals for the reason.
Cover layering system is one of the countermeasures
for AMD and it is widely used as the treatment of
AMD in open pit coal mine in Indonesia due to the
low cost and the simplicity. Waste rocks are used for
a cover layer in the system and they are constructed
simultaneously with an excavation of coal, suggest-
ing that it can be conducted efficiently at low cost.
In this mine site, the cover layering system is con-
ducted for AMD prevention as shown in Figure 2.
Waste rocks are classified based on the geochemical
properties and temporary stored in stock pile after
the excavation: waste rocks which cause acidic water
are classified into Potentially Acid Forming (PAF),
and rocks which cannot cause acidic water are clas-
sified into Non Acid Forming (NAF). They are
backfilled in dumping site after being stored with
the development progress. PAF rocks are backfilled
under more than 10 m depth, and they are covered
by NAF rocks to cut the supply of oxygen to PAF
rocks.
In this current system, waste rocks are exposed to
air and rainfall during the storage process. This situ-
ation may lead to AMD and rock weathering since
Figure 2. Process of the construction of cover layering
system in KPC mine: (1) After excavation, (2) Storage
process in stock piles, (3) Backfill in dumping site.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 552
water and oxygen are main factors causing the acidic
water problems. The current system should be evalu-
ated for the potential of AMD for the reason. In this
paper, the process of the current cover layering sys-
tem in which waste rocks are treated is evaluated in
terms of the field condition and the problems such
as rock weathering and AMD by several weathering
tests with rock sample obtained in KPC mine.
2 METHODS
2.1 Samples
Waste rocks which should be backfilled in a cover
layering system were sampled in an active pit in
KPC mine. Acidic water was generated around
the area where the samples were obtained. Fresh
rocks which had not been exposed to oxygen and
water were obtained from the interlayer, and they
were packed in a plastic bag after sampling to keep
them fresh. They were analyzed on the basis of the
geochemical classification in KPC mine and with
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) in the laboratory after
the sampling. The result of the geochemical anal-
ysis of the rock samples indicated that the rocks
were classified as PAF rocks and they can cause
acidic water. This result is consistent with the situ-
ation where acidic water was generated around the
sampling area. Figure 3 show the XRD patterns
for the sample. It can be seen that the rock samples
contain sulfide minerals such as pyrite and sphaler-
ite, suggesting they can cause acidic water when
they are exposed to oxygen and water. Moreover,
they consist of clay minerals such as kaolinite. The
rock samples perhaps weather by absorption of
water since clay mineral leads to rock weathering
in some cases. These waste rock samples were used
in the weathering tests and the measurement of the
change of surface area as described below.
2.2 Weathering tests
2.2.1 Slaking test
Slaking indicates the phenomenon of rock weather-
ing caused due to the clay content in rocks. Specific
Figure 3. XRD patterns of waste rock sample.
8/27/2014 6:03:16 PM
 surface area dramatically increases when clay min-
erals like smectite and montmorillonite contact
with water. On the other hand, specific surface
area dramatically decreases when the minerals are
dried. This behavior explains that rocks which con-
sist of the clay minerals swell and contract through
a wetting and drying process, leading to rock fail-
ure caused by expansion pressure and shrinkage
pressure on the inside of rocks. This is kind of rock
weathering caused by physical factors.
Rock weathering test related to slaking phenom-
enon has been developed since 1950s, and some Figure 4. Method of dissolution test: the ratio of liquid
researchers have modified the method in the past to solids was 10 in each size of rock samples.
(Taylor, 1988). In this study, the slaking index test
was conducted by following the method proposed
in the past (Sadisun, et al. 2003). Rock samples go
the wetting and drying process. A specific surface
through a five times of a wetting and drying proc-
area of rock samples before weathering process
ess in the test, and then less than 2 mm of small
was measured several times and the average was
particles are removed by sieving. The change of
calculated to minimize the errors from a shape
the weight of rock is recorded at the end of each
of rock samples. The results were plotted on the
wetting and drying cycle to evaluate the degree
graph to clarify the change of specific surface area
of rock weathering. The change can be expressed
with a wetting and drying process.
with Slaking Index (SI): it indicates the ratio of the
change of weight to initial weight of rock sample.
2.4 Effects of particle size on acidic water
2.2.2 Sequential extraction with acids generation
This test was conducted in accordance with the
A dissolution test was conducted to explain the
method proposed in 2002 to understand the change
effects of particle size of rocks on AMD. Each
of existence form of elements in rocks before and
size sample was left under distilled water until
after a wetting and drying process (Sasaki, et al.
700 hours under the condition that the ratio of liq-
2002). Three kinds of strong acid are used to
uid to solids was 10 in every size of rock samples
extract each element in rock sample: hydrochloric
as shown in Figure 4: rock samples of 0.250.42,
acid, hydrogen fluoride, and nitric acid. Each ele-
0.420.71, and 0.712 mm size were used. The pH
ment dissolves in acid at difference stages: hydro-
and Electric Conductivity (EC) were measured
chloric acid can extract soluble materials like
with the simplified pH and EC meter at each speci-
oxidation products and precipitates, hydrogen flu-
fied time.
oride can extract silicate minerals, and nitric acid
can extract refractory materials like sulfide miner-
als. The change of existence form of elements with
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
rock weathering and chemical reaction can be seen
by comparing the amount of dissolved elements at
3.1 Rock weathering
each stage of the extraction with the acids in this
experiment. Figure 5 shows the change of the form of rock
samples: the left shows the rock samples before the
test and the right shows the sample after 5 cycles
2.3 Measurement of specific surface area
of a wetting and drying process. It is obviously that
Specific surface area of rocks after a wetting and most of the rock samples were broken down after
drying process was measured with the Brunauer 5 cycles of a wetting and drying process due to
EmmettTeller (BET) equipment to understand slaking. The changes of slaking index with the wet-
the change of specific surface area with rock ting and drying cycles are plotted in Figure 6. The
weathering process. Fifty rock samples of 12 mm change can be classified as a straight line based on
size were prepared on a filter paper, and then a few the classification proposed in the past, suggest-
drops of distilled water were put on the samples ing that the rock samples were broken down with
to replicate the wet condition. The samples were a certain amount of small particles through every
dried by light for 24 hours to supply oxygen to wetting and drying process (Sadisun, et al. 2003).
them after the drop. This cycle was continued until Thus, the rock samples which were used in this
from 1 to 10 times in each sample, and specific sur- study can be broken down with slaking caused by
face area of the total samples was measured after physical factors over time.

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Figure 5. Form change of rock samples before and
after a wetting and drying process: the left is before the
wetting and drying process and the right is after 5 cycles
of the process.
The results indicate that the amount of Fe and S
which were extracted at HCl step was high in the
Weather rocks. On the other hand, the amount
of them which were extracted at HNO3 step was
high in the Fresh rocks. Soluble materials such
as precipitates and oxidation products can be
extracted at HCl step, and refractory materials
like sulfide minerals can be extracted at HNO3
step. Therefore, the fact suggests that Fe and S
existed in the rock samples as refractory materi-
als like sulfide minerals before a weathering proc-
ess, and they existed as soluble materials after the
process. The soluble materials were produced with
the chemical reaction of AMD and derived from
sulfide minerals. This fact indicates that chemical
weathering of rocks can affect the structure of a
rock and lead to a disintegration (Gunjan, 2014).
Thus, the rock samples in this study can disinte-
grate with the chemical reaction through a wetting
and drying process by chemical factors.

3.2 Acidic water generation

Figure 7 provides a plot of specific surface area at
each step of a wetting and drying process. A spe-
cific surface area decreased with the process. This
was due to dissolution of soluble materials from
surface of rock samples. Dissolved materials were
confirmed as a residue on the filter paper after a
wetting and drying process. Only the rock samples
Figure 6. Change of Slaking Index (SI) with the wetting with the exception of the residue were used for the
and drying process. measurement of a specific surface area with BET.
This fact leads to the decrease of specific surface
area of rocks in this experiment. However, it can
be stated that a specific surface area generally
Table 1. Amount of extracted elements at each stage of
extraction with acids. increases with a rock weathering since surface area
increases as a whole with a deterioration of rocks.
Sample Figure 8 shows the change of EC over time in the
Acids (mg/g) Al Fe Zn S Si dissolution test. An initial EC is different depend-
ing on a particle size of rock samples, whereas EC
HCl Weather* 0.25 29.63 0.01 19.09 0.09 converges on around 5 at the end of the experiment.
Fresh* 1.54 15.84 0.11 11.09 0.23
HF Weather 11.31 2.89 0.00 0.44 39.19
Fresh 15.41 3.37 0.00 0.33 78.11
HNO3 Weather 0.50 41.29 0.10 83.29 1.91
Fresh 6.14 82.82 0.10 102.47 7.57

*Fresh indicates the rock samples which were not exposed

to oxygen and water before the test, Weather indicates the
rock samples which went through a wetting and drying
process before the test.

The results of sequential extraction were listed

in Table 1. Two kinds of rock samples were used
in this test: Weather rocks went through wet-
ting and drying cycles as a weathering process Figure 7. Change of a specific surface area of rocks
and Fresh rocks were after sampling on the site. with a wetting and drying process.

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Figure 8. Change of EC over time.
This result suggests that a size of rocks affects the
reaction rate of AMD. A decrease of particle size of
rock samples accelerates the reaction. The pH also
changed along with the change of EC. Hence, it can
be concluded that AMD generation is accelerated by
rock weathering caused by both physical and chemi-
cal factors through a wetting and drying process.
However, the degree of progress of rock weathering
and AMD varies depending on the type of rocks
such as physical and geochemical properties. These
results can be obtained only for the specific proper-
ties of the waste rocks in this mine site. A property
of rocks should be considered to discuss the relation
of AMD and rock weathering. Additionally, in the
current system for a treatment of waste rocks to pre-
vent AMD in this mine site, waste rocks are exposed
to oxygen and water while they are stored in a stock
pile. This situation results in an acceleration of rock
weathering and AMD caused by both physical and
chemical factors. Therefore, the process of a treat-
ment for waste rocks should be improved to prevent
AMD in the current system in this mine site. The
way is to cover waste rocks by impermeable sheet to
prevent the contact with water during the store or to
backfill them as soon as possible after an excavation
as an effective method.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, geochemical and physical analysis of
rock samples which were obtained in open pit coal
mine in Indonesia and a series of weathering tests
were conducted to evaluate the effects of the field
condition. The results obtained by the experiments
are summarized as follows:
1. A wetting and drying process affected the roc
weathering which was caused by physical and
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 555
chemical factors in the rock samples obtained
in KPC mine. The rock samples weathered with
chemical reaction of AMD and slaking.
2. Rock weathering can cause an increase of
surface area of rocks, resulting in a promotion
of AMD while they are stored in stock pile.
3. A behavior of AMD and rock weathering varies
depending on rock properties. They also should
be focused on to discuss AMD.
For the results, AMD is promoted with a rock
weathering through a wetting and drying proc-
ess while they are stored in stock pile in the cur-
rent system. AMD problems should be prevented
since it has a negative impact on the environment.
Waste rocks should be covered with an imperme-
able layer while being stored or they should be
backfilled underground as soon as possible after
an excavation to prevent the contact with water
and oxygen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The rock samples were obtained in the coal mine in
Indonesia. The authors are grateful to KPC mine
in Indonesia for supporting the field exploration
and material sampling.
REFERENCES
Gunjan, S. 2014. Influence of weathering on the
engineering properties of basalt near Indore,
Madhya Pradesh. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and
Civil Engineering, w-ISSN: 2278-1684, p-ISSN:
2320-334X: 1822.
Jennings, S.R. & Neuman, D.R. & Blicker, P.S. 2008. Acid
mine drainage and effects on fish health and ecology:
a review. Reclamation Research Group Publication:
510. Bozeman, Montana, United States.
Lobb, D. & Femmer, S. 2007. Missouri streams fact sheet,
Watersheds. Wolken, S. Missouri Stream Team: 12.
Jefferson City, Missouri, USA.
Sadisun, A.I. & Shimada, H. & Ichinose, M. & Matsui, K.
2003. Further developments in procedures to deter-
mine durability characteristics of argillaceous rocks
using a static slaking index test. International Work-
shop on Earth Science and Technology; Proc. Intern,
symp. Japan, 179186 November 2003.
Sasaki, K. & Haga, T. & Hirajima, T. & Kurosawa, K.
2002. Distribution and transition of heavy metals
in mine tailing dumps. Materials Transactions, 43:
27782783.
Taylor, R.K. 1988. Coal measure mudrocks: composi-
tion, classification and weathering process. Geology,
21: 8599.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Mine Facility Location Selection in open-pit mines using a new

multistep-procedure

M. Fazeli & M. Osanloo

Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

S. Naghne
Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Shahroud University of Technology, Shahroud, Iran

ABSTRACT: Mine Facility Location Selection (MFLS) is one of the most common encountered prob-
lems associated with sustainable development in open pit mine planning. This paper addresses a multistep-
procedure to be applied for MFLS. In the first step, the potential areas for the mine facilities are identified
through a preliminary screening process with application of the Geographical Information System (GIS).
In the second step, a number of discrete candidate sites are identified resulting in finding three to five sites
for each facility. In the third step, environmental impacts of each location for each facility are assessed
by determining the effect of a comprehensive set of impacting factors on various environmental compo-
nents. Then, the MFLS problem is formulated and solved by a hub location problem model to minimize
the total transportation costs between facilities. The final solution of this procedure, to select the most
appropriate locations for mine facilities, not only is technically feasible but also minimizes the cost of the
mining project and diminishes the environmental issues of mining activities. This approach was applied to
Sangan iron open pit mine of Iran to select primary crusher, processing plant and tailing pond locations
and the results are discussed in the paper.

1 INTRODUCTION tailing pond, because they entail long term com-

The purpose of mining is to meet the demands of
metals and industrial minerals to develop infra-
structure industrial products and improve the
human quality of life (Kumral & Dimitrakpoulos
2008). Increasing the demand and ascending the
price of minerals in many cases makes mining the
lower grade ores feasible, thereby more produc-
tion of tailings and more environmental distur-
bances. However, mining industry is responsible
to eliminate or diminish the adverse environmental
impacts of mining activities. Sustainable Devel-
opment (SD) requirements finally lead to using
improved and environmentally friendly technolo-
gies. SD principles should be applied from the start
of the mine project by selecting suitable locations
for mine facilities installation. In order to have sus-
tainable mining activities throughout the mine life
and also after mine closure, especial arrangements
needs to be considered (Narrei & Osanloo 2011).
MFLS is the one of the most cost effective
arrangements that should meet not only the project
plans but also SD principles to assure SD of min-
ing operation and having an economic, social and
environmental efficiency close to unity. One of the
most important issues in MFLS is the location
selection of primary crusher, processing plant and
mitments in the mining project and their location
cannot be changed after the allocation. Therefore,
a poor location selection would be detrimental to
mining activities due to the excessive transporta-
tion costs, or/and adverse environmental impacts
(Stevenson 1993). On the other hand, a lot of
countries enforce rigid rules to control the tailing
dams contaminations which in some cases result
in shutting down the mines (Akbari 2007). Mine
closure due to the intolerable tailing dams distur-
bances or even tailing dams accidents, when tech-
nical and economical potentials are still survived,
could be the most unfortunate end for the mining
project. Different scenarios resulting in accident
in tailing dams are including: (1) inadequate man-
agement, (2) lack of control of hydrological sys-
tem, (3) error in site selection and investigation,
(4) unsatisfactory foundation, lack of stability of
downstream slope, (5) seepage, (6) overtopping,
and (7) earthquake.
Several algorithms, based on Multi Attribute
Decision Making (MADM), optimization and
GIS, have been developed to evaluate the suitable
location for a mine facility, considering the effects
of multi-criteria on this problem (Table 1).
The MADM approaches are qualitative analy-
ses, primarily based on the judgment, knowledge

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 Table 1. Facility location selection models.

Other
Author Year Facility Optimization Ranking method method

Osanloo & Ataei 2003 Waste dump SAW

Kumral 2004 Processing plant
Shahriar et al. 2007 Waste dump Yager
Oraee 2007 Waste dump Linear
programming
Hekmat & Osanloo 2007 Waste dump
Hekmat & Osanloo 2008 Waste dump SAW, AHP, TOPSIS
Kumral & 2008 Waste dump Genetic
Dimitrakpoulos algorithm
Ataei et al. 2008 Cement plant ELECTRE
Yavuz 2008 Processing plant Yager
Golestanifar & Aghajani 2010 Tailing pond FTOPSIS, Fuzzy-WP
Yazdani et al. 2012 Waste dump FVIKOR
Athawale et al. 2010 Processing plant PROMETHEE II
Anand 2012 Processing plant ANP
Kheirieh & Osanloo 2012 Dispatching station GIS
Rahmanpour & Osanloo 2013 In pit crusher Hub location
problem
Fazeli & Osanloo 2013 Processing plant FAHP, FTOPSIS,
Fazeli & Osanloo 2014 Tailing pond EIA

and experience of the designers. Therefore the

results of these methods may differ substantially
from one group of designers to another one. On
the other hand, in quantitative approaches such
as optimization methods a mathematical formula-
tion, encompassing the objectives, variables and
constraints of the particular problem, are applied.
Some other methods such as GIS and EIA based
matrix methods have been applied for the mine
facility location selection (Fazeli & Osanloo 2014).
However, a comprehensive method for allocation
of more than one facility has not been studied yet.
This paper addresses a multistep-procedure to
be applied for MFLS for decision making about
mine facility location such as crusher, processing
plant and tailing dam. The decision-making proc-
ess focuses on combination of the two qualitative
and quantitative methods. Besides the proposed
procedure can determine the location of three
mentioned facilities with regard to each other and
also to other facilities.

Figure 1. Analyzing process of MFLS problem.

2 PROPOSED MULTI-STEP PROCEDURE

The multi-step procedure of MFLS is conceptual-
ized in Figure 1.
In the first step, the potential areas for the
tailings dam and processing plant are identified
through a preliminary screening process with
application of the GIS. In the second step, some
discrete alternatives are identified. In the third
step, the environmental impacts of each location
for tailings dams and processing plant are assessed
by determining the effect of comprehensive set
of impacting factors on various environmental
components. Then the problem is formulated as

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 a 2-hub location problem to minimize the overall
haulage cost as a function of hauling distance. The
proposed multistep-procedure suggests the most
suitable allocation for the mining facilities con-
sidering national and international standards in
line with SD principles such that it meets techni-
cal consideration, minimizes the cost of the min-
ing project and also diminishes the environmental
impacts of mining activities. These three mentioned
steps comprise the core of proposed multistep-
procedure and, they all together provide a system-
atic approach to assessment of MFLS in an open
pit mine. The individual components of the proce-
dure are explained in following.
2.1 Preliminary screening process
A radius within 50 km around the mine, depend-
ing on the project specification, may be considered
for the mine facilities locations survey (Robertson
1982). The main purpose of this step is excluding
the unsuitable areas for installing mine facilities.
The undesirable situations for allocating mine
facilities include: Poor condition of foundation
material, emergence of the ground water into the
site, complicated access, steep topography, active
faults, small capacity, high site preparation cost,
sites located much higher that the mill for tailing
pond, elevation of the chemical deterioration rate
of the territory, surface rupture, catchment area,
petering biotype, existence of man-made struc-
tures or facilities such as oil, gas, and water pipe-
line, proximity to inhabited locality, availability of
high quality ore.
Nowadays, due to the complexity of these
parameters, the traditional methods cannot be
applied to solve the MFLS problem. Therefore,
taking advantages of a powerful tool like GIS at
this step is crucial. GIS is capable to not only pro-
viding the necessary data for the lands planning
but also managing and processing the input data.
All the passing areas trough the regional screening
process are considered as the potential areas for
the further detailed study, called search area.
2.2 Alternatives identification
At this step, the search areas are considered for
the detail study to identify a number of discrete
alternatives for the mine facilities locations, called
candidate sites. After regional screening (step 1),
all possible locations are identified by the con-
sideration of each area on the map that was not
excluded from the regional screening. In case of
tailing impoundments the following options may
be considered as the candidate sites: (1) valley
impoundments; (2) ring dikes; (3) in-pit disposal
or open pit mines;
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 559
The proposed evaluation methodology requires
that a number of discrete alternative of mine facili-
ties be identified. After regional screening (step
1), all possible locations are identified by the con-
sideration of each area on the map that was not
excluded from the regional screening.
In case of tailing impoundments the following
options may be considered as the candidate sites:
(1) valley impoundments; (2) ring dikes; (3) in-pit
disposal or open pit mines; (4) underground mines
or mine backfilling; and (5) deep lake disposal.
This step leads to generate a small set of feasible
candidate sites to be evaluated in very detail at the
next step (Rashidinejad 2011).
2.3 Candidate sites evaluation
Once an array of candidates for each facility has
been defined, each component of the array needs
to be individually evaluated and compared with
the others regarding the rate of conformity to the
MFLS problem objects according to the effective
parameters.
2.4 Quantifying the sustainability using EIA
It is generally agreed that sustainable development
was first defined in 1987 by Bruntland Commis-
sion as a system of development that meets the
basic needs of all people without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
life-sustaining needs (Bruntland 1987).
The concept of the sustainable development
may seem to be an oxymoron in mining, since it
is not a renewable process. However, as it has been
believed by number of researchers, the mining
operations can be performed in consistent with
the sustainable development principles. In fact, a
mining practice is considered as sustainable when
it balances economic, environmental and social
considerations, called triple bottom-line (Laurence
2011). The principles of a sustainable mining prac-
tices that should be considered in mine planning
and design are economics, efficiency, safety, envi-
ronment, and community. These principles are
summarize in Figure 2 (Osanloo 2012).
Folchi method (EIA based method) and Multi
Attribute Decision Making (MADM) techniques
are usually applied to quantify the environmental
impacts of mining activities in the mining area.
The Folchi method, first applied to an operat-
ing mine in Sarina to quantify the environmental
impacts of mining caused by explosive during the
mine life, has been more considered recently in the
mining projects.
At this step, the concept of EIA is applied to ana-
lyze and assess of the mine facilities with respect to
the sustainable development. This environmental
8/27/2014 6:03:21 PM

Figure 2. Principles of sustainable mining.
assessment is performed through a matrix method,
measuring the effect of Impacting Factors (IFs on
Environmental Components (ECs). The IFs are
introduced by taking into account the SD concept
apart from technical and economic factors. Also,
the issues which influence of a mine facility instal-
lation on them is probable are defined as ECs. The
environment surrounding the mine facilities was
broken down to the eleven components including:
(1) human health and immunity, (2) social relation-
ship, (3) life quality, (4) surface water, (5) under-
ground water (6) air quality, (7) area usage, (8)
ecosystem (Flora-fauna), (9) area landscape, (10)
soil of the area, (11) quietness.
The IFs resulted from mine facilities installa-
tion alter each of the EC of the existing state of
the mining region. The consequences of these IFs
on each of the ECs are varying from no impact
to severe impact. A comprehensive set of scenarios
were extracted from the literature to qualify and
quantify the IFs on each mine facility (See the
Appendix). In this system, to quantify the destruc-
tive parameters an integer value between 0, as inef-
fective, to 10, as the highest destructive level, are
assigned. For the economic and cultural the value
is varying in the range of 10 and 10, in which
the negative sign shows the positive effect of the
location of the mine facility with respect to the IF.
These scenarios result in generating an IF matrix
in order of 1*n for every facilitys site candidates,
in which n is the number of IFs.
After each IF was assessed for the candidate
sites, the score or severity of the IFs on each EC are
expressed by one of the following statements: Nil,
Low, Medium, and High. As a result, a qualitative
table, showing the effect level of each factor on the
Components, is generated (Table 2). Table 2 reveals
that the impacting factors change each of the ECs
with different level of impact by installing the mine
facilities In order to quantify this fact and finding
the impact coefficient of each Ifs on every ECs, it
560
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 560
Table 2. Correlation matrix with values of the weighted
effect of each impacting factor on each environmental
component.
ECs
IFs EC1 EC2 ECm-1 ECm
IF1 Min Nil Min Max
IF2 Nil Nil Med Nil
IFn Min Nil Med Med
Total 10 10 10 10 10
was assumed that the sum of the coefficients of all
the Ifs on each EC is equal to 10, and their weight
distribution is such that the maximum effect level
is twice the medium level, the effect of the medium
level is twice that of the minimum, and 0 value was
considered for the nil level of effect. Since the total
weight distribution is considered as 10, now the
coefficient impacts could be easily calculated. As a
result, a coefficient matrix of M by order of n*m is
generated by the Table 2, in which n and m are the
number of IFs and ECs. In matrix M, the sum of the
components in each column is equals to 10. There-
fore, Eq. 1 is now could be used to quantify the
overall effect of Ifs, after installing mine facilities in
the specifics candidate sites, on each EC:
[EC]1m=[1F]1n[M]nm (1)
where, EC represents a (1*m) matrix in which each
element represents the amount of overall effect on
each EC. IF denotes a (1*n) matrix whose elements
represent the Impacting Factors values, M is the
quantitative correlation matrix (n m) obtained
from Table 2, and n and m are the number of IFs
and ECs, respectively.
The sum of the components of each column in
the M matrix is a was chosen to be equal to 10, there-
fore after multiplying matrix m by matrix IF, which
its components are in the range of 0 to 10 or 10
to 10, the maximum total effect of IFs on each EC
would be 100 and 100, and the overall impact on
each EC is shown as a fraction of 100. This implies
that closer score obtained for each component to
100, the more significant impact on that compo-
nent. After all, the components of matrix EC will be
depicted in a column graph, describing the amount
of total effect of IFs on each EC after installing the
mine facility on the specific candidate site.
2.5 Hub Location Problem (HLP)
Hub Location Problem (HLP) has been widely
used in location problem trough a lot of applica-
tions such as transferring transporting people,
8/27/2014 6:03:21 PM
 commodities, or information between required
origin-destination pairs in traffic and telecommu-
nications. Hubs are applied to decrease the number
of transportation links between origin and destina-
tion nodes to satisfy the demand and optimization
the transportation cost. A comprehensive survey
on hub location models and problems can be found
in Reza Zanjirani Farahani (Farahani 2013).
In multi hub networks the hubs are connected
through low cost and high capacity pathways to
minimize transportation costs between a given
hubs pair (Hekmatfar & Pishvaee 2009).
The Mathematical model of p-hub location
problem developed by OKelly (OKelly 1987) was
applied in this research.
In this model each non-hub node must be allo-
cated to just one hub node and hence is considered
as a single allocation p-hub location problem as,
originally proposed by OKelly (OKelly 1987). In
this model, the criterion is Mini-Sum, the solution
domain is network, the hub nodes are completely
linked together, and every non-hub node is linked
to a single hub node. The number of hubs to locate
is defined exogenously and denoted by p, and at
least one or at most two hub nodes have to be tra-
versed for traveling between two non-hub nodes.
Furthermore, there is no cost for establishing hubs,
the hubs are uncapacitated, and the model outputs
are binary.
The inputs of the problem are as follows: hij is
the amount of flow between nodes i and j, Cij is
the unit cost of transferring from non-hub node
into hub node j. Furthermore, the outputs of
the model are binary, in which Yij is equal to 1 if
node i is allocated to a hub located at node j (and
0, otherwise). If Yjj is equal to one, it means that
node j is allocated to itself and in fact it is a hub
node. is the discount factor denoting economies
of scale for transferring between hub nodes (0
< 1). To compute the transfer cost between hub
nodes Cij is multiplied by . This is due to the fact
that the transportation cost between hub nodes is
smaller than the transportation cost between hubs
and non-hub nodes. Considering this notation, the
mathematical formulation of p-HLP is as follows:
min CikYik hij
i k
j
+ CkjYik h ji
k i
j
+ hijCkmYikY jm
j (2)
i j k m
Subject to
j Yij i (3)
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 561
Y jj p (4)
j
Yij Y jj 0 i, j (5)
Yij { , } ii, j (6)
Eq. 2 minimizes the total transportation cost
between network nodes. The first term in Eq. 2
is the connection cost of all transportations from
non-hub node into hub node k when i is allocated
to k. Moreover, the second term is the connection
cost of all travels predetermined for non-hub node
i to hub node k when non-hub node i is allocated
to hub node k. In addition, the third phrase is
the transportation cost of inter-hub flows. Fur-
thermore, Eq. 3 stipulates that non-hub node i is
allocated to precisely one hub node. Eq. 4 stipu-
lates that exactly p-hub nodes are selected. Eq. 5
enforces that node i is allocated to a hub node at j
only if a hub is located at node j. Finally, Eq. 6 is
defines decision variables to be binary.
3 EVALUATING MODEL APPLICATION
AND RESULTS
In current section, the application of proposed pro-
cedure is shown for location selection of 3 facilities
(processing plant, tailing dam and primary crusher)
of Sangan iron open pit mine of Iran. Sangan Iron
Mine Project (SIMP) is one of the Irans major
iron ore resources. The Sangan iron ore deposits
form part of the east-west trending Kuh-e-Taleb
mountain range, and is located in the Khorasan-
Razavi Province in north-eastern Iran (Fig. 3). The
deposits lie approximately 300 km south of the city
of Mashhad, 30 km west of the eastern country
Figure 3. Geographical location of the SIMP and some
other world class Iranian mines.
561
8/27/2014 6:03:22 PM
 border and 18 km north-east of the Sangan town.
Table 3 summarizes the climatologic data of San-
gan site. Surface soils are generally of poor quality
with gravel predominating. Agriculture is generally
limited to irrigated areas. The limited water supply
severely restricts vegetation and wildlife.
The total mineral resources of the area (Sangan
iron ore deposits), which has been divided into
three regions (western, central and eastern), are
estimated to be 1200 Mt. The western region con-
sists of five ore bodies (A, A, B, CN and CS) with
700 Mt mineral resources of which the ore bod-
ies B and CN with total minable reserves of 160
Mt, consisting of 109 Mt for ore type B and 51 Mt
for ore type CN, have been considered for the first
phase of the project.
Once the ultimate pits and phases were designed
production was scheduled to produce 2.6 million
ton per year of concentrate. The concentrate is
composed of an equal blend of ore type B and
ore type CN material until Year 27 when the Ore
body CN pit is mined out. Mining continues from
Ore body B until Year 34. After Year 31 the weight
recovery of Ore body B is too low to meet the tar-
get of 2.6 Mt of concentrate a year [AMEC 2008].
Run-Of-Mine (ROM) is hauled to a gyratory
crusher (3 candidate sites) located near the mine
and then the crushed ore is delivered to the mill via
overland steel cord belt conveyors. The total tail-
ings produced over the life of the project is deter-
mined to be 73 Mt or approximately 45 Mm3 (by
considering tailings dry density of 1.6 t/m 3), of
Table 3. Climate of Sangan iron mine.
which 77 percent originating from Ore body B and
23 percent from Ore body CN. The total amount
of tailings reported to the impoundment is shown
in Table 4.
In order to verify the proposed multi-step proce-
dure, the locations of processing plant, tailing dam
and primary crusher of SIMP were evaluated. To
do so, after collecting information of the project
site, trough steps 1 and 2, 3 alternatives on the map
were identified for each of 3 facilities (Fig. 4).
To evaluate the effects of establishing processing
plant and tailing dam on ECs, 16 and 15 compre-
hensive factors were identified as IFs, respectively.
Tables 56 represents the magnitudes of IFs of
each candidate site for processing plant and tail-
ing dam.
The level of perturbation of IFs for each EC,
and the related weights (the correlation matrices)
for processing plant and tailing dam are shown in
Tables 78, respectively. The final impact score for
each EC was then calculated by multiplication of
related IFs correlation matrices.
Figures 56 summarize the overall effect on each
EC for candidate sites of processing plant and
tailing dam as a simple graphical representation,
respectively. The negative values shows their posi-
tive effect of processing plant on the social issues
and life quality. For each identified alternatives, the
overall effect on each EC is calculated by summing
the weighted magnitudes of all the IFs (Eq. 7)
n = 1F1 M11 + IF
F2M21
+ + IFFi 1Mi 11 IF
FiMi1, (7)
n = number of ECs , i number of IFs

Parameters Amount Unit where OE is the overall effect on each EC. Finally,
using Eq. 8 the overall effect of each alternatives on
Average altitude 1240 m ASL environmental parameters obtained (Figs. 78).
Mean rainfall 145 mm
Maximum daily rainfall 20 mm OEAE m = OE + OE 2 + + OE n ,
Mean freezing days 7 days m = number of alternatives, (8)
Maximum annual evaporation 3900 mm
n = number of EC
E s
Maximum recorded daily snowfall 15 mm
Maximum temperature at mine site 32 C
Minimum temperature at mine site 5 C where OEAE is the overall effect of each alterna-
tives on environmental parameters. We can see that

Table 4. Total annual tailings in pipeline.

Solid Slurry Water

Nomination t m3 t m3 m3

Tailings of ore type B 1,612,707.84 414,408.90 2,691,786.24 1,493,056.12 1,078,647.22

Tailings of ore type CN 618,992.64 190.278.12 1,163,274.24 734,486.80 544,208.68
Annual Tailings 2,231,700.48 604,687.02 3,855,060.67 2,227,542.92 1,622,855.90

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 the site 1 for processing plant and site 3 for tail-
ing dam construction have the least environmen-
tal hazardous between other alternatives. So, sites
1 and 3 are determined as the most appropriate
location for establishing processing plant and tail-
ing dam units, respectively, by taking into account
the SD concept apart from technical and economic
factors.
After evaluation processing plant and tailing
dam sites using EIA by taking into account the
environmental issues, the problem of economic
optimization of the location of primary crusher,
processing plant and tailing dam was modeled as
a 2-hub location problem with the aim of mini-
mization of haulage processing plant and tailing
pond.
In the determined ultimate pit limit shown in
Figure 7, there are 10 working faces in the mine
as the spokes in HLP that need to be mined
according to the annual production plan. There-
fore, the first hub (primary crusher) location
Figure 4. Topographic layout and definition of candi- should be near the largest working faces which
date sites for processing plant, tailing dam and primary contains considerable amount of ore compared
crusher. to the other faces. In Figure 9, working faces

Table 5. Magnitude of impacting factors for processing plant candidate sites.

Waste waters from mill

Domestic employment
Proximity to perennial

reclamation materials

Increase in the traffic

Changing the usage

underground water

Population control

Social and cultural

Exposition of the

Interference with

Interference with

construction and
streams or rivers
processing plant

Noise pollution
catchment area

Land vibration
Candidate site

characteristics

Availability of
surface water

development
Foundation

Ownership
of the area

of the area
Drainage
Facility

Processing Site 1 3 4 2 2 3 3 1 0 3 5 6 7 3 1 7 2
plant Site 2 3 4 2 2 7 3 1 0 3 5 6 7 7 1 7 2
Site 3 2 0 6 2 3 7 1 3 7 5 6 7 7 1 7 2

Table 6. Magnitude of impacting factors for tailing dam candidate sites.

Proximity to perennial

reclamation materials
Expansion capability
Drainage catchment
Changing the usage

Site efficiency ratio

underground water
Exposition of the

Interference with

Interference with

construction and
streams or rivers

Storage capacity
processing plant

Land vibration
Candidate site

characteristics

Availability of
surface water

Topography
Foundation

Ownership
of the area
Facility

Faults
area

Tailing Site 1 2 4 6 2 7 3 1 4 7 1 3 2 3 3 3
dam Site 2 2 4 4 2 3 3 1 2 3 4 3 3 4 3 0
Site 3 2 4 4 2 3 3 1 2 3 1 3 1 3 3 0

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 Table 7. Correlation matrix with values of the weighted influence of each IF on each EC for processing plant.

EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4 EC5 EC6 EC7 EC8 EC9 EC10 EC11

(Flora-fauna)
Underground
Surface water
Social issues

Life quality

Area usage
Air quality

Ecosystem

Soil of the
landscape

Quietness
Human
health

water

Area

area
IF1 Changing the Med Min Med Med Med Min Max Med Max Max Min
usage of 0.83 0.42 0.80 0.91 1.18 1.43 1.74 0.91 3.08 2.50 1.25
the area
IF2 Exposition of the Nil Min Nil Nil Nil Nil Med Nil Max Nil Nil
processing plant 0 0.42 0 0 0 0 0.87 0 3.08 0 0
IF3 Interference with Max Min Med Max Min Min Max Max Nil Max Nil
surface water 1.67 0.42 0.80 1.82 0.59 1.43 1.74 1.82 0 2.50 0
IF4 Interference with Min Min Min Nil Max Nil Min Med Nil Nil Nil
underground 0.42 0.42 0.40 0 2.35 0 0.43 0.91 0 0 0
water
IF5 Drainage Nil Nil Nil Max Min Min Med Med Nil Nil Nil
catchment area 0 0 0 1.82 0.59 1.43 0.87 0.91 0 0 0
IF6 Foundation Min Nil Nil Med Max Nil Min Min Nil Nil Nil
characteristics 0.42 0 0 0.91 2.35 0 0.43 0.45 0 0 0
IF7 Land vibration Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IF8 Ownership Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Min Nil Nil Nil Nil
0 0 0 0 0 0 0.43 0 0 0 0
IF9 Proximity to Min Min Min Max Min Nil Med Max Nil Med Nil
perennial 0.42 0.42 0.40 1.82 0.59 0 0.87 1.82 0 1.25 0
streams or rivers
IF10 Domestic Min Max Max Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
employment 0.42 1.67 1.60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IF11 Population Med Max Max Nil Nil Nil Med Nil Nil Nil Min
control 0.83 1.67 1.60 0 0 0 0.87 0 0 0 1.25
IF12 Social and cultural Med Max Max Nil Nil Nil Min Nil Nil Nil Nil
development 0.83 1.67 1.60 0 0 0 0.43 0 0 0 0
IF13 Availability of Nil Nil Nil Min Nil Min Min Min Nil Med Nil
construction 0 0 0 0.45 0 1.43 0.43 0.45 0 1.25 0
and reclamation
materials
IF14 Waste waters Max Min Med Max Max Med Med Max Max Max Nil
from mill 1.67 0.42 0.80 1.82 2.35 2.86 0.87 1.82 3.08 2.50 0
IF15 Increase in the traffic Max Max Max Min Nil Min Nil Min Min Nil Med
of the area 1.67 1.67 1.60 0.45 0 1.43 0 0.45 0.77 0 2.5
IF16 Noise pollution Med Med Min Nil Nil Nil Nil Min Nil Nil Max
0.83 0.83 0.40 0 0 0 0 0.45 0 0 5
Total 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

were represented by F1, F2 ... F9 and F10 as the
spokes, and C1, C2 and C3 represent the candi-
dates for the crusher site. Figure 7 also shows the
candidate sites for processing plant as a second
hub location that is connected by a belt conveyor
to primary crusher through low cost and high
capacity pathways which causes a discount on
the transportation costs between a given hubs
pair (primary crusher and processing plant)
and the final destination flow is shown by tail-
ing pond sites as the spokes. The structure of the
corresponding 2-hub network for SIMP is given
in Figure 9.
Considering Figure 9, the mathematical model
of locating the primary crusher, processing plant
and tailing dam units in SIMP is developed as a
2-hub locating problem similar to the Eqs. 26.
Edges connecting the nodes to the hub node have
their own costs and the cost varies on each direc-
tion (in this case the hub nodes are the location
of the primary crusher and processing plant). In
other word, trucks transport the material to the

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 Table 8. Correlation matrix with values of the weighted influence of each IF on each EC for tailing dam.

EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4 EC5 EC6 EC7 EC8 EC9 EC10

Human health
and immunity

(Flora-fauna)
Underground
Surface water
Social issues

Life quality

Area usage
Air quality

Ecosystem

Soil of the
landscape
water

Area

area
IF1 Changing the usage Max Med Max Max Med Max Max Max Max Max
of the area 2.86 3.33 4 1.6 1.67 5 1.6 2 2.67 2.11
IF2 Exposition of the Nil Med Nil Nil Nil Nil Med Nil Max Nil
tailing dam 0 3.33 0 0 0 0 0.8 0 2.67 0
IF3 Interference with Max Nil Med Max Nil Med Med Max Nil Max
surface water 2.86 0 2 1.6 0 2.5 0.8 2 0 2.11
IF4 Interference with Nil Nil Nil Nil Max Nil Nil Min Nil Nil
underground water 0 0 0 0 3.33 0 0 0.5 0 0
IF5 Drainage catchment Min Nil Min Med Nil Min Med Max Nil Min
area 0.71 0 1 0.8 0 1.25 0.8 2 0 0.53
IF6 Foundation Min Nil Nil Max Max Nil Min Min Nil Med
characteristics 0.71 0 0 1.6 3.33 0 0.4 0.5 0 1.05
IF7 Land vibration Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IF8 Topography Nil Nil Nil Max Nil Nil Med Min Med Med
0 0 0 1.6 0 0 0.8 0.5 1.33 1.05
IF9 Proximity to perennial Max Min Med Max Min Nil Med Max Nil Max
streams or rivers 2.86 1.67 2 1.6 0.83 0 0.8 2 0 2.11
IF10 Expansion capability Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Min Nil Med Nil
0 0 0 0 0 0 0.4 0 1.33 0
IF11 Availability of Nil Nil Nil Min Nil Min Min Min Nil Med
construction 0 0 0 0.4 0 1.25 0.4 0.5 0 1.05
and reclamation
materials
IF12 Storage capacity Nil Nil Nil Min Nil Nil Med Nil Med Nil
0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0.8 0 1.33 0
IF13 Site efficiency ratio Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Med Nil Min Nil
0 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 0 0.67 0
IF14 Faults Nil Nil Nil Min Min Nil Med Nil Nil Nil
0 0 0 0.4 0.83 0 0.8 0 0 0
IF15 Ownership Nil Min Min Nil Nil Nil Med Nil Nil Nil
0 1.67 1 0 0 0 0.8 0 0 0
Total 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

primary crusher and travel back to the working
face empty, and this effects the cost of travel
between nodes. The distances between the faces
and the primary crusher candidate sites are given
in Table 9. Although distance is the main factor
in the cost of transportation per ton but the
overall cost of transportation depends heavily on
haulage time and hourly operating costs for fleet.
The haulage time is concerned with the roads
condition and performance of trucks.
Loaded and unloaded truck speeds were consid-
ered 20 km/h and 40 km/h, respectively. Therefore
the round trip times were calculated as Table 10.
If trucks capacity are used in the mine equals
100 ton, the operation and capital recovery costs
are extracted from Table 11. The performance of
cost estimation presupposes the average wage of a
mechanic laborer is $10 per hour; the fuel is $ 0.1
per liter and the lubricant is $ 1 per liter. Capital
recovery, overhead and hourly operating costs for
truck with a capacity of 100 tons are presented in
Table 12.
The information thus calculated is used in
definition of haulage cost for each path from
the faces to the primary crusher candidate sites
(Table 13).
After identifying the candidate sites, and con-
structing the represented network of the problem
(Fig. 9), the mathematical model can be solved
as an integer programming problem. Linear pro-

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 Figure 5. Overall effect on each EC for processing plant
candidate sites. Figure 6. Overall effect on each EC for tailing pond
candidate sites.

Figure 7. Overall effect of each candidate sites of

processing plant on environment. Figure 8. Overall effect of each candidate sites of tail-
ing pond on environment.

Table 9. The distances between the working faces and

the primary crusher candidate sites.

Primary crusher
Working
faces PC1 (km) PC2 (km) PC3 (km)

F1 4.10 5.75 6.55

F2 4.00 5.40 6.40
... ... ... ...
F9 6.30 4.15 3.85
Figure 9. The 2-hub network of the SIMP given in F10 6.85 4.75 4.15
Figure 7.

Table 10. The forecast of round trip times for trucks.

Primary crusher

PC1 PC2 PC3

Haulage time (hour) Haulage time (hour) Haulage time (hour)

Working Fill Empty Total Fill Empty Total Fill Empty Total
faces truck truck time truck truck time truck truck time

F1 0.205 0.103 0.308 0.288 0.144 0.432 0.328 0.164 0.492

F2 0.200 0.100 0.300 0.270 0.135 0.405 0.320 0.160 0.480
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
F9 0.315 0.158 0.473 0.208 0.104 0.312 0.192 0.096 0.288
F10 0.343 0.171 0.514 0.238 0.119 0.357 0.208 0.104 0.312

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 Table 11. The capital and hourly costs for 100 ton truck.

Overhaul Maintenance
Capital Capital Over
Capacity cost Life recovery head PARTS LABOR PARTS LABOR Fuel Lube Tires
(Ton) ($) (Hr) ($/hr) ($/hr) ($/hr) (Hour) ($/hr) (Hour) (Lit/hr) (Lit/hr) ($/hr)

100 1,100,000 37,500 29.6 1.04 3.52 0.141 6.55 0.262 4.4 0.44 0.41

Table 12. The haulage costs for each path per a round Table 13. The differences of overall effect on each EC
trip. for tailing dam.

Primary crusher Relative

Environmental Site 1 Site 3 differences
Working PC1 PC2 PC3 components (HLP) (EIA) (%)
faces (km) (km) (km)
Human health 50 30 40
F1 14.18 19.88 22.65 and immunity
F2 13.81 18.64 22.09 Social issues 36.67 25 31.82
... ... ... ... Life quality 44 25 43.18
F9 21.78 14.36 13.26 Surface water 44 27.6 37.27
F10 23.66 16.43 14.36 Underground water 28.33 25 11.76
Air quality 37.5 27.5 26.67
Area usage 37.2 24.4 34.41
Ecosystem 50 29 42
gramming problems have to be solved by compu- (flora-fauna)
ter usually. We can solve them using Mathematica Area landscape 27.33 23.33 14.63
software. Soil of the area 45.79 28.95 36.78
Based on the preliminary results, the optimum Overall effect on 400.82 265.78 33.69
place of the primary crusher, processing plant and environment
tailing dam is determined to be on location C2, P1
and T3 considering haulage costs between these
facilities, respectively.
effects of establishing processing plant and tail-
ing pond on ECs for each candidate site was then
4 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION evaluated using EIA by taking into account the
environmental issues of mining region The result
The sustainable development term has been showed that site 2 (P2) and site 3 (T3) have the
entered to the lexicon of industrial policy mak- least adverse environmental impacts among the
ers to provide proper life condition for the next other candidate sites, respectively. Then the prob-
generation increasing the world population, lem of MFLS formulated as a 2-hub locating
demand, commodity price and improving tech- problem with the objective of minimization over-
nology has resulted in decreasing the cut-off all haulage cost as function of distance on every
grades and therefore, more waste is being gen- path and C2, P2 and T1 were selected for locat-
erated by mining and processing lower qual- ing the primary crusher, processing plant and
ity ores with higher striping ratios. In order to tailing pond units, respectively. Table 14 shows
minimizing the environmental adverse impact of the differences of overall effect on each EC for
large mining activities, as well as operating and tailing dam construction candidate sites 1 and
capital cost of the projects this paper presented 3 using EIA evaluation. As shown in Table 14,
a multistep-procedure to be applied for MFLS establishing tailing dam in site 1 base on HLP
to ensure SD of mine and unify economic, social has 33.69 percent more adverse environmental
and the environmental efficiency. The proposed impact in the mining region in respect to site 3. In
multistep-procedure was applied to determine this situation final decision must be made based
the optimum location of mine facilities in Sangan on the importance of environmental or eco-
iron open pit mine of Iran. After regional screen- nomic issues in the mining region. Considering
ing using GIS, three discrete alternatives were environmental condition of SIMP, and also more
selected for each of facilities including: primary importance of economic issues, site 1 selected as
crusher, processing plant and tailing dam the a final decision for establishing tailing dam.

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 5 APPENDIX Interference with swamp 2
Interference with rivers 4
Changing the usage of the area Interference with lakes 5
What was the usage of lands before the start of Interference with seas 6
building mill or tailing dam?
Scenarios Magnitude Groundwater contamination
Scenarios Magnitude
Industrial usage 1
Desert 2 Deep water table and un-permeable ground 0
Mountain and hills with low coverage 3 Deep water table and permeable ground 1
of vegetation Water table is about the ground surface 2
Agricultural area 4 Water table is above the ground surface 4
Rural 5 and un-permeable ground
Town or small city 6 Water table is above the ground surface 6
Big city 7 and permeable ground
Forest, wood and mountain with high 8
coverage of vegetation
Sea, lake, river and swamp 9 For each positive answers the following ques-
Natural park and protected area 10 tions ((3.1) to (3.4)) add one positive point to the
magnitude of Interference with surface water and
groundwater.
Faults 3.1 Does the ore include basic metals or sulfides
Scenarios Magnitude or pyrite?
3.2 Does the mining activity include Acid Drain-
No faults 0 age? (If the answer is positive for the above ques-
Fault located off site, distance 3 tion answer the next two questions, otherwise there
greater than 3 km is no need to answer them)
Fault located off site but within 7 3.3 Is the Mine Acid Drainage interferes with sur-
3 km from a site face water?
Fault at site 10
3.4 Is pH of Acid Drainage less than 3.5?
Ground vibration in buildings in the distance more
Visual impact than 1500 m from blasting area.
Scenarios Magnitude
Scenarios Magnitude
It is not visible 0
Less than 32 2
Can be seen from industrial area 2
3292.375 4
Can be seen from main road 4
92.375152.750 6
Can be seen from rural areas 6
152.750193 8
Can be seen from city 8
More than 193 10
Can be seen from places which have 10
potentials for tourism and ecotourism
(archeologically and naturally Ownership
attractive places)
Scenarios Magnitude

Availability of construction and reclamation materials Company owned 0

Probably obtainable 3
Scenarios Magnitude Possibly obtainable 7
Not obtainable 10
All materials readily available on site 0
All materials available at site or within 3
short haul Proximity to perennial streams, rivers, flood
Moderate haulage necessary 7 plains (km)
None availablelong haulage necessary 10
Scenarios Magnitude

Surface water contamination None present within influence area 0

Unlikely to be effected by flow failure 3
Scenarios Magnitude Stream or river could be effected by 7
flow failure
There is no interference 0 Stream or river is very close 10
Interference with wells for disposal purposes 1

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 Expansion capability (%) Large city 3
Town 2
Scenarios (%) Magnitude
Village 1
More than 200 1 Not inhabited 0
100 to 200 4
0100 7 Situation of population district of mining unit
None 10 after mining activity:
Scenarios Code B
Foundation characteristics considering earthquake
factor Large city official center of state 5
Large city official center 4
Scenarios Magnitude
Large city 3
No foundation constraint, no structural 0 Town 2
seepage pathway, essentially impermeable Village 1
Low compressibility, Low occurrence 3 Not inhabited 0
of fracture, joints and faults. Low
variability across site
The type of influence of mining activities on the
Moderate compressibility, moderate 7
jointing and fractures, Moderate change in population:
variability across site Scenarios Code C
Highly compressible, highly jointed, 10
fractured or faulted bedrock to provide Mining activities resulted in destruction the +5
seepage pathways, variable across site natural sources and local economy and
disease and therefore local people are
forced to immigrate.
Increase in the traffic of the area
Mining activity resulted in immigration of +3
Influence of processing plant building on the traf- young people from different places to
fic situation of the area: mining units surrounding and decreasing
Scenarios (%) Magnitude the number of young labor in little towns
and destruction the local economy. Before
No interference 1 the start of mining activity these littler
Traffic increases in the range of 12 times 4 towns near the mining unit had a
Traffic increases in the range of 23 times 7 prosperous local economy and because of
immigration of young people toward
Traffic increases more than 3 times 10
mining unit, the local economy is
weakened or completely destroyed.
Domestic employment Mining activity resulted in an extra +2
Domestic employment rate in mining unit: population to already populated areas. It
means that establishment the mining unit
Scenarios Magnitude near a highly populated city, resulted in
immigration of labors to find job in mining
80100% 10 unit although there were no enough
6080% 5 facilities to meet the needs of newly
4060% 0 immigrated people. So this mining
2040% 5 activity resulted in increasing the
020% 10 population of already populated areas
and therefore creating a group of people
with low living standards.
Population control Because of its small scale or the nature 0
Definition of population district of mining unit: A of its activities, mining unit has no
geographical area around the processing plant in special effect on the population of its
which the occupation of its inhabitants is directly surrounding.
or indirectly related to the milling unit and the Population district of mining unit is in the 2
most economical activities are directly or indirectly place where there was no important inhab-
related to milling unit. Situation of population dis- itant area and mining unit resulted in
increasing the population.
trict of milling unit before mining activity:
Population district of mining unit had a low 3
Scenarios Code A population and a weak local economy.
Establishment of mining unit resulted in
Large city official center of state 5 increasing the population and makes a
Large city official center 4 prosperous economy.

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 Mining activity resulted in immigration from
areas with low population and concentrates
them in the Population district of mining
unit. Before establishment of mining unit
each former area with low population had
low living standards and suffered from
weak local economy.
Total magnitude of the factor of population con-
trol = (Code A Code B) + Code C.
Noise pollution
Scenario Magnitude
Around the natural and normal level 0 Before starting the operation of mining
of human hearing
A little painful 2.5
So painful 5.5
At the maximum level which can be 7.5
tolerated by human
Very painful and harmful 10
Location of flood plain
Availability of the electricity Magnitude
None present which could influence
site in terms of flood
Large distance away from site, little
chance of impact
Moderate distance, moderate flood
impact site
At site, small elevation differences 10
Social and cultural development
Scenarios
Area has had sufficient institutes but
after establishment of the mining unit,
because of mining unit the number of
institutes decreased or their activity is
limited.
Before starting the operation of mining unit
the numbers of institutes were sufficient but
because of the increase of population, area
needs more institutes to be established, in
spite of the increasing need new institutes
werent established.
Before starting the operation of mining unit
the numbers of institutes were sufficient
but because of the increase of popula-
tion after starting the mining activity,
area needs more institutes to be estab-
lished, therefore some new institutes were
established but they dont meet the need
of area.
Before starting the operation of mining unit
the numbers of institutes were less than
peoples need, after establishment of mining
unit because of mining unit the number
of institutes decreased or their activity is
limited.
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 570
5 Before starting the operation of mining unit +1
the numbers of institutes were less than
peoples need. Because of the increase of
population after starting the mining activity,
area needs more institutes to be established,
therefore some new institutes were estab-
lished but they dont meet the need of area.
Because of its small scale or the nature of its 0
activities, mining unit has no special effect on
the number of institutes or the peoples need.
Before starting the operation of mining unit the 1
area was not inhabited, after establishment of
mining unit some new institutes were estab-
lished but they dont meet the need of area.
2
unit the area had low population, after
establishment of mining unit some new
institutes were established but they dont
meet the need of area.
Before starting the operation of mining unit 3
the numbers of institutes were less than
peoples need, but after establishment of
mining unit new institutes were established
which meet the need of area.
Before starting the operation of mining unit the 4
area was not inhabited, after establishment
of mining unit new institutes were established
1
which meet the need of area.
Before starting the operation of mining unit the 5
4
area had low population, after establishment
of mining unit new institutes were established
7 which meet the need of area.
Condition of the social and cultural institutes
before and after the mining operation:
Code C Type of institute Code
Educational A1
+5
Health and help A2
Cultural & artistic A3
Sport A4
Amusement A5
+4 Economical A6
Based on the A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6 another
code is defined as TEI (Total magnitude of Estab-
lishing Institutes) whose formula is:
+3 Condition of urban facilities before and after
the start of the mining operation in population dis-
trict of mining unit. Condition of Water facilities
before and after the start of the mining operation
(B1 = before start of mining operation, C1 = after
start of mining operation):
Water facilities Related code
+2
No facility 0
Well and Qanat (an old type of 5
water-supply system in arid regions)
Local refinement facility 10
Plumped hygienic water 20
570
8/27/2014 6:03:31 PM
 Condition of heating facilities before and after the 3. Was there train station in the population district of
start of the mining operation (B2 = before start of min- mining unit before starting the mining operation?
ing operation, C2 = after start of mining operation): 4. Was there train station in the population district of
mining unit after starting the mining operation?
Heating facilities Related code
5. Was there airport in the population district of min-
No facility 0 ing unit before starting the mining operation?
Using wood sticks 3 6. Was there airport in the population district of
Using gasoline and oil 7 mining unit after starting the mining operation?
Using gas 10 Based on the B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6 another
code is defined as Bt whose primary value is: Pri-
Condition of availability of the electricity mary value of Bt = B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 + B5 + B6.
before and after the start of the mining operation If the answer to the question of 1 is positive (yes)
(B3 = before start of mining operation, C3 = after then add +2 to Bt. If the answer to the question of 3
start of mining operation): is positive (yes) then add +3 to Bt. If the answer to
Availability of the electricity Related code the question of 5 is positive (yes) then add +3 to Bt,
after this process the final value of Bt is calculated.
Not available 0 Based on the C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 another
Local electricity system is available 5 code is defined as Ct whose primary value is: Pri-
Electricity system of country 10 mary value of Ct = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 + C6.
is available If the answer to the question of 2 is positive (yes)
then add +2 to Ct. If the answer to the question of
Condition of access roads before and after the start 4 is positive (yes) then add +3 to Ct. If the answer to
of the mining operation (B4 = before start of mining the question of 6 is positive (yes) then add +3 to Ct,
operation, C4 = after start of mining operation): after this process the final value of Bt is calculated.
Based on the Bt and Ct another code is defined
Access roads Related code as TD whose formula is: TD = (Bt Ct)/14.
Dirt road 1 The Total magnitude of the factor of Social and
Service road 3 Cultural Development (TSCD) = TEI + TD.
Asphalted road 5
Topography of tailing dam
Condition of receiving the terrestrial TV chan- Scenarios Magnitude
nels before and after the start of the mining
operation (B5 = before start of mining operation, The surface of the area is completely smooth 2
C5 = after start of mining operation): so that water from precipitation transports
pollutants very slowly in the area
Access to terrestrial TV channels Related code The surface of the area is moderately 4
smooth so that water from precipitation
Not possible 0 transports pollutants slowly in the area
Some channels 7 The surface of the area is moderate slope so 6
All state channels 10 that water from precipitation transports
pollutants moderately in the area
Condition of phone connections before and The surface of the area is significant 8
after the start of the mining operation (B6 = before slope so that water from precipitation
transports pollutants with considerable
start of mining operation, C6 = after start of min- rate in the area
ing operation): The surface of the area is completely high 10
Phone connections Related code slope so that water from precipitation
transports pollutants with high speed in
No connection 0 the area
Central switchboard 5
Home telephone 8
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Adit-strip extraction technology and numerical simulation

analysis in open pit coal mine

Y.L. Chen & G.M. Zhang

State Key Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering,
China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China

G.R. Feng
College of Mining Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China

ABSTRACT: A great deal of coal will be left under the final end-walls in Chinese open pit mines because
of low slope angle in shovel-truck mining technology system and large mining depth. In the traditional
surface mining system, the coal under the end-walls will be buried by the inner dumping site, and the coal
resources are normally discarded. Considering these situations, this paper describes the adit-strip mining
system in order to recover the residual coal based on the geological conditions of coal seams at Chinese open
pit coal mines. The outcome shows that coal pillar width will be larger with the increase of mining openings
width. However, the coal recovery ration can be improved. To improve the recovery ratio, we should increase
the mining width as much as possible when the conditions permit. According to the theoretical and numeri-
cal simulation results, the optimal mining width should be 40 m and the pillar width is 17 m in the studied
coal mine. Also, at least 30 m boundary pillar has to be left to avoid end-wall slope failure.

1 INTRODUCTION end-walls will be more. In traditional mining sys-

Surface mining is always playing a considerable
role in the worlds coal mining, which has many
advantages such as large output, low cost, simple
mining technology, operating safety and so on
(Sinha 2009.). However, there are a great deal of
differences for occurrence features of coal seams
between China and other main big coal production
countries (Liu 2010, Liu 2001 & Cai 2008). Accord-
ing to the data from the 3rd Chinese national coal
field prediction (19921997), the coal resources
buried depth less than 600 m only cover about
20% of total reserves in China. As a result, the coal
quantity can be extracted by surface mining are
limited in China. There are two main features of
Chinese surface coal mines. One is the thick cover,
another is shovel-truck mining technology system
is the most common. Due to higher striping ratio
under the thick cover, a large number of coals will
be left under the end-walls in Chinese surface coal
mines. Meanwhile, most of the large-scale surface
coal mines in China are near horizontal coal seams,
and shovel-truck inpitdumping system is the most
common. For this system, transport lines of trucks
are usually arranged in the end-walls, so the slope
angle of end-walls has to be designed very small.
Especially in some regions under poor geologi-
cal conditions, the angle of the final end-wall will
be much lower; hence, the residual coal under the
tems, the coal under end-walls will be buried by
the inner dumping site, and coal resources are nor-
mally discarded, which are wasted in vain.
To recover coal remnants around the end-walls,
underground mining system is normally adopted
by excavating some adits into end-walls. Due to
longwall underground mining system, the fully cav-
ing method is used to manage the coal roof, and it
will cause a greater ground subsidence. Hence, strip
mining is usually adopted in some regions where
only minor ground placement is permissible (Hu
1995 & Guo 2003). In this mining system, the coal
field is divided into some regular strips, one strip is
mined and the next strip is reserved. The reserved
strips can support the load of the overburdened
strata, as a result only minor and uniform move-
ments happen on the ground. Thus, some unrecov-
erable reserves can be extracted on the premise of
the controllable ground subsidence. Practice has
proved that strip mining is an effective method to
control the overlying strata and ground subsidence,
and is usually used for extracting coal seams under
buildings and railway lines. According to the past
investigations about strip mining technology, we
try to recover the residual coal under end-walls of
open-pit mines with this system, which we called
adit-strip mining system in this research. Thus, the
key issue of this research is to ensure the extraction
system and mining parameters.

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 2 ADIT-STRIP MINING SYSTEM
There are three flat dipping coal seam layers at
studied open pit coal mine, but only the No. 4
is low-sulfur coal seam among them. To meet
the demand of the sulfur content for exported
cleaned coal, all the No. 4 coal is to be used for
coal blending. However, the output of No. 4 coal is
not enough to achieve the design yield of cleaned
coal. At the same time, under end-slopes of open
pit mine, there are a lot of coal cannot be mined
because of end-slopes covering. From the previ-
ous discussion results, it may be a good solution to
recover the No. 4 coal remnants by adit-strip min-
ing with existing production systems.
To recover the residual coal of final end-walls,
firstly the interval haulage and ventilation adits
are excavated from the exposed No. 4 coal seam
of end-wall. After the haulage and ventilation
roadways are drivaged, exploitation roadways will
be excavated between the ventilation and haulage
roadway, which are supported by flange beams and
wire netting on the roof. After that, two working
faces are laid out towards the left and right direc-
tions from the position of the ventilation roadway
and a retreat mining manner is carried out. The
exploitation zone during two haulage roadways is
a mining area and each mining area is alternately
established in a similar way.
3 PILLAR DESIGN IN ADIT-STRIP
SYSTEM
The ground control issues are the most impor-
tant decision for adit-strip system which affects
the whole mining project goes well. The whole
final end-wall must be stable before it is buried by
Table 1. Coal pillar strength empirical formulae.
Type Formula
Linear Bunting
Obert-Dwvall/Wang
Bieniawski
Mark-Bieniawski
Exponential Holland
Holland-Gaddy
Salamon
Salamon-Munro
* s is coal pillar strength; I is in-situ critical cubical coal strength; Wp is the
coal pillar width; and Hp is the coal pillar height.
574
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 574
inner dumping site. Meanwhile, the transportation
benches should not cause failure, such as crack
failure that affects the transportation system. As
is known, if the coal pillar width is designed too
wide, maybe it can ensure the end-wall stable, how-
ever, a lot of coal pillar will cannot be recovered,
and thus the coal recovery ratio is low. But if the
coal pillar width is not designed reasonably, seri-
ous end-wall failure will occur and it disturbs the
regular production of the whole surface mine.
3.1 Coal pillar strength
There are many coal pillar strength empirical for-
mulae developed from various coal fields in the
world (Guo 2004, Zipf, 2003). A general agreement
among researchers is that coal pillar strength
increases with increasing coal pillar width to height
ratio, and can be expressed by the two general types
of expressions: linear type and exponential type, as
shown in Table 1.
3.2 Coal pillar stress
The mining width is not so large in adit-strip sys-
tem, only the immediate roof rock may be caving
and the main roof will not. Meanwhile, in the
whole mining areas, most of the coal pillars will
have the regular dimensions. Based on these results,
it is assumed that all the coal pillars will bear the
upper rock layers load in the tributary area theory,
and two halves of the rock mass above the adjacent
mining openings are acting on the coal pillar. The
average load on the coal pillar is:
W W
W + m + m H (W W ) H
p 2 2 p m
L = = (1)
Wp Wp
Expressions
S = 7 ( 0.7 + 0.3 Wp /H p )
S = I ( .778 + 0. W p /H p )
S = I ( .64 + 0. Wp /H p )
S = I ( .64 + 0. Wp /H p )
S I Wp /H p
S = 38 48 Wp /H p
S = 11 543 Wp 0 46 H p 0.66
S = 7 176 Wp 0 46 H p 0.66
8/27/2014 6:03:32 PM
 Table 2. Coal pillar width calculated by all theempirical formulas.

Type Formula Expressions

Linear Bunting 2 2
( f H .9)H p ( .9 f H ) H p 4 H pWm f H
Wp = +
4.2 4.2
Obert-Dwvall/Wang 2 2
( f H .778 I )H p ( .778 I f H ) H p .888 I H pWm f H
Wp = +
0.444 I 0.444 I
Bieniawski 2 2
( f H .64 I )H p ( .64 I f H ) H p .44 I H pWm f H
Wp = +
0.72 I 0.72 I
Mark-Bieniawski
( .64 I f H ) H p 2
2
( f H .64 I )H p .16 I H pWm f H
Wp = +
1.08 I 1.08 I
Exponential Holland IW p
15
H p Hf (W
(Wp Wm ) = 0
Holland-Gaddy 15
38.48 p p Wp Wm ) = 0
f ((W
Salamon 11.543W p1 46 /H p 0.66 H
Hf ( =0
p m)

Salamon-Munro 7.176W p1 46 /H p 0.66 H

Hf ( p m) = 0

where L = the average load on the coal pillar; Table 3. Coal pillar width calculated by the empiri-
Wm = the mining opening width; Wp = the coal pil- cal formulas.
lar width; = the average bulk density of the cover
Opening Pillar
rock; and H = the thickness of the cover rock. Empirical formulas width (m) width (m)

3.3 Pillar width Obert-Dwvall/Wang 40 22

Bieniawski 19
It is assumed that the safety factor is f, then the
Mark-Bieniawski 17
coal pillar strength and load on coal pillar will have Holland 19
following relations: Holland-Gaddy 12
Salamon 18
S f L (2) Salamon-Munro 28

Based on the previous discussion results, the

coal pillar width calculated by all the empirical for-
mulas can be concluded as follows:
3.4 Mining width
The mining width is related to the mining depth.
Practice shows that lumpy displacements will not
occur on the surface if the mined width meets the
following condition (Hu, 1995):
H H
Bm
10 3
where Bm = mining width; and H = the mining
depth.
Because No. 4 coal seam is about 120 m from
the ground in the studied mine, and according to
equation (3), the mining width of coal seam is:
Bm 40 m.
3.5 Recovery ratio
In any mining operation, the calculation of the
extraction ratio is very important (Chen 2013).
This determines the financial feasibility of the
project. For the adit-strip system, the extraction
ratio is determined by the width of the pillars
between the holes as well as the quantity of coal
that may have to be left in the roof or floor of the
holes. According to the mining system, recovery
(3) ratio can be expressed as follows:
WM HM
= (4)
(WP + WM )HC
where WM = the mining width; HM = mining height;
WP = the width of the coal pillar; and HC = thick-
ness of the coal seam.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 575 8/27/2014 6:03:37 PM

 According to the mentioned equations, the coal weakest layer which determines the safety factor of
pillar width and recovery ratio can be calculated the end-wall slope. On the other hand, the lower
when the mining width and mining height are layers are mainly made up of sand stone which has
changed. From the results, it is shown that the coal high strength. As a result, it has created a good
pillar width will be larger with the increase of min- condition for the adit-strip.
ing width and height. However, the coal recovery
ration can be improved. To improve the recovery
ratio, we should increase the mining width and
mining height as much as possible when the condi-
tions permit. As a result, the mining width should
be 40 m and mining height is 8 m in this research.
As a result, the results of coal pillar in the studied
coal mine can be calculated as Table 3.

4 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

In order to check the stabilities of coal pillar and

end-wall slope under the mentioned pillar design
methodology in the adit-strip system, numerical
simulation was carried out with two-dimension
Finite Element Method (FEM) software Phase 2.
The analytical initial conditions are supposed as
follows:
a. Analysis type is a two-dimensional plastic anal-
ysis and plane strain;
b. Mesh type is uniform and element type is six
noded triangles;
c. Failure criterion is Mohr-Coulomb principle;
d. The elastic type is field stress and body force;
e. Boundary conditions are that the ground sur-
face is free planes; for the left, right and bottom
side planes, both of the vertical and the hori-
zontal directions are fixed.
According to the Code for design of open pit
mine of coal industry in China, the slope safety
factor is required to be more than 1.2 for non-
working slope when its service life is less than 10
years. The safety factor of end-wall slope in the
studied coal mine is about 1.45 before adit-strip,
as shown in Figure 1. From this figure, it is found
the whole end-slope is very stable unless the top
loess layers. In other words, the loess bench is the

Figure 2. Numerical analysis results under different

Figure 1. The slope safety factor before adit-strip. coal pillar width calculated by the empirical formulas.

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 From Table 3, the numerical analysis results under
different coal pillar width calculated by the empiri-
cal formulas are shown in Figure 2. It is found that
the yield zones of coal pillar are decreasing with the
increase of pillar width. However, the coal recov-
ery ratio will decrease correspondingly. Anyway,
when the coal pillar width reaches 17 m calculated
by Mark-Bieniawski formula, the pillar yield width
can meet the requirements of pillar safety. Based
on these results, it is recommended the coal pillar
width should be at least 17 m. Therefore, the coal
Figure 3. Slope failure under different boundary pillar
width.
Figure 4. The slope strength factor after adit-strip.
577
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 577
pillar width calculated by Mark-Bieniawski for-
mula may serve as an important reference for pillar
design in adit-strip system.
Figure 3 shows the end-wall slope failure con-
dition under different boundary pillar width. It is
found that when the boundary pillar width is more
than 30 m, no failure occurs in the end-wall slope.
At same time, from Figure 4, it is found that the
safety factor of the end-wall slope after adit-strip
system is about 1.43, which also can meet the safety
requirements.
5 CONCLUSIONS
1. The extraction of residual coal around the
end-walls with adit-strip mining technology, a
method which can utilize existing mining tech-
nology and transportation systems for open
pit mines, the cost of transportation can be
reduced. Moreover, since the coal around end-
walls is exposed and there is no extra stripping
engineering quantity, then the economic benefit
of the open pit mine may be improved.
2. The main mining parameters of residual coal
extraction system have already been presented
in this paper. The coal pillar width will be larger
with the increase of mining openings width and
height. However, the coal recovery ration can
be improved. To improve the recovery ratio, we
should increase the mining width and height as
much as possible when the conditions permit.
By analytical calculation, the optimal mining
width should be 40 m and the pillar width is
17 m in the studied coal mine.
3. According to the results of numerical simula-
tion, when the boundary pillar width is 30 m,
no failure occurs in the end-wall slope. At
same time, it is found that the safety factor
of the end-wall slope after adit-strip system
is about 1.43, which also can meet the safety
requirements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by the
Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province
(No. BK20140213).
REFERENCES
Cai, Q., Zhou, W., Shu, J., Liu, Y. & Peng, H. 2008.
Analysis and application on end-slope timeliness
of internal dumping under flat dipping ore body in
large surface coal mine. China University of Mining &
Technology 37(6): 40744.
8/27/2014 6:03:46 PM
 Chen Y.L. Shimada H. Sasaoka T. & Matsui K. 2012.
Research on exploiting residual coal around final
end-walls by highwall mining system in China.
Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment
27(3): 166179.
Guo, Z., Xie, H. & Wang, J. 2003. The relationship of
the pillar width and the mining width with the sur-
face deformation caused by strip extraction. Journal
of Xiangtan Mining Institute 18(2): 1317.
Guo, W., Deng, K. & Zou, Y. 2004. Research status and
main issues of strip mining in China. Coal Science and
Technology 32(8): 711.
Hu, B.1995. Pillar stability analysis in strip mining.
Journal of China Coal Society 20(2): 205210.
578
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 578
Liu, Z., Wang, S. & Cai, Q.2001. Application of top-
coal caving method in Anjialing surface mine. Journal
of China University of Mining & Technology 30(5):
515517.
Liu, S., Song, Z. & Tong, W. 2010. The selection and
rational evaluation of surface mining technology
system. Advances in Intelligent and Soft Computing
82(2): 771778.
Sinha, A. & Singh, V. 2009. Emerging technology in sur-
face mining and environmental challenges. Journal of
Mines, Metals & Fuels 57(34): 6266.
Zipf J.R. Mark C. 2005. Ground control for highwallmin-
ing in the United States. International Journal of
Mining, Reclamation and Environment 19(3): 188217.
8/27/2014 6:03:47 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

An artificial reality for mine site rehabilitationthe industrial

symbiotic approach

M. Yellishetty
Division of Mining and Resources Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia

J. Li
School of Applied Sciences and Engineering, Monash University, Australia

V. Wong
School of Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University, Clayton VIC, Australia

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results from pot culture studies undertaken to test the perform-
ance of synthetic soils built from overburden (OB) waste, power station Combined Ash (CA), Brown Coal
(BC) and composted Sewage Sludge (SS). These soils are essential to meet the large predicted shortfalls
at open pit coal mines for successful progressive rehabilitation needs at the mines in the Latrobe Valley in
the Gippsland Region of Victoria.
The study identified a suitable artificial soil mixing ratio that would ultimately neutralise AMD and
amplify nutrient content (1 part OB, 1.23 parts CA and varying proportions of BC and SS), based on net
acid producing potential derived for each component. The constructed artificial soils also demonstrated
increased water retaining characteristics and enhanced vegetation growth, effectively supporting grass
growth after mixing.

Keywords: overburden; ash; composted sewage sludge; brown coal; mine rehabilitation

1 INTRODUCTION overburden being removed and displaced annually

Surface mining activities of brown coal in the
Latrobe Valley often produce large volumes of solid
waste which requires the removal of significant
quantities of overburden. This waste material can
contain significant amounts of sulfide minerals such
as pyrite, which produces sulfuric acid following
oxidation, commonly known as Acid Mine Drain-
age (AMD; Evangelou and Zhang 1995). Acid gen-
eration lowers the pH of sediment and water and
can mobilise large quantities of trace metals (Elders
2001; Taylor et al. 2013). As mines expand, larger
volumes of waste rock need to be moved which also
require extensive areas for their safe disposal and
containment. The erosion of these dumps may result
in landform instability, which, in turn, may result in
further exposure of sulfidic materials, mobilisation
of trace metals, elevated sediment delivery to adja-
cent waterways, and the subsequent degradation of
downstream water quality.
The brown coal mines in the Latrobe Valley are
worked by open cut method with approximately
18,000,000 t of high moisture brown coal mined
annually. These results in roughly 6,000,000 m3 of
to expose the extractable coal. The area of influence,
including the Power Station, mine and buffer zones,
covers approximately 5500 ha. In addition to large
volumes of overburden, power generation also
produces alkaline Combined Ash (CA). Therefore,
there is a substantial volume of waste material pro-
duced and a large area to rehabilitate. However, the
brown coal mines of the Latrobe Valley do not have
sufficient natural soil suitable for progressive reha-
bilitation following mining activities. Furthermore,
the low soil pH, high trace metal concentrations
and low nutrient concentrations poses a serious
challenge for successful site remediation for vegeta-
tion establishment and growth.
There are a number of other industries located
in close proximity to the mines the Latrobe Val-
ley in addition. Gippsland Soil and Water Organic
Recycling Facility (SORF) receive and treat
domestic and industrial wastewater and other solid
and liquid wastes. Waste material from the SORF
is processed to form a high quality compost which
is compliant with Australian standards.
Regulations for deposition of material in to land-
fill are becoming increasingly more stringent with

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 increasingly higher associated costs. Therefore, the
reuse of waste materials from industrial processes
is becoming increasingly more important. This
paper presents results from two pilot studies which
aimed to create artificial soils from waste materials
derived from mining, power generation and waste-
water industries with sufficient buffering capacity
to remediate acidity, and with sufficient nutrients
for plant establishment and growth.
2 METHODS
Twelve (grab) samples of the raw materials (over-
burden (OB) waste from brown coal mines, power
station Combined Ash (CA), Brown Coal (BC) and
composted Sewage Sludge (SS)) were oven-dried to
determine the moisture content. To determine the
appropriate mixing ratios for each waste stream,
Acid Neutralisation Capacity (ANC) and Net Acid
Generation (NAG) were determined. The Net Acid
Producing Potential (NAPP) of each sample was cal-
culated based on the ANC and NAG results. An esti-
mated mixing ratio was estimated from the NAPP
results, which was then used to form a range of arti-
ficial soils. Compost was treated as an additive.
The artificial soils were formed by combining
OB waste from brown coal mines, power station
CA, BC and composted SS to assess the potential
for plant growth in a pot trial. Figure 1 illustrates
the characteristics of individual materials that
forms part the artificial soils.
The materials shown in Figure 1 were combined
according to the following ratios (dry mass): 1 part
OB, 1.23 part CA, with 3 ratios of composted
sludge (0.5, 1 and 1.5) and 3 ratios of brown coal
(0.5, 1 and 1.5) in a factorial design. The artificial
soils were termed according to the following ratios:
AF1/1 SS (0.5):BC (0.5):OB (1):CA (1.23)
AF2/1 SS (0.5):BC (1):OB (1):CA (1.23)
AF3/1 SS (0.5):BC (1.5):OB (1):CA (1.23)
AF1/2 SS (1):BC (0.5):OB (1) CA (1.23)
AF2/2 SS (1):BC (1):OB (1):CA (1.23)
AF3/2 SS (1):BC (1.5):OB (1):CA (1.23)
AF1/3 SS (1.5):BC (0.5):OB (1):CA (1.23)
AF2/3 SS (1.5):BC (1):OB (1) CA (1.23)
AF3/3 SS (1.5):BC (1.5):OB (1):CA (1.23).
Approximately 50 g of Rye grass seed, available
from local nurseries, was sown in to each pot to
assess the suitability for vegetative growth over
a six week period. The plots were watered with
450 mL every day. Water was not applied following
rainfall to avoid the excessive leaching of nutrients
in the test plots. The height of the grass was meas-
ured weekly over a period of 6 weeks.
The pH was determined in duplicate for each
raw material and mixture in a 1:1 extract at the end
of the experimental period. The Electrical Conduc-
tivity (EC) of each raw material and mixture was
also determined in duplicate in a 1:5 soil to water
suspension. Particle size analysis was undertaken
using the hydrometer method and Atterberg limits
were also determined (data not shown).
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The combination of solid waste, sourced from
mines, which are frequently nutrient poor and
acidic, with nutrient-rich composted material pro-
duced from sewage treatment and alkaline com-
bined ash has the potential to lead to a soil suitable
for mine rehabilitation and successful seed germi-
nation and plant growth.
We found that pH generally increased in the arti-
ficial soil mixtures (Table 1) and was able to sup-
port plant establishment compared to the OB and
BC. EC also increased in the artificial soil mixtures
Table 1. pH and EC of the raw
waste materials and artificial soils.

Sample pH EC (mS/cm)

CA 8.30 0.33
OB 6.50 0.01
SORF 6.92 1.11
BC 3.51 0.18
AF1/1 7.32 0.78
AF2/1 7.28 0.85
AF3/1 6.77 0.96
AF2/1 7.19 1.11
AF2/2 6.88 1.40
AF2/3 7.07 1.14
AF3/1 7.13 1.08
AF3/2 6.74 1.19
Figure 1. Materials used in this study with their known AF3/3 6.43 0.85
generic characteristics.

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 Figure 2. Grass growth in each artificial soil and raw waste material over 6 weeks.
relative to the OB with the addition of the other
waste streams (Table 1).
Plant growth was greatest in those soils with the
greatest proportion of compost, most likely due to
the higher nutrient concentration provided by the
compos (Fig. 2). These pot trials suggest that the
use of different waste streams to form an artificial
soil can potentially be used in mine site rehabilita-
tion where there is a nutrient-rich source of waste.
4 CONCLUSIONS
A range of mixtures of OB, CA, SS and BC were
created, which beneficially altered soil character-
istics such as pH, EC and plant growth. In many
cases, the highly acidic soils that originally could
not support vegetation were successfully remedi-
ated. Although all samples supported grass growth,
a number of issues were identified requiring further
consideration. Leachate from mixtures showed an
increase in EC, which may indicate potential leach-
ing issues when used in the environment. This
illustrates the great variability in overburden com-
position throughout an OB dump and needs to be
considered when creating artificial soils on a large
scale.
Further studies are required to characterise the
waste materials and artificial soils in greater detail.
581
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 581
An understanding of the geochemical properties
and nutrient concentrations of each waste stream
will assist in creating an optimal artificial soil which
is physically stable and can support plant growth
for a resilient ecosystem in the longer term.
REFERENCES
Elders, J.A. (2001). Hydrogeochemical and Geophysical
Investigations into the Environmental Impact of the
Overburden Pile at Loy Yang Coal Mine, Australia,
Monash University, Clayton.
Evangelou V.P. and Zhang Y.L. (1995). A Review
Pyrite Oxidation Mechanisms and Acid-Mine Drain-
age Prevention. Critical Reviews in Environmental
Science and Technology, 25. 141199.
Taylor M., Yellishetty M. and Panther B. (2013).
Geotechnical and hydrogeological evaluation of artifi-
cial soils to remediate acid mine drainage and improve
mine rehabilitationan Australian case study. In Pro-
ceedings of the 22nd MPES conference, C Drebenst-
edt and R Singhal (Eds), pp. 855865.
Yellishetty, M., J Li, and V Wong (2013). Turning mine
sites greener through industrial symbiosis practices:
An innovative way of creating artificial soils from
waste products for mine rehabilitationa case study.
T Ren & J Xu (Eds), In proceedings of the 6th Inter-
national Symposium on Green Mining (ISGM),
November 2426, 2013, the University of Wollongong,
p. 392.
8/27/2014 6:03:48 PM
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Physical modeling geomechanical stability of open-cast slopes

and internal overburden dumps

B.R. Rakishev & K. Seituly

Kazakh National Technical University named after K.I. Satpayev, Kazakhstan

O.S. Kovrov
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Stability of internal overburden dumps poses one of the most essential issues with surface
mining technology. It depends on the range of interdependent factors: Open-pit technological opera-
tions, physical and mechanical properties of the rock mass, climatic factors, groundwater levels, shape
and geometry of the foundation, and external loads. Complex influence of these factors leads to the
emergence and outspreading geomechanical deformations in the dump core with the formation of rock-
slides, which complicate the mining operations and result in an increase of the specific mining capital
expenditures. Therefore, precise estimation and effective management of open-cast mining technology
and internal overburden dumping is an important engineering issue.
Physical modeling as an instrument of engineering research remains a reliable technique for resolving
numerous geomechanical issues including stability of slopes and internal dumps while surface mining. It is
based on the theory of similarity of an artificially prepared equivalent material to the natural geotechnical
object in-situ. Basic principles of this method consider replacement of natural rocks or soils by artificial
materials with specific physical and mechanical properties in accordance with the scale of modeling and
correlation with the properties of in-situ objects. In spite of some inaccuracies inherent to physical models
still widely used to calibrate numerical models and to better understand the processes in rocks and soils.
The paper deals with the modeling stability of internal dumps at open pit Maikubenskiy (Kazakhstan)
by using the method of equivalent materials. The physical model of an internal dump with different angles
of slope inclination is simulated in a specially designed flat stand and using an equivalent mix of sand and
oil. According to the results obtained critical values of inclination angles for the internal dump slopes can
achieve up to 50 degrees considering compaction factor.

Keywords: physical modeling; method of equivalent materials; stability of internal dumps; sliding surface

1 INTRODUCTION of the enterprise and negatively influence to the ter-

The open-cast Maikubenskiy is a coal mine
company specializing in mining brown coal of
Shoptykolskoye coalfield with an annual project
capacity of 25 million tons of coal per year. At
present, the actual output is about 4 million tons
per year and it is planned to increase an annual
coal output up to 8 million tons. Brown coal seams
are mined by the advanced open-cast technology
with internal dumping.
Shoptykolskoye coalfield is characterized by
flat and slightly inclined coal seams in the range of
4 10. The overburden is deposited both inside
and outside of the open-cast area by using traf-
fic (Eastern tract) and non-traffic mining systems
(Central tract). Considerable volumes of overburden
reduce the technological and economic performance
ritory adjacent to the national park Jasybay.
Flat bedding of brown coal seams (412) ena-
bles optimize mining operations by using internal
space of the open-cast for disposal of overburden
mass. Internal dumping reduces outlay on trans-
portation of overburden into external dumps and
minimize negative environmental load on this ter-
ritory. But the main problem of internal overbur-
den dumps is associated with potential danger of
sliding processes that can heavily influence min-
ing operations. So slope stability issues remain the
most vulnerable aspect while surface mining.
The objective of this paper is estimating slope
stability of internal overburden dumps and quarry
faces in application to geological and mining condi-
tions of open-cast Maikubenskiy (Kazakhstan)
via physical modeling with equivalent materials.

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 2 PHYSICAL MODELING ON
EQUIVALENT MATERIALS
Modeling on equivalent materials as a time-proved
research technique allows investigate in detail the
mechanism that being occurred inside the rock or
soil massif particularly the processes of deformations
with breaking continuity that is normally impos-
sible by using other methods of physical modeling.
Therefore, the method of equivalent materials is the
most effective, so it is widely used to solve various
geomechanical issues concerning rock mechanics.
The method of modeling on equivalent mate-
rials offered by G.N. Kuznetsov (Kuznetsov et al.
1959) is widely used for investigation of geotechni-
cal issues for rock or soil behavior under impact
of external and internal forces. Its advantage is the
possibility of determining stress-strain state in the
areas of failure which cannot be observed in natu-
ral conditions. The principle idea of this method is
based on the replacement of the natural object by
artificially prepared materials with certain physical
and mechanical properties which correspond to the
scale and mechanical characteristics of the natural
model in accordance with the theory of similarity.
In the elementary case the model reproduces the
studied phenomenon saving physical nature and
geometrical similarity, and it differs from origi-
nal object only by size and intensity of processes
investigated.
The following equalities should be taken into
consideration for meeting requirements of similar-
ity conditions (indexes m and n are used for model
and natural object respectively):
lm m
Cm = Cn ,
ln n
tan m t n,
tan
lm m
Em = En ,
ln n
m n ,
m 0 7 n,
where lm, ln = linear sizes; m, n = volume weights;
Cm, Cn = cohesive strengths; m, n = angles of
internal friction, Em, En, = values of deformation
modulus, m, n = Poissons ratio.
Mechanical processes occurred in the rock mass
of the natural object are considered similar to the
equivalent model in all the range of stresses if the
following condition is fulfilled:
p m p n
= ,
( e + p ) m
( e + p ) n
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 584
where e, p = elastic and plastic strains in the model
and natural object.
Experiments with using equivalent materials
are carried out with the flat testing stand specially
designed for slope studies (Fig. 1).
It allows modeling the geo-mechanical processes
which take place in slopes. The stand represents
the hollow tray with working space formed by two
glass partitions of 6 mm in thickness. Partitions are
rigidly pressed by screw clamps to U-shaped restric-
tive frames of 60 mm in thickness. Thus, the volume
of equivalent material is limited by the stand frame
dimensions and surfaces of glass partitions.
The mix of the washed river sand sifted through
a sieve with cells of 0.5 mm was applied as an
equivalent material. Using recommendations con-
cerning modeling mechanical processes in soils the
spindle oil was added as a binding component to
initial mix (3% by volume). Main advantage of liq-
uid oil application in equivalent materials is main-
tenance of working mixture permanent humidity
and desired mechanical characteristics. The typi-
cal relation of volume weights was accepted as
m/n = 0.7.
Considering only the internal space of the flat
stand with external dimensions 630 545 mm and
the width of limiting frames of 40 mm the overall
weight of the sandy material model can be calcu-
lated according to the formula:
P (l n ) ( b n ) m m k, (7)
where P = overall weight of the model material,
g; l = model length, cm; b = model width, cm;
n = width of limiting frames; m = model thickness,
cm; m = volume weight of the material, g/cm3;
(1)
k = material loss factor, traditionally accepted in
the range 1,101,15, in this case it equals 1,10.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Figure 1.
materials.
Flat stand for modeling with equivalent
584
8/27/2014 6:03:50 PM
 The equivalent mixture ratio is presented in the tan m t n = tan 21
tan 0.384;
Table 1.
lm m 1
Taking into consideration the and the model Em = En = 0.7
7 20000 kPa = 93.3 kPa;
scale 1:150 calculation of strength properties for ln n 150
the material being equivalent to original rocks was
m n = 0.35;
made according to the formulas:
m 0 7 n = 0.7 1.75 t/m3 = 1.225 t/m3 .
l 1
C m = m m Cn = 0.7
7 32 kPa = 0.15 kPa;
ln n 150 The procedure of the slope failure test consists
of the following operations. Initially the flat stand
is replaced in horizontal position. In the stand
Table 1. The equivalent mixture ratio. workspace is filled with the mix of sandy equiva-
lent material up to the brim of limiting frames
Content without compaction. After leveling the surface by
putty knife, the slope profile is cut off according to
Components % by volume % by weight by weight, g full-scale dimensions of the modeled slope at the
Sand 97.0 98.89 19911.1
scale 1:150. The angles of slope inclination are set
Spindle oil 3.0 1.11 406.3
by a protractor with the step 1.
Total 100 100 20317.4 To document mechanical changes in the slope
the coordinate grid was applied on the leveled

Figure 2. Modeling slope stability on equivalent materials.

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 585 8/27/2014 6:03:55 PM

 surface of the equivalent material. For these pur-
poses, a rigid cardboard with longitudinal slots
with the size of 3 mm in width and 20 mm distance
between slots was used as a stencil. This stencil
was applied on horizontal surface of the model
formed, and the coordinate grid was sequentially
dispersed by paint spray. Within 10 minutes, the
paint dried and the stand was covered by glass
front wall then pressed by clamps to the limiting
frame. Then the model was lifted slowly in the ver-
tical position. This was accompanied by the defor-
mation process of the sandy material. The sliding
surface inside the massif is visually observed via
transparent front wall and recorded with the
camera. Deformations occurring inside the slope
were analyzed according to displacements of lines
in coordinate grid.
It is well known that flat models with equivalent
materials have inaccuracies arising due to frictional
forces between sandy mixture and lateral faces
resulting in an additional resistance to forces tend-
ing to shift the slope. To reduce the friction forces
on the boundaries between equivalent material and
glass walls, their working surfaces were powdered
with talcum before filling with sandy material.
To simulate the sliding process occurred in the
slope an equivalent material with different angles
of inclination in the range from 40 to 70 with the
step of 5 inside the stand has been formed. For
the purposes of documenting mechanical changes
in the slope, the coordinate grid is applied on the
frontal side of the model. Displacements of the
equivalent material in the plane model are fixed by
camera.
Figure 2 shows the key stages of modeling slope
stability on the equivalent material.
Modeling slope failure with equivalent materi-
als revealed that under inclination angle up to 50
the slope structure has no significant discontinui-
ties. Nevertheless slight deformations in the form
of curved lines are visually observed along the lines
of coordinate grid on the lateral surface. It sug-
gests starting the process of the massif deforma-
tion but overall slope stability is still maintained.
Substantial displacements emerge at the slope angle
55. Integrity of the massif is failed and some pieces
of the material detached from the slope surface and
slide down to the toe. At the same time, there is a
little part of the slope surface is covered with verti-
cal cracks. By stepwise increasing the slope angle
up to 6070 these cracks spreading far into massif
causing considerable deformations and gradual dis-
placement of the failure prism on circular cylindri-
cal surface. It should be noted that increasing the
angle of slope inclination causes massif deforma-
tions that affect the deeper layers of the model.
The sliding surface has arched-convex shape
(Shashenko et al. 2010) that requires more detailed
586
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 586
investigation of this phenomenon in-situ and via
numerical simulation. The phenomenon of complex
shape sliding surface really occurs in-situ especially
in soft rocks as a result of slope failures while sur-
face mining. Supposedly, this depends on the differ-
ent moisture values in the slope adjacent area.
3 STUDY OF CONTROLLED SLOPE
FAILURE ON EQUIVALENT
MATERIALS
For a more in-depth study of geomechanical
processes occurred in the slope and the shape of
the sliding surface, modeling quarry faces using
elements of proved in surface mining practice the
technology of controlled failure is fulfilled. The
feature of this technology is gradual undermining
the toe of the slope and creating cutting slit in the
crest area that weakens the rock massif (Shashenko
et al. 2010).
As a case study the real slope failure at the quarry
was considered (Kovrov, 2009). For this case the
following geometry parameters are known: height
of the slope H = 43.0 m, the slope angle = 42 ,
failure step at the toe a1 = 11.54 m, the distance
from the crest to the cutting slit a2 = 10.39 m, depth
of cutting slit h = 9.54 m; physic-mechanical prop-
erties of the rock: bulk density = 1900 kg/m3,
friction angle = 22 , the cohesion C = 60 kPa,
deformation modulus E = 20000 kPa, Poissons
ratio = 0.35.
Figure 3 presents results of simulating slope
controlled failure by the method of equivalent
material. At the set slope angle = 42 and with-
out any external forges and loads the slope surface
is in a stable condition. To reduce cohesion forces
at the crest the vertical slit was cut off from the
top side of the model on the distance of 4 cm from
the crest area. Taking into consideration the model
scale, the vertical height of the cutting slit is taken
as h = 9.54 m/150 = 0.064 m = 6.5 cm.
To initiate slope displacement, vertical slices
were sequentially cut off in the toe area with the
step of 1 cm, which corresponds to the distance of
1.5 m for the natural object. The sliding surface was
fixed and compared with the results of numerical
simulation and traces of the set of possible sliding
surfaces described by Y.I. Solovyov (Shashenko
et al. 2004).
By vertical cutting the slope at the crest area on
the fixed distance a2 and vertical cutting at the toe
area on a changing distance from the bottom edge
a1, the sliding surface with complex profile was
visually observed.
Visual deformations begin with the vertical cut-
ting the slope at the distance a1 = 5 cm from the toe.
The process is accompanied by vertical cracks along
8/27/2014 6:04:00 PM
 Figure 3. Modeling slope stability with controlling failure.
the slope. When the width of the extracted vertical
slice at the toe increases up to 67 cm, the slid-
ing surface occurs. It originates from the vertical
cutting slit in the crest and has the shape far from
traditional circular cylindrical profile (Fig. 3, d).
It begins as circular line with the convex in the
middle part and concave in the bottom part.
4 RESULTS
Modeling slope failure with equivalent materials
revealed that under inclination angle up to 50 the
slope structure has no significant discontinuities.
Nevertheless slight deformations in the form of
curved lines are visually observed along the lines of
587
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 587
the coordinate grid on the lateral surface. It suggests
starting the process of the massif deformation but
overall slope stability is still maintained. Substan-
tial displacements emerge at the slope angle 55 .
Integrity of the massif is failed and some pieces of
the material detached from the slope surface and
slide down to the toe. At the same time, there is a
little part of the slope surface is covered with verti-
cal cracks. By stepwise increasing the slope angle
up to 6070 these cracks spreading far into mas-
sif causing considerable deformations and gradual
displacement of the failure prism on circular cylin-
drical surface. It should be noted that increasing
the angle of slope inclination causes massif defor-
mations that affect the deeper layers of the model.
The sliding surface itself has arched-convex shape.
8/27/2014 6:04:00 PM
 Modeling slope stability with controlled fail-
ure gives some valuable information concerning
mechanism and the shape of the sliding surface
occurred in the massif. It originates from the verti-
cal cutting slit in the crest and has the shape far
from traditional circular cylindrical profile.
5 CONCLUSIONS
For geological and technological conditions of the
open-cast Maikubenskiy slope stability issues in
application to technology of internal dumping and
optimizing geometry of pit edges is an actual engi-
neering decision. But the most problematic issue
while surface mining operations is inclined bedding
of brown coal deposits. As a result, all the mined
out area inside the open-cast has tilting surface.
Disposal of the overburden on such foundation
can cause to instable condition of the internal
dumps. Therefore justification of rational geom-
etry for internal dumps and estimation their stable
conditions under assigned physical and mechani-
cal properties is an important stage in engineering
design.
Using the method of modeling on equivalent
materials allowed analyze geomechanical proc-
esses occurring inside the rock or soil massif of
the slope, and establish general laws of its failure.
588
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 588
With well-chosen parameters of equivalent mix-
tures the method ensures quite satisfactory results
of slope failure mechanism that correlate with
those obtained via numerical simulations and
observed in situ.
Nevertheless sliding surfaces obtained in con-
sidered technique have arched-convex shape that
contradicts the common theories of slope failure
mechanism. So this phenomenon requires more
detailed investigation both in-situ and via contem-
porary techniques of numerical simulation.
REFERENCES
Kuznetsov, G.N., Budko, M.N. & Filippova, A.A.
(1959). Study of rock pressure occurencies in models.
Moscow: Ugletekhizdat.
Kovrov, O.S. (2009). Modeling failure phenomenon of the
rock benches on equivalent materials. Scientific Bulle-
tin of the National Mining University. No 9: 2730.
Shashenko, A.N., Sdvizhkova, E.A. & Kovrov, O.S.
(2010). Modeling of the rock slope stability at the con-
trolled failure. EUROCK 2010: Rock Mechanics in
Civil and Environmental Engineering: Proceedings
and monographs in engineering, water and earth sci-
ences, Lausanne, Switzerland.London: CRC Press/
Balkema.P. 581584.
Shashenko, A.N. & Pustovoitenko, V.P. (2004). Rock
Mechanics. Kyiv: Novyi druk.
8/27/2014 6:04:04 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Research on the mine afforesting reclamation technology

of waste dump in Shengli 1 Opencast Coal Mine site

D.C. Wang & Z. Shang

Shenhua Beidian Shengli Energy Co., Ltd., Xilinhot, Inner Mongolia, China

ABSTRACT: Based on the analysis of the current situation of the waste dump in Shengli 1 Opencast
Coal Mine, this paper described the afforesting reclamation approach of the waste dump in detail in
recent years, and explored a set of mine reclamation afforesting technology that suited for Shengli coal-
fields climate and soil characteristics. It had a positive effect on guiding ecological governance and resto-
ration work of the whole mining area, and also provided a scientific basis for the ecological restoration of
mining communities of grassland area.

1 INTRODUCTION composed of chestnut soil and meadow soil, vegeta-

It needs to lift off the soil coverings of the upper
coal seam, transport them to the stope external and
accumulate them to form the waste dump during
the development process of Shengli 1 Opencast Coal
Mine. The waste dumps changed the original natural
landscape and caused the destruction of the surface
configuration and surface vegetation. The waste
dumps themselves have loose soil structure, lean
fertility and destroyed soil seed bank. The speed
of vegetation natural restoration is very slow. If we
dont timely reclaim afforesting of waste dump and
make it bare without vegetation covering, it will be
prone to generate wind erosion and water erosion
and easily bring direct security threat to the atmos-
pheric environment and geological environment. So
it is of great realistic significance to do some recla-
mation afforesting work of waste dump for the pro-
tection of ecological environment of grassland and
maintenance of social stability in pastoral area.
tion is mainly composed of Stipa grandis, Leymus
chinensis, Artemisia frigid, Muhlenbergia shre-
beri and Broadleaved herb. The content of soil
organic matter is about 2 to 3.68% and the value of
PH is approximate 8. The nutrient status of soil is
lack of phosphorus, plenty potassium and nitrogen
medium. The thickness of soil for vegetation growth
is less than 30 cm on average.
Shengli 1 opencast coal mine area is a part of
the Xilinhot Basin hydrological geological unit. The
main aquifers are the phreatic aquifer of quaternary
pore and the confined aquifer of No. 5 coal fissure.
At present, the water yield of Quaternary pore
phreatic aquifer is about 11000 m3/d and it is about
6500 m3/d in No.5 coal fissure confined aquifer.
3 THE PRINCIPLE, STEPS AND
MEASURES OF AFFORESTING
RECLAMATION OF WASTE DUMP

3.1 The principle

2 ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS
Shengli opencast coal mine area has a semi arid
steppe climate. The difference of annual temperature
is large in this hot-summer and cold-winter zone.
The extreme high temperature here is 38.3 degrees
Celsius and the extreme low temperature is
42.4 degrees Celsius. There are 40 days that the
temperature is below 25 degrees Celsius a year on
average. The annual precipitation is about 295 mm
and the annual evaporation is about 1795 mm.
Spring is windy and the speed of the wind is about
2.1 to 8.4 meters a second. The frozen period is from
the beginning of October to early December and
the thaw period is from the end of March to mid-
April in next year. The soil in mine area is mainly
According to the environmental resources condition
of climate, soil and hydrology in mining area, it needs
to take engineering measures and plant measures
combined and develop the ecological reconstruction
suiting its measures to the local conditions. Firstly
we need to realize the changes in the landscape from
uncovering to greening, then realize the ecological
changes from simple community to complex com-
munity, and finally realize the artificial vegetation in
harmony with the surrounding environment.
3.2 The steps and measures
During the governance process of afforesting recla-
mation of waste dump in Shengli 1 Opencast Coal

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 Mine, suiting its measures to the local conditions,
we overcame lots of difficulties such as drought
and poor soil. After many years of practice, we
finally explored a set of technology for the mine
afforesting reclamation suiting the local climate
conditions first to exhaust, second to cover, third
to build sand barrier, fourth to plant, fifth to irri-
gate, sixth to carry out maintenance.
First to do dump work according to standards.
The process of dump work should be striven to
make soil structure detailed and plain. Then with
the help of bulldozer and blade machine, we lev-
eled the waste dump flat eliminated the high slopes
and existing pothole sections, and made each waste
dump flat into an inward reverse inclined slope of
5%. At the same time we built retaining bunds that
were 1 m high and 1.5 m wide in the step edge. The
purpose of this work was to meet the requirements
of soil and water conservation, avoided the rain
water infiltration of waste dump flat and erosion
on the side slope, and laid a good foundation for
the subsequent vegetation reconstruction.
Second to cover topsoil on the waste dump flat
and slop. The main compositions of the waste
dump were siltstone, mudstone and carbonaceous
mudstone stripped out of the mining area. These
compositions had adverse dysplasia, poor perme-
ability and low fertility. Basically they didnt con-
tain humus, and had poor abilities of preserving
water and soil moisture. So the situation of mining
area was not conducive to plant growth. Topsoil
turned into ripening soil after the plants long-
term growth, and its physicochemical properties
could paly a very good protective effect on bio-
logical traits of plants and microbes, which was an
important basis for forming the original ecologi-
cal environment. In order to restore the vegetation
in waste dump flat as soon as possible, we must
take measures to cover the topsoil. The specific
approach was to well preserve the topsoil which
had higher organic matter content left during the
stripping process in opencast coal mine area, and
cover the topsoil in waste dump flat and the sur-
face of slope. It needed to make sure that covering
soil thickness was about 30 to 50 cm. After cover-
ing the topsoil, we made the waste dump flat into
30 m * 15 m border, and the height of border ridge
was not less than 40 cm. The work should be com-
pleted in the end of last year or the beginning of
this year so as not to affect the subsequent work of
afforesting reclamation.
Based on the research of the afforesting situ-
ation in each waste dump from 2007 to 2012, it
could be clearly identified that the vegetation res-
toration was not in good condition in the early
waste dump area without covering topsoil or cov-
ering poor topsoil. The survival rate of plant there
was less than 30%, especially in the slope. If the
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 590
covering topsoil was not in good condition, it was
very easy to form a hardened layer and surface
runoff after the rain, and as a result the vegetation
emerged difficultly and couldnt grow normally. So
covering the topsoil was vital to plant vegetation in
the following step in waste dump area.
Third to lay sand barrier in the slope of waste
dump. The slope was the area which had the most
serious soil erosion and also was the most difficult
for the plants to root and grow. The soil and water
conservation and stabilization handling of slope
were particularly important to the afforesting rec-
lamation of waste dump. Laying sand barrier after
covering topsoil in the slope of waste dump could
play an effective role in maintaining water and soil.
In recent years, the mining area took some water
conservation measures to deal with the slope such
as laying dense mesh, ecological barriers and sand
barriers on the slope of waste dump. Regardless
of the cost, durability or water and soil conserva-
tion situation, sand barriers had a very positive
effect on the afforesting reclamation. At present,
the main material for laying sand barrier on the
slope is the red branch that is 50 cm long, and the
layout specifications are 1 m 1 m. Through con-
ducting a survey of the survival rate and preserva-
tion rate of the vegetation on the slope area with or
without laying sand barrier in these several years,
it could be found that the survival rate and preser-
vation rate of vegetation with laying sand barrier
area were higher than without sand barrier area. It
was mainly due to that laying sand barrier could
effectively fix the topsoil, block sand and wind
preventing soil loss, and at the same time make
the nutrients and plant seeds brought by sand and
floating dust depositing. Especially the sand willow
branches, which were after a long time of weather-
ing, withering and littering into the soil, increased
the soil organic matter content and effectively
improved the soil environment of the slope.
Fourth to plant suitable kinds of vegetation.
The waste dump area itself has a certain capacity
of natural recovery, but the recovery speed is quite
slow. Therefore it must rely on artificial cultivation.
So choosing the right kinds of plant related to the
success or failure of land reclamation and ecologi-
cal reconstruction. The method of choosing plants
must suit waste dumps measures to local conditions.
According to waste dumps own characteristics and
the climate characteristics of the area, first of all,
we needed to choose the local plants that had good
adaptability, drought resistance, barren resistance
and salt resistance. Secondly, it needed to consider
the growth of root system, fecundity and self-renewal
ability of plants, at the same time also consider the
plants capacities of improving the soil environment,
and select the plants which had strong abilities to fix
nitrogen. After long-term exploration and selection,
8/27/2014 6:04:04 PM
 in the beginning we can choose the leguminous
plants such as rape as excessive pioneer plants, and
use them for fertilizer and soil stabilization. Then we
can select some grass and shrub plants such as ely-
mus dahuricus, astragalus adsurgens, alfalfas, cara-
gana korshinskiis and so on.
According to the scene investigation, we found
about 80% plants could survive in water suffi-
cient condition in the waste dump area, but the
amount of growth was different, the order was as
following: alfalfas > astragalus adsurgens > elymus
dahuricus > artemisia desertorums > caragana
korshinskiis. The herbaceous plants grow faster
than other kinds of plants and can form the
artificial communities having a certain coverage
of about 60% in 2 to 3 years. But they are easy
to degrade. The stragalus adsurgens and elymus
dahuricus would show degenerative signs in about
3 years, but the growth of alfalfa was still strong.
In contrast, although caragana korshinskiis grew
slowly, as long as the emergence grew into the nor-
mal growth phase, the growth height was about
20 cm a year. After about 1 to 2 years it would
form the stable community, has drought resistance
and barren resistance, and do not need too much
later period management.
Through observation, mixing grass and shrub
plants together in the protection of afforesting rec-
lamation of the slope, we found that the succession
characteristics were as following: in the early stage
the main landscape was formed by herbaceous
plant, and the bushes hidden in the grass. Then
the bushes grew higher than the grass gradually,
and it formed the landscape that grass and bushes
grew together symbiotically. Two years later, with
the growth of shrubs and the increase of crowns,
the slope was almost covered by the shrubs. But the
grass was gradually degrading and only existed in
the edges or gaps of the shrubs. Thus it formed
a more stable slope ecological environment. So it
should be appropriate to increase the proportion
Table 1. The sampling results summary of artificial grass qualified rate and seedling area rate of waste dump.
The sites and types of plant
measures Types of grass
Platform in north waste dump Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus,
Slope in north waste dump caragana korshinskii,
Slope in south waste dump rape, astragalus
Platform in south waste dump adsurgens
Platform along the side of
waste dump
Slope along the side of waste
dump
591
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 591
of shrub seeds at planting time so that it could
ensure the number of shrubs. At present, the plant-
ing proportion of various vegetation was as fol-
lowing: caragana korshinskiis: alfalfas: astragalus
adsurgens: elymus dahuricus: rape = 5:2:1.5:1:0.5.
Fifth to connect the irrigation system. The
Shengli coal mine is in the arid climate area.
Without irrigation condition, the survival rate
of the artificial cultivation plants is very low. In
order to guarantee the survival rate of vegetation,
we must solve the problem of providing water to
afforesting. Afforesting is where, the water must
be there. Through laying special irrigation pipe-
line, we irrigated by leading the coal mine drain-
age water into the waste dump. It could effectively
solve the problem of water using in afforesting and
help vegetation smoothly live through the drought
period. We can take sprinkler irrigation in waste
dump flats. But in the slope water was easy to run
off because of the steep incline. If we use sprin-
kler irrigation in these areas, it wouldnt be able to
effectively make water deposit, and whats more, it
was not conducive to plants growth because the
high water spraying formed the overland runoff.
In order to make effective use of water, reduce the
evaporation and ensure meeting the plants water
need, we used suitable micro jet in the surface of
slope. By controlling the water pressure and using
special designed micro atomizing nozzle, micro
jet spurted water into the air, and then the water
dispersed into small droplets, sprinkled on the
branches and leaves of plants, and finally gradu-
ally infiltrated into root crown. The use of micro
jet could not only increase soil moisture, but also
increase the air humidity, so that it could adjust the
microclimate, make the plant absorb water more
effectively, and ensure the plants growth.
Sixth to strengthen maintenance management.
According to the climate characteristics of Shengli
opencast coal mine, it is difficult to meet the need
of plant growth if completely relying on the natural
Situation of sampling
Area of Number of quadrat Seedling
grassland Quadrat achieving the area rate
(hm2) number qualified standard (%)
93.68 50 48 95
30 28 93
131.86 71 60 85
61 55 90
31.76 32 29 91
30 28 93
8/27/2014 6:04:04 PM
 Table 2. Questionnaire for plant measures of waste dump.

Sample Plant measure Growth Survival

Sample locations area (hm2) area (hm2) Types of grass potential Coverage rate

Platform 995 in north 0.5 0.5 Elymus dahuricus, astragalus Good 95% 95%
waste dump adsurgens
Slope 995 in north 0.4 0.4 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 93% 92%
waste dump
Platform 1010 in north 0.5 0.5 Elymus dahuricus, astragalus Good 95% 94%
waste dump adsurgens
Slope 1010 in north 0.4 0.4 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 93% 92%
waste dump
Platform 995 in south 0.19 0.19 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 92% 95%
waste dump
Platform 1010 in south 1.00 1.00 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 93% 95%
waste dump
Platform 1040 in south 0.64 0.64 Elymus dahuricus, caragana Good 96% 93%
waste dump korshinski
Platform 1055 in south 0.28 0.28 Elymus dahuricus, caragana Good 90% 92%
waste dump korshinski
Slope 1010 in south 0.20 0.20 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 90% 90%
waste dump
Slope 1040 in south 0.36 0.36 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 93% 92%
waste dump
Platform 1015 along the 0.3 0.3 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 95% 91%
side of waste dump
Slope 1015 along the 0.4 0.4 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 94% 95%
side of waste dump
Platform 1030 along the 0.95 0.95 Elymus dahuricus, caragana Good 90% 90%
side of waste dump korshinski
Slope 1030 along the 0.25 0.25 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 91% 91%
side of waste dump
Platform 1045 along the 1.35 1.35 Alfalfa, elymus dahuricus Good 93% 92%
side of waste dump

growth of plants. Without artificial management, 5 CONCLUSION

vegetation could face a threat from the long-term
drought and disease and would soon die and
degrade. It must be prepared to do some artificial
maintenance work, strengthen the management
work, and timely check or make up the seedlings
plant. In the most critical period, we must strictly
control the time and times of watering, strengthen
the control of disease and pest, give sufficient water
and fertilizer supply, and build the enclosure in
order to ensure the normal growth of plants.
4 THE EFFECTS OF AFFORESTING
RECLAMATION
During the approval process of the facilities in soil
and water conservation project, Shengli 1 opencast
coal mine commissioned the Water & Soil Con-
servation Monitoring Station of Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region to monitor the survival rate
of vegetation and the seedling area rate of three
waste dumps in the opencast coal mine area.
Through years of exploration and practice
and according to the local climate characteris-
tics, Shengli 1 opencast coal mine explored a set
of technology called six steps for afforesting
reclamation of waste dump. This method success-
fully solved the difficult problem of afforesting
reclamation of waste dump in frigid and arid area,
significantly improved the ecological environment,
and provided an example for ecological restoration
of the whole Shengli coal mine area.
REFERENCES
The environmental impact report for construction project
of Shengli 1 Opencast Coal Mine Site in Shenhua
Beidian Shengli Energy Company, 2005.
The monitoring report of soil and water conservation in
the two phase of the project of Shengli 1 Opencast
Coal Mine Site in Shenhua Beidian Shengli Energy
Company, 2012.

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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

The revegetation of south dump in Yuanbaoshan open pit coal mine

Y. Wang & H.T. Yu

Inner Mongolia Pingzhuang Coal (Group), Yuanbaoshan Open Pit Coal Mine Co., Ltd., Chifeng,
Inner Mongolia, China

ABSTRACT: Using the technological processes mainly including reshaping the surface of dump, soil
and water conservation project, revegetation project, this paper carried out the land reclamation plan-
ning of the south dump. After the implementation of the project, it could form a stable plant community
mosaic pattern of the dump. So the ecological environment and climate in the mining area have been sig-
nificantly improved. The recently increasing soil erosion has been effectively controlled, and the ecological
environment also has been improved obviously.

Keywords: open-pit coal mine; the south dump; reshaping the surface; water and soil conservation;
reclamation revegetation

1 INTRODUCTION protection and afforestation in the south dump to

The south dump in Yuanbaoshan open-pit coal
mine covers an area of 98 hectares. The ultimate
elevation of dump is +580. At the end of 2003, it
has been dumped into the mining boundary (as
shown in the Fig. 1). In order to regulate the mine
construction and protection of the ecological envi-
ronment, promote the harmonious unification of
mining development and environmental protec-
tion, and prevent the landslide from doing haz-
ard to the farmland, We took measures as slope
prevent from blown sand, reduce air pollution and
avoid the occurrence of landslide and various geo-
logical disasters.
2 PLAN AND DESIGN RECLAMATION
REVEGETATION OF THE SOUTH DUMP
2.1 Surface shaping
The surface of plastic is one of the most critical
steps of land reclamation. Due to rock mining
stripping a large number of soil and expansion
factors, the dump which stacked artificial is made
up of steeper, longer slopes and flat panel. And the
drainage system in a situation of disorder, can eas-
ily result in an unstable slope sites and aggravate
soil erosion. According to the actual situation of
Yuanbaoshan open pit coal mine, design require-
ments of the South Dump terrain are as follows:
1. Landscape of the Dump to be harmonized with
the surrounding area;
2. Prevent soil erosion;
3. Meet demand biological reclamation;
4. Venues plastic should use bulldozers to build
cars road transport system, the transport system
must take into account the biological reclama-
tion and land-use process using the long-term
future.

2.1.1 The source of surface soil

According to Technical specification for water
and soil conservation plan of development and
Figure 1. The south dump situation map. construction projects, general overburden 0.8 m

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 593 8/27/2014 6:04:04 PM

 1.0 m, as agricultural land use; overburden above
0.5 m, used as woodland, and overburden 0.3 m
or more, used as grass land. From land suitability
analysis of land reclamation and reuse planning
at the south dump, bench slope plant permanent
grass and shrub, platforms for grass or shrubs or
forest, thickness of covering soil of planting per-
manent bench slope of grass and shrub is 0.5 m;
After considering the platform of land reclamation
and farmers, farmland may be used thickness of
covering soil to 1.0 m.
Casing taken from an operating position 1#
Bucket north of topsoil, because the surface has
greenhouses, bricks and other obstacles, made
earth-fetching difficult in those areas, therefore, we
should clean up obstacle before it.
2.1.2 Covering technology
When the casing, in order to avoid overweight dump
trucks rolling, keep the soil loose, therefore, use a
retreat heap dump truck unloading mode. Dump
truck dumping overburden in a certain order, form
the ordered mound on the platform, namely pile
ground, Stacker 1.0 1.5 m, and it will contrib-
utes to controlling dump flat subsidence erosion,
as shown in Figure 2. By pile ground overburden
technology, not compacted, so the surface does not
produce fissures; precipitation is very easy to pen-
etrate the soil surface imaginary, does not produce
runoff. In formed the pile ground and demanded
stack-like as uniform as possible.
2.1.3 Site remediation
Site remediation measures carried out in the cas-
ing, mainly to meet the purpose of water retention
Figure 2. Soil formation pile ground sketch map.
594
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 594
and drainage, control the subsidence erosion, flat
field surface, and prepare for revegetation.
In order to create a good condition for conserva-
tion of water and soil, improvement of fertility and
the ability of retaining water, some measure should
be done, such as: Remediation flat intohorizontal
area, make small area of the ground level and a
large area is not flat, build isolation embankment,
excavate drains in the slope, do drizzle does not
drain, the rain can closure and let off; considering
slope prone to mudslide after casing, which may
result in destroying vegetation has been restored, so
planting a living fence to prevent soil erosion.
1. Flat remediation
The final flat remediation
In order to facilitate the management and
reduce earthworks of land remediation, flat will
be divided into a certain area of square, and
built a road around it, built a water retaining
dam outside the entire flat.
The lower flat remediation
The outside of the lower flat plate combined
with water retaining dam, and the inside com-
bined with drains. Because of different in the
degree of control each flat and each step, the
methods of land use and farming, dump reme-
diation in the form of the lower flat plate gener-
ally used in two ways:
a. Horizontal flat section
When flat area is large, flat rectification into
horizontal, as shown in Figure 3.
b. Anti-sloping flat section
When the flat plate is narrow, flat plate rec-
tification into an anti-sloping, and flat plate
8/27/2014 6:04:06 PM
 Figure 3. Schematic diagram of horizontal flat section.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of back slope flat section.
slightly tilted inward, which can increase the
storage capacity of the field, and let off exces-
sive run-off during storm from the inside of
flat plate, as shown in Figure 4.
2. Slope Remediation
Slope has loose soil and water protection, the
survival rate for planting plant is high, but it can
easily be washed in water then resulted in soil
erosion. In order to prevent it, slope remedia-
tion should take the following measures:
Build water retaining dam to prevent
platform runoff import slope, and prevent the
occurrence of dissected valley and gully.
Stack shingle at the foot of the slope, to
intercept sediment down, protect the drainage
system. the measure completed in the soil prep-
aration process, do not build separately. Slope
remediation shown in Figure 5.
2.1.4 Field engineering
Field engineering is the process of detailed treat
the land after remediation, including flat field
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 595
engineering. It refers to the fine leveling works to
restore farmland after the flat section look more
stable. For local compacted surface unavoidable,
should loosen the soil by high-powered deep mine
plow. In addition, as a permanent plots used as for-
est land, which can maintain the heap-like ground
unchanged; other plots, can gradually level and
restore to the land as request when land settlement
keep basically stable.
2.2 Water and soil conservation project
The dump happened landslides, which is the com-
prehensive result of increased water content and
runoff effect on dump material, thus the most
effective ways to prevent dump from landslides is
that prevent excessive rainwater infiltration and
runoff generation.
Through the results of site investigation in
South dump, dump soil erosion mainly include
small shallow landslides, slope of local landslides,
slope erosion gulley, and main causes of the three
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 Figure 5. Schematic diagram of slope treatment.
Figure 6. Live fence diagram method.
erosion are: Because a lot of rainfall infiltration,
increase soil permit heaviness, and reduce angle of
internal friction and cohesion, then increase the
power of slope sliding force, reduce skid resistance,
coupled with the platform runoff discharged from
slope erosion, make originally stability slope insta-
bility and thus result in landslide; As the run-
off of rainfall on a flat plate discharged along the
bench slope, then form gullies, lead to landslides
over time; Water at bench slope angle has failed
to rule out as quickly as possible, so that the soil
material of slope angle near saturation, c, value
dropped significantly, thus slope instability.
So dump soil and water conservation measures
mainly in two ways, one is built drainage system
to prevent the water of slope angle and a large flat
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 596
plate rainfall infiltration, maintain a stable slope
condition. The second is build water retaining dam
which is to prevent runoff in the flat, make it stabil-
ity, to prevent landslides.
2.2.1 Drainage system design
Most dump area set Canal system just from the view
of reclamation vegetation. Detailed layout require-
ments: start from the highest platform, from top to
bottom, zoning and scribing, go rectification road,
form a complete vertical and horizontal drainage
system. Horizontal drains mainly about platform
which at the edge of platform, the platform need
to pour the whole into a micro-slope, built water
retaining dam outside, so that import runoff into
drainage area, vertical drains can combine with
8/27/2014 6:04:09 PM
 dump road drains or the use of relatively slow rein-
forcement of gully formation.
In the bottom of the ramp platform from 1.5 m
at the foot of the slope, drainage located along the
toe line, whose role is to bring together the plat-
form and slope runoff. Platform at appropriate
locations, and then set a main drains, main drains
and toe drains are connected. Drainage of water
from the main platform was set up on the slopes
of energy dissipation pool Chute inflows into the
next platform. Set within the platform drainage
network, drainage network owned by surface run-
off first, then into the main drainage, drainage net-
work is complete in the soil preparation, set ford at
the intersection with the road.
2.2.2 Platform curb storage project
The project mainly build water retaining dam in
the flat plate outside, designed cross-section to
trapezoid, can be determined according to the size
of the width of the flat plate, the general pattern
shown in Figure 7, the artificial construction of the
bulldozer assistance. Achieved grid within the plat-
form, local area demand flat and deep plow, inter-
nal flat inverted slope, out of the outlet, too much
water import to flat drains. Land for planting trees
and shrubs can use heaped ground ways, namely,
randomly stacked when mechanical dump, tempo-
rarily not leveling, reclamation planting directly, so
it can play the role of wind and Water storage.
2.3 Revegetation engineering of south dump
After terrain in reclamation of coal is treated,
then recover plant quickly. So this measure makes
a contribution to conservation of soil and water
effectively, and improves ecological environment in
coal district. Furthermore this action can recover
the productivity. Since the natural condition of the
dump is not good, it will take about 10 years to
Figure 7. Water retaining dam design section size chart.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 597
recover ecological balance depending on natural
plants. It is a long time, and there are few kinds of
plants, so it cant prevent draughts, keep soil, and
recover land.
Based on the South dump, the reclamation
planning process can be divided into three stages
which are conservation of water and soil, ecologi-
cal benefits and economic benefits. In the primary
stage, recover plants through fast growing plants
to control the loss of water and soil. In the middle
stage, grow permanent plants to improve the eco-
logical environment of the dump continuously. In
the last stage, focus on comprehensive treatment of
the ecological environment and the economic ben-
efits of land using.
2.3.1 Improvement of the reclamation soil
The most important fact to recover plants in coal
district is the fertility of soil, however because of
the poor soil quality, no soil structure, poor perme-
ability, solid soil and low soil moisture and organic
matter content, some measure must be taken to
improve soil quality. Base on the condition in the
coal district, planting leguminous forage can be
adopted to reclamation.
Planting leguminous forage mainly increase the
fertility of soil, and accelerated maturation of soil.
Firstly, plant leguminous forage to fix the nitrogen,
then plants give back soil with variable methods.
Through such a cycle the content of organic mat-
ter of soil is improved. This way can reduce the
investment, and improve productivity.
2.3.2 Selections of plants and suitable tree species
Considering the weather fact, some characteristics
of selected plants are expressed as follow:
1. Adapt to poor environment, resist drought,
cold, disease and insect pests.
2. Grow fast, fix the nitrogen in air to accelerate
maturation of soil.
8/27/2014 6:04:11 PM
 3. Have strong root system, resist heavy wind.
4. Plant easily, high survival rate.
Considering all facts comprehensively, herb such
as alfalfa and licorice can adapt to the environment
in this district; shrubs such as caragana and sea-
buckthorn; arbor tree species such as Chinese pine,
simon poplar and matsudana; economic tree spe-
cies such as sibirica and Siberian apricot.
2.3.3 Vegetation distribution patterns
Plants should adapt to the natural environment,
and conform to the pioneer plant and tree species
physiological and ecological habits. As a result, this
way can be managed easily with low investment,
and reward much. It accord with the natural suc-
cession law of plants, and benefit for the stable and
continue development of plants.
Windbreak vegetation distribution patterns:
plant shelterbelt around the dump. They can pre-
vent soil from scouring by runoff, the width of the
shelterbelt not less than 3050 m. Similarly, the
shelterbelt around the slope of the dump should
Figure 8. Dump around windbreaks configuration diagram.
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of a weakening of the wind speed of protection forest.
598
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 598
be established. The shelterbelt model expressed as
Figure 8.
Shelterbelts of arbor and irrigation combining
is best to reduce wind speed. The larger the wind
will stop in the forest distance of 3040 m. Across
the forest wind in the above canopy is uplifted and
restore the original wind speed at about a distance
of 20 times the canopy height. Shelterbelt weaken-
ing of the wind speed is shown Figure 9. Belt is
maxed with arbor and shrub. Planting can be ran-
dom, not neat.
Platform vegetation disposition model: Dump
platform is broad and flat, covered with thick
layers. At the beginning, it has a non uniform
settlement, and it is easy to cause serious soil
erosion because of its loose surface soil. In order
to prevent the hardening of the ground, soil
erosion, measures should be taken immediately
in dump after being covered in soil vegetation,
it can grow grass, shrub forest. The platform is
arranged around the shelterbelts of arbor and
irrigation, the grid shaped road and windbreak
forest inside.
8/27/2014 6:04:12 PM
 Figure 10. Schematic diagram of slope vegetation configuration.

Slope vegetation distribution patterns: The
dump slope angle is large, a steep slope to the for-
mation of gully erosion. But the slope vegetation
engineering is the most important foundation of
reclamation and vegetation reconstruction in the
land. Because of engineering technical difficul-
ties and poor soil, the soil immediately become
permanent vegetation slope after the restoration
of vegetation. In accordance with the require-
ments of land reclamation, soil and water con-
servation, according to the law of the soil erosion
along the contour and layout, it is planted shrubs
and legumein such as narrow-leaved oleaster and
caragana microphylla in the upper slope, grass
and shrub mixed forest structure in the lower
part. And in the slope foot building drainage pre-
vents water erosion of the slope soil erosion gully
formation. It is slope vegetation distribution pat-
tern with planting two rows of fast-growing spe-
cies of poplar in both sides of canal, as shown in
Figure 10.
3 THE SITUATION OF IMPLEMENT
3.1 The project investment estimation
The investment cost of this project is 20.589 mil-
lions of yuan, including soil covering expenses,
Table 1. Project investment estimation table.
Sequence Expenses
number Project (10000 yuan)
1 Soil covering expenses 1121.6
2 Land reclamation expenses 83.9
3 Water retaining ridge 58.6
expenses
4 Drain building expenses 146.3
5 Land planting expenses 536.9
6 Other expenses 121.6
land reclamation expenses, water retaining ridge
expenses, drain building expenses, land plant-
ing expenses and other expenses, as shown in the
Table 1.
3.2 The situation of implement
After years of construction, Yuanbaoshan open-
pit coal mine has entered into a rapid develop-
ment track and has become a high yield, high
efficiency and modern open-pit coal mine. During
the process of improving capacity, the work of
environmental governance also needs to be done
synchronously. Along with strengthening the con-
sciousness of safety and environmental protection,

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 Table 2. The South Dump reclamation green implement statistical table.

Sequence Length Area Expenses

number Project name (m) (hm2) (10000 yuan)

1 Soil covering engineering 46.12 563.9

2 Land reclamation engineering 46.12 36.8
3 Water retaining ridge engineering 15846 3.8 12.5
4 Drain building engineering 2416 0.56 74.6
5 Land planting Plantation of populus spp. 16.52 17.68
engineering Greening shrub forest 9.6 0.88
Elaeagnus angustifolia garden 27.76 139.59
Growing grass 23.11 64.6
6 Others Stone masonry to revetment 85 0.02 3.18
Stone masonry mesh revetment 1169 0.35 33.25
Road under the water 1.25
Sediment storage dam 11.40
Total 959.63

Figure 11. Views after the revegetation.

in 2012, Yuanbaoshan open-pit coal mine has car-
ried out lots of engineering project in the part of
south dump, such as opening road engineering,
repairing slope engineering, slope protection engi-
neering, constructing drainage engineering. So far
a total investment of the project is 9.5963 millions
of yuan. The details are as shown in the Table 2.
Through continuous efforts in recent years, and
increasing the input of soil and water conserva-
tion costs, the reclamation revegetation has taken
effect. The soil erosion has been preliminary con-
trolled, and the vegetation coverage rate also has
increased. It has created a good environment and
conditions for the local industrial and agricultural
production, as shown in the Figure 11.
In the following work, our mine will make per-
sistent efforts to do reclamation and afforesta-
tion work. During the implementation process we
will strengthen the management of the projects
to ensure the survival rate of forest so as to give
full play to the measures, ecological benefit, social
benefit, economic benefit. Finally we will make
the quantities of reclamation virescence and
destruction phase equilibrium and sustainable
development.
4 BENEFIT ANALYSIS
4.1 Economic benefits
After the implementation of the project, economic
benefits are the mainly economic benefits after rec-
lamation in the south dump. It is mainly reflected
in the platform planting economic forest and sea
buckthorn (or grass) benefits. The protective for-
est and shrub grass vegetation for Slope Bridge
is mainly in order to prevent the loss of soil and
water conservation and protect the re-planting in
the dump. So its benefit is mainly reflected in the
benefits of ecological and social benefits, rather
than economic efficiency. Planting benefit is shown
in Table 3.

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 Table 3. The planting benefit table.
Economic forest
Project benefit Farmland benefit
Unit benefit 6300 yuan/hm2 a 7500 yuan/hm2 a
Planting area 17.6 hm2 46.8 hm2
Benefit 110900 yuan/a 351000 yuan/a
Sum 461900 yuan/a
1. Economic forest benefit
Economic forest planting prunus armeniaca
based mainly on calculation, began to benefit
from sixth years after planting. Every tree fruit
2.6 kg, the price is 3.2 yuan per kilogram. So,
759 tree/hm2*8.3 yuan/tree = 6300 yuan/hm2 a.
2. Farmland benefit
Because of low organic matter content in the
new land, organic matter content is low, Soil
erosion degree is low, the soil is barren, in the
planning year after reclamation, to gradually
increase the field management, specific meas-
ures are as the following:
Engineering measures: perfecting field soil
and water conservation engineering, water con-
servancy project and the implementation of
intensive conservation tillage field, and practic-
ing the intensive farming.
Biological measures: improving farming sys-
tem and practicing grass and crop rotation to
increase soil fertility and improve soil physical
and chemical properties.
Technological measures: using manure
improved soil properties, compound fertilizer
to improve soil fertility and other measures of
application.
The implementation of the three measures
will enable the reclaimed land fertility in a
short period of time, with more suitability for
farming.
The efficiency of cultivated land count by
500 yuan/mu each year, so: the annual average
benefit per hectare of arable land is 500 yuan/
mu 15 mu = 7500 yuan / hm2 a.
4.2 Ecological environmental benefits
In the last few years, because of large-scale devel-
opment and construction of coal resources, mining
disturbed ground, the original landform vegetation
is destructed, forming special topography such as
mine hole and dump, aggravating soil erosion and
bring adverse effect to the local environment. It
mainly reflects as the following:
1. The harm of coal production to vegetation
Due to mining, digging, pushing and abandon-
ing, the ground original form is destroyed. It
601
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 601
effects occurrence of surface water, destroys the
soil survival environment of vegetation, causes
the plants to die.
2. The destruction of mining areas groundwater
resources caused by mining
The groundwater drainage in surface mining
declines underground water level, makes water
consumption reduced, adversely affects the
plant community composition, the landscape
and governance. Besides, mine water pollution
will also bring serious harm to the domestic
water and industrial water.
3. Effect of mining on the quality of atmospheric
environment
First, the fuel of central heating station, boiler
room in the mining area burning, produces all
kinds of pollutants; Second, there is dust on
mining coal road, flying ash and dust in dump;
Third, mining machinery producing noise pol-
lution is very serious to the atmospheric envi-
ronment in mining area.
4. Effects of coal mining on local agricultural
production
Mining causes a large amount of soil erosion.
It will aggravate the ecological environment
destruction, making the local agricultural pro-
duction condition worse. The most direct per-
formance is the declining of land productivity,
reducing agricultural land area, low yield,
reducing vegetation cover and land reduction.
Grassland degradation, various types of live-
stock environment capacity reducing, further
aggravate soil erosion, making ecological envi-
ronment vicious spiral.
After the program implementing, it forms a sta-
ble plant community mosaic pattern in the south
dump through the establishment of vegetation.
According to forest and grassland construction
planning, to the end of implementation stage, the
dump slope erosion modulus will be reduced year
by year. The mining area ecological environment
and climate will be significantly improved.
4.3 Social benefit analysis
After the program implementing, firstly the eco-
logical environment of the mining area and micro
climate regulation can improve obviously. It
reduces soil erosion and dust, improves the min-
ing peoples physical and mental health, provide
a good ecological environment and comfortable
living space to people engaging in the production,
management, life.
Secondly, after rehabilitation into farmland,
economy forest land, it improves the utilization
rate and makes economic benefits higher than the
original cultivated land and grassland. It conduces
to the production management.
8/27/2014 6:04:17 PM
 Finally, it is conducive to the mining industry.
According to the related data, it reduces sand
mixing amount of raw coal, and saves the cost of
about 1,800,000 yuan to 3,000,000 yuan through
the management of soil and water conservation. In
addition, reduction sand and dust alleviates wear
of mining machinery, extend the mine mechanical
service life, reduce maintenance costs of mining
machinery.
5 CONCLUSION
From the analysis of the comprehensive benefits,
and after the program implementing, area of green
land and economic benefits are greatly improved
compared with the original land. The planting
benefit of land reclamation area is also signifi-
cantly improved. Land reclamations for artificial
small plain, terrain is flat, vegetation coverage
rate is high, water and soil conservation effect is
obvious, the ecological environment has changed,
the ecological benefits and social benefits signifi-
cantly increase. It control soil erosion area of new
effectively and improve ecological environment
significantly. In short, the most benefit is notably
ecological benefit and mine safety production ben-
efits. It achieves the expected purpose of project
governance.
REFERENCES
Bian Zhengfu, 2000, (1). Research review of land recla-
mation in mine area at home and abroad [J]. China
land science.
602
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Fan Junfu and Liu Zhibin, 2006. The land reclamation
planning of two mines subsidence area in Yuan-
baoshan open pit coal mine [J]. Opencast mining
technology.
Fan Junfu and Liu Zhibin, 2005. Study of soil physico-
chemical properties and the improvement measures
in Haizhou open pit coal mine [J]. Opencast mining
technology.
Guo Jiguang, 1996. Experimental study of land reclama-
tion theory analysis and overburden soil improvement
in open pit coal mine area [D]. Beijing: Doctoral dis-
sertation of Graduate School in China University of
Mining and Technology Beijing.
Hu Zhenqi, 1995. Land reclamation in open pit coal mine.
Beijing: China Coal Industry Publishing House.
Li Jinchuan and Bai Zhongke. Opencast coal mine land
reclamation and ecological reconstruction [M].
Liu Baoyong, 2002. Experimental study of land improve-
ment and vegetation restoration of opencast dump
reclamation. Graduate thesis of Liaoning Technical
University.
Wang Zhihong, Liu Zhibin, Wang Rujun, Tian Wen-
ming, Zhang Jiwen, Zhang Zhengjie, etc. Research
and design projects of land recovery utilization of two
mines subsidence area in Yuanbaoshan open pit coal
mine.
Zhang Shuli, 1997. Research of ecological restoration
technology of the opencast coal mine in the Loess
Plateau [M]. Hohhot City: Inner Mongolia peoples
publishing house.
Zhang Xubin, 2006. Land recovery utilization research
of two mines subsidence area in Yuanbaoshan open
pit coal mine. Graduate thesis of Liaoning Technical
University.
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 Part 9: Case study on mining reclamation
and ecological restoration

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This page intentionally left blank
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

The conception of ecology restoration and practice on minestake the

goafs located in Shenhua and Shendong Daliuda mine for an example

X.J. Luo, Y.B. Gao, P. Zhao, Y.Y. Ma & X. Zhang

Orient Landscape Company Limited, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: The article describes the basic conception and standards of ecological restoration of
mines as well as the characteristic of a mine which has been restored. In addition, the article describes
how to plan, design and practice on the ecosystem of earths surface. Taking the goafs located in Shenhua
and Shendong Daliuda Mine for an example, detail records are taken with the technical route, planning,
designing and the practice process of the ecology restoration of mine goafs.

1 OVERVIEW human disturbance. In some cases, the negative

1.1 The definition of ecological restoration
According to the International Association for
Ecological Restoration, ecological restoration is
defined as is to point to assist have degenerated,
damage or completely destroy the ecosystem
response to their original trajectory. Ecological
restoration is a purposeful action, the purpose is
to start or promoting an ecosystem to recover its
health, integrity and sustainability (Luo 2008).
1.2 Location
The study region is located in Da Liuta county,
Shaanxi Province; it is resided Shangwan county,
Inner Mongolia Province. Da Liuta is 56 km away
from the downtown, through which Baoshen rail-
way and No. 204 provincial street across it (Fig. 1).
Generally, what need to repair is the ecosystems
that has been degraded, damaged, transformed,
or destroyed because of the direct or indirect
Figure 1. The location of the mine goals.
effect on the ecosystem is caused by natural factors.
Sometimes natural factors intensify the result the
ecosystem is affected, so that the ecosystem cannot
go back to the situation before the interference or
on the path of historical development. These nat-
ural factors include wildfires, floods, storms and
volcanic eruptions.
1.3 The purpose of ecosystem restoration
According to the result of Xue (2006), the situation
of Mauwussu sandy land today is the result leading
to the long-term accumulating of the development
of desertification. It is reported that it is formed in
a certain period, based on temporal and geograph-
ical factors. However, in terms of the whole thing,
there has been abundant sand material in history
in Maowusu; climate change and human activities
intensify the process of desertification.
Therefore, the purpose of what we have done in
Shenhua and Shendong Daliuta area in order to
restore the ecosystem there is trying to make the
ecosystem there go back to its path on historical
development. So any situation on the path can be the
starting point of ecological restoration design. The
ecosystem in the practical region is the one that which
have been affected by directly or indirectly human
interference, or have been destroyed completely.
Our history node is the area which is located in
the transition zone between the loess plateau in
northern of Shaanxi Province and the Maowusu
desert. The majority of area belong to typical eolian
dunes and beach landforms, and it is the state-level
key soil and water loss monitoring area. The veg-
etation cover rate is only 311% on average in the
early period of mining area construction, and the
wind erosion area accounts for 70% of total area.

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 1.4 History and other factors of ecological
restoration
In history of Qin and Han Dynasty, the Maowusu
desert and the practical region was rich in plants
and ships. In the late period of Tang Dynasty, the
area had been sandy land. In the middle period of
18 century, the desertification had been in exten-
sion as large because the maximum farm land. The
large-scale agricultural reclamation enhances the
process of desertification (Xue 2006).
1.4.1 The factors of ecological restoration
1.4.1.1 Historical route
Historical route refers to the track of historical
development of ecosystems without interference.
Through the Qin and Han periods mentioned
above, we can regard the situation of the region as
the starting point of its historical route, the agri-
culture and animal husbandry as the development
node in the historical route, the early years of the
construction of the mining area as the develop-
ment node in the historical route. This is the begin-
ning of the ecological demonstration.
1.4.1.2 Reference ecosystem
Reference ecosystem, i.e. reference system refers to
the good state expected to gain from the develop-
ment route of ecological restoration. According
to the national plans and laws, it is forbidden to
develop animal husbandry in Maowusu desert and
this region. The final aim of ecological restoration
is imitating all the characters of reference systems
totally, that is to say abundant water and grass,
including the biodiversity. The reference system
offer service both to the design and evaluation of
ecological restoration at the same time.
1.4.1.3 Ecological trajectory
In the practical restoration work, the development
route of ecosystem is defined as ecological
trajectory. The ecological trajectory begins with
the ecosystems that have not been restored, after
various of states expected from the restoration
work, it ends up with the reference ecosystem.
1.4.1.4 The ecosystems
Since 2006, China Shendong Mine Company has
been cooperated with Ministry of Water Resources
doing demonstration of Hippophae rhamnoides. In
2012, China University of Mining and Technology
demonstrated microorganism on an area of 1000
1500 mu. Orient Landscape Company conducted
the planning and designing of the ecological out-
door development area which is a part of restored
ecosystem. These compositions include all the eco-
logical characters (biological and axiological) of
an ecosystem. Theoretically speaking, they can be
described and monitored by a series of successive
ecology parameters.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 606
Nine main characters of these compositions are
as follows:
In an restored ecosystem, there exists the spe-
cies feature in the reference ecosystem and simi-
lar community structure.
An restored ecosystem is composed of native spe-
cies as far as possible. In the cultural ecosystems
which contains human activities may include spe-
cies introduced successfully and non-intrusive
weeds, as well as the co-evolutionary field species.
A capability of maintaining a continuous and sta-
ble function is a must of an restored ecosystem.
Otherwise, it must have the potential to gain the
capability through natural approaches.
An restored ecosystem must offer the natu-
ral environment that support the propagation
of necessary species which can maintain the
stability of ecosystem and develop along the
expected trajectory.
An restored ecosystem can run normally in the
process of ecological development and dysfunc-
tional signs will not occur.
An restored ecosystem can be combined with
the corresponding ecological landscape, and it
can exchange and flow biologically and non-
biologically.
The potential threat from the surrounding
landscape has been as weak as possible.
For normal periodic pressure event caused by
the local environment, an restored system has
sufficient flexibility and repair ability to main-
tain its health and completeness.
An restored ecosystem has the same ability to
continue itself as its reference system, and it is
able to develop sustainable under the current
environmental conditions.
1.4.2 The principles of design
1.4.2.1 Protect the environment
People-oriented, return to nature, reducing the
excessive artificial interference and protecting the
existing natural plants.
1.4.2.2 Ecological priority
Strengthening the development of ecosystems
in the experimental area; establishing a suitable
ecological system gradually; establishing a good
environment both to human being and nature.
1.4.2.3 Combine the protection
with the experiment
All experiments are conducted without breaking
the original natural environment. Protecting the
native vegetation and choosing the proper experi-
mental area and method are goning.
1.4.2.4 Sustainable development
For the purpose of the ecological experiment in the
mining area, promote the vegetation restoration
8/27/2014 6:04:19 PM
 work in it, gradually establish a stable ecosystem
and finally recover the function as natural ecologi-
cal environment in the mining area.
1.4.2.5 Local principle
Show the efforts of ecological recovery work in
mining area, as well as the achievements. All the
experiment done is for the recovery of natural eco-
logical restoration in the mining area.
1.4.3 Partition design
1.4.3.1 Water-saving irrigation area
Mining area is dry and lack of water, and the
sandy soil has a poor ability to maintain water. It
is not suitable to plant tall trees. We can choose
shrubs as pioneer species. The water-saving and
drought-resistant region has an area of 300 mu, a
unit of area of = 0.0667 hectares. There are 2-year-
old wild cherry trees in it. The hole irrigation
includes 5 treatments, namely uncovered films,
covered films, covered with straw, water-retaining
agent, water-retaining agent and corrhiza. These 5
treatments are brought out in five small districts.
Each districts covers an area of two mu, so the five
districts cover an area of ten mu. There is a drip
irrigation monitoring region of one treatment cov-
ering an area of two mu. A flow meter is set to
record the amount of water. A kind of plant called
Amorpha fruticosa L are planted as 2 2 m. The
drip line can be buried under the covering films
directly. The water pipe can insert to the covering
films to water the plants. Afterworld, we unfold the
film. Isolation belt is set as two meters in order that
the water car can go through smoothly.
1.4.3.2 Biodiversity area
We did the configuration and combination work
for different plants according to their growth, light
condition, the distribution of root, colour configu-
ration and so on. Study has been done to research
the effects on ecosystem stability and continuity.
The biodiversity region covers an area of 220 mu.
Amorpha fruticosa L is the main species. There are
six combination of plants in the monitor region,
including three tape embedded, namely the origi-
nal Artemisia desterorum Spreng + Amorpha fruti-
cosa L (1:1,1:1,1:2,1:3), two dot embedded, namely
the original Artemisia desterorum Spreng, Amorpha
fruticosa L (the percentages of Amorpha fruticosa
L are 20%, 40% respectively) and Artemisia des-
terorum Spreng, Amorpha fruticosa, Pinus sylves-
tris, mongolica Litv. Each monitor region covers an
area of one mu, and there are six mu in total. The
plant space is 2 2 m. The result of restoration
shows in the Figure 2.
1.4.3.3 Quick fertilizer area
The biological quick fertilizer area covers an area
of 600 mu, including 300 mu of Pinus sylvestris
607
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 607
Figure 2. Amorpha fruticosa L, the natural effect.
Figure 3. The result of restoration by Hippophae
rhamnoides and Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Litv.
var. mongolica Litv. and 300 mu of Hippophae
rhamnoides. There are six plant combinations in
the monitor region, namely Pinus sylvestris var.
mongolica Litv, Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica
Litv + Amorpha fruticosa L, Pinus sylvestris var.
mongolica Litv + Medicago sativa L., Pinus sylves-
tris var. mongolica Litv + Hippophae rhamnoides +
Medicago sativa L., each of these four combina-
tions covers an area of seven mu. Hippophae rham-
noides + Medicago sativa L., Hippophae rhamnoides
alone, both of these two combinations covers an
area of nine mu. So there are 46 mu in total. There
is a isolation belt between each monitor region.
The result of restoration shows in the Figure 3.
1.4.3.4 Eroded region on side slope
Three treatment are brought out on the sandy land
with different slope, namely 50 50 m with sand-
protecting barrier, 1 1 m with sand-protecting
barrier and 1 1 m without sand-protecting
barrier. Medicago sativa L. and Amorpha fruticosa
L are planted as two different treatments. There
are four repeats and twenty-four small regions each
of which covers an area of five mu (80 42 m).
Therefore there are 120 mu in total. There is a iso-
lation belt between each region.
There are also twelve CK areas (without sand-
protecting barrier) each of which covers an area of
four mu (80 33 m), totally 48 mu.
1.5 The standard of ecological
restoration engineering
According to the experience both at home and
aboard, we have summarized five evaluation stand-
ards of ecological restoration engineering. Firstly,
8/27/2014 6:04:19 PM
 there is a directional image reference system, and it
is the results of ecological dynamic health identi-
fied in advance which is used to direct the degree
of ecological restoration to reach. Secondly, the
ecosystem have been improved and ecological con-
dition have been strengthened measurably. Thirdly,
the ability to resist the external disturbance has
been increased. The ecosystem is more sustainable
than before. Fourthly, we have not brought in any
harmful things to the ecosystem during the resto-
ration work. Fifthly, the ecological assessment has
been completed. Some extent of evaluation have
been conducted before and after the restoration
and the assessment information has been disclosed
to the public.
2 THE BASIS OF DESIGN
The Discipline of the Plan of Mine Ecological
Environment Protection and Recovery
Urban Planning Laws of the Peoples Republic
of China (1990)
Environment Protecting Laws of the Peoples
Republic of China (1989)
Soil and Water Conservation Laws of the
Peoples Republic of China (1991)
Terrestrial and Wildlife Conservation Rules of
the Peoples Republic of China (1992)
Wild Plants Conservation Rules of the Peoples
Republic of China (1997)
Forestry Laws of the Peoples Republic of China
(1998)
Wild Animals Conservation Rules of the
Peoples Republic of China (2004)
Standard of Construction Engineering Technol-
ogy of Landscape Ecological Forestry.
3 THE PLANNING
3.1 Expansion area (20142016) planning
The time limit for the overall planning and con-
struction of Da Liuta ecological restoration is from
2013 to mine being closed. 2013 is the recent term,
20142016 is the midterm and from 2017 to mine
being closed is the forward term. The midterm
construction is the expansion area demonstrating
the integration technology with restoration test for
many years. According to the screening of usual
ecological restoration technology, applied to a
larger scale and further verify the technical feasi-
bility, accumulating the implementation experience
for the comprehensive promotion of mining area.
Due to the current state of constraint condi-
tion could make the ecosystem develop along the
changed route, so the recovery of the ecosystem
608
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 608
in the future may not return to its previous state.
It could be difficult to determine accurately the
historical route of the ecosystem which has been
severely affected, or it is impossible to be accurately
determined. However, by combining with the exist-
ing damaged ecosystem structure, composition and
function of related knowledge, and not interfere
with the comparison of the ecosystem, and with
the aid of the regional environmental informa-
tion, and other ecological, cultural and historical
resources, the general direction of the history and
boundary can be established. These comprehensive
sources of information are according to the foun-
dation of ecological data and mapped the histori-
cal trajectory prediction model or reference state.
And in the process of recovery, ecological trajec-
tory simulation should be helped to improve the
health and integrity of the ecosystem. Recovery
means the land and resources unlimited long-
term investment, so the proposals for restoring an
ecosystem need to deliberate. Collective decision
easier than unilateral are resolution to be adopted
and execution. All stakeholders is necessary, there-
fore, by unanimous decision to achieve recovery
of project decision. Once we make a decision to
restore a certain ecosystem, the project need to
plan and establish the monitoring method of eco-
system restoration.
3.2 Outline of extension area construction
3.2.1 Train of thought
Supported by the construction achievement of
mine demonstration region in 2013, the region is
expanding gradually from 20142016. Every year,
5000 mu of ecological restoration area is being
built.
3.2.2 Purpose of extension area construction
The aim of extension area construction is to build
a landscape ecological mining area with abundant
natural and cultural characteristics of Da Liuta
mine area, Solid technical foundation, by extend-
ing the ecological restoration and construction,
and further consolidate the results of science
and technology demonstration, consolidating the
entire mining area ecological restoration technol-
ogy; Improving the quality of ecological environ-
ment. The construction of extension area will be
connected to the original demonstration area.
Furthermore, the vegetation coverage has been
increased, promoting mining area ecological envi-
ronment quality more stable.
3.2.3 Planning of landscape construction
In the extension area, with the function of land-
scape and ecological corridor extending time axis,
at the same time of fusion in the direction of
8/27/2014 6:04:20 PM
 Xuzhou mine demonstration area expand to the
wings, located in planning things on both sides of
the ecological corridors, and become the natural
extension to the original demonstration zone, and
fusion with each other perfectly, in the whole eco-
logical restoration area of organic links as a whole
at the same time and the mining sequence of step,
step by step form part of the green mining sym-
phony melody.
3.3 Advices on planting in extension area
3.3.1 Core contents
We regard the economical forest trees as the stand-
ard species. Taking the need of plant recovery into
consideration, we also pay much attention to the
lives and development of local farmers by creating
an peaceful and harmonious environment.
3.3.2 Technical foundation
The foundation lies on the ecological vegetation
construction experience which we get from the Da
Liuta mining area in the past few years. Over the
past few years, the central and provincial govern-
ment and research institute such as university of
mining conduct the vegetation ecological recovery
test work in the Da Liuta mining area under the
difficult site conditions. Rich experience on veg-
etation construction has been accumulated, which
needs to be summarized and promoted.
3.3.3 Principles of construction
Keep original vegetation community foundation,
optimize the structure, add the quantity, improve
the quality, increase the vegetation coverage; plant
trees where it is proper to them, and so do the
irrigation. Follow the thought of ecological resto-
ration nature improve the occasion, grass irriga-
tion comes first, and it will transform to forest in
the future.
3.3.4 Plant configuration
We mainly choose the indigenous plants and plants
that can adapt to vary conditions. Combine the
grass with the shrubs.
3.3.5 Increase of landscape and economical value
On the basis of ecological security, the aim of vege-
tation construction in extension area is to improve
the landscape value, creating beautiful ecological
landscape with the characteristics belonging to
the desert area. At the same time, we take the lives
and development of local farmers into considera-
tion, increasing the proportion of economic forest
construction.
Go on extending the time axis with the function
of landscape and ecological corridor. We construct
irregular ribbon roadside green belts according to
609
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 609
Figure 4. Extension area.
the terrain ups and downs, avoiding the construc-
tion of green index of single trees. This create a
ecological security barrier for the animals and
birds, promoting the enhancement of ecological
self-healing ability.
If the restoration unit is a complicated landscape
consisting ecosystems one by one, the demand of
planning will be stricter. The restoration measures
we take make a great difference according to differ-
ent projects because of different interference time
and intensity, cultural conditions and limited state
and opportunities. The easiest ecological restora-
tion method is removing or changes some certain
interference to make the ecosystem develop along
its normal ecological process and finally recover
independently. For example, demolition of the
dam is recovered the flood period in the history.
In more complex cases, may also need to carefully
introduce again gone native species, and as far as
possible to remove or control harmful exotic spe-
cies. Ecosystem degradation or transformation is
often caused by a variety of factors for a long time,
and most of the historical elements in ecologi-
cal system has been lost. Sometimes, a trajectory
of degraded ecosystem is completely stop, then
through the natural process for recovery seems to
be delayed indefinitely. In this case, the goal of eco-
logical restoration is to guide or promote restora-
tion of the ecological system established trajectory.
When recovery expectations trajectory under arti-
ficial manipulation after implementation of the
ecological system, it is no longer need outside help
to ensure that their future health and integrity of
this kind of circumstance can be considered as a
completed restoration work.
However, a repairing ecosystem also requires
constant management to resist the invasion of
opportunity species, offset the impact of human
activities, climate change and other unpredictable
events. In this aspect, there is no difference between
a repairing ecosystem and that of the same type.
8/27/2014 6:04:20 PM
 In other words, they may both need a certain
degree of ecosystem management. Although eco-
system restoration and ecosystem management is
a continuous and both are usually similar interven-
tion measures, but the purpose of ecological resto-
ration is to assist or to revive, and the purpose of
ecosystem management is to maintain the repair-
ing ecological system in good condition.
Some, especially in the ecological system in the
developing world still managed to traditional and
sustainable technologies. In these artificial eco-
system (cultural ecosystem), planting activity and
the mutual benefit between the ecological process,
namely human activities are strengthen the ecosys-
tem health and sustainability. Due to population
growth and various external pressures, a lot of
artificial ecosystems need to be repaired. This eco-
system restoration is usually accompanied by local
ecological management practices, including helping
the local people to maintain their current language
and culture, both as a living library of traditional
ecological knowledge preserved. Ecological res-
toration and encourage may indeed rely on local
long-term involvement. Traditional civilization
is experiencing unprecedented global change. In
order to adapt to this change, ecological recovery
may agree, even encourage cultural adaptabil-
ity and sustainability of the new policy, the new
policy at the same time considering the limiting
factor in the current environment. In this regard,
the North American to repair the original land-
scape practices in Europe and Africa, Asia, Latin
Americas most places almost no reference signifi-
cance. In Europe, humanities landscape is normal;
In most parts of Africa, Asia and Latin America
610
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 610
if ecological restoration will not be able to signifi-
cantly strengthen the ecological basis for human
survival, so the ecological restoration is impossible.
Ecological restoration exciting point is human
practice and ecological process can promote each
other. Therefore, the ecological restoration rap-
idly causes global attention it is not surprising; In
most cases, cultural beliefs and customs can influ-
ence the content of the ecological restoration and
category.
REFERENCES
Cairns J.J, Dickson K.LHerricks E.E, eds., 1975.
Recovery and restoration of damaged ecosystems In:
Proceedings of the International Symposium Oil the
Recovery of Damaged Ecosystems 3: 2325.
Clewell A, Rieger J, Munro J, 2005. Guidelines for
Developing and Managing Ecological Restoration
Proiects. 3rded.www.ser.org,.
Ecosystem assessment project working group. 2006. Next
year ecosystem assessment.
Luo Xiangjun. The frontiers of science and industry
progress of ecological restoration. Soil and water con-
servation conference proceedings.
Palmer, M.A. et a1. 2005. Standards for ecologically suc-
cessful river restoration, Restoration Ecology, 1 2 42:
208217.
Sun Shucun, Bao Weikai. 2004. Restoration Ecology.
Beijing: Chemistry and Industry Press, 11.
SER, 2004. The SER International Primer on Ecological
Restoration Version 2, www.ser.org,
Xue Pengcheng et al. 2006. Desert, Wetland, Water, the
Study of Wetland Ecological Environment in Mao
Wusu Sandy Land in the north of Yu Lin [D]. Science
and Technology Press of Shaanxi Province.
8/27/2014 6:04:21 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Analysis on mining city ecological environment evaluationa case

study of Wuan city

G.F. Luo, J.J. Zhang, S.N. Li & H. Huang

School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Mining city ecological environment evaluation is the basis of sustainable development and
ecological construction for a city. Based on the characteristic of eco-environment peculiarity of mineral
city Wuan, the spatial structure, function and coordination of urban ecosystem are proposed to construct
the evaluation index system of mining cities. Using methods such as Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP),
expert evaluation method and comprehensive index assessment method, general assessment model of
mineral citys eco-environmental quality is set up. The paper reveals the factors which restrict the devel-
opment of the ecosystem health in mining cities and provide some decision-making for the sustainable
development of mining cities.

Keywords: ecological environment; AHP; evaluation index system; mining city

1 INTRODUCTION methods like expert evaluation method and the

The mining city is a special and important form
of cities in our Urbanization; it is emerged by
extractive industries which aimed at exploiting
mineral resources and related industries produc-
tion and develop to some extent (Gu et al. 2008).
Exploiting mineral resources mineral resources is
not only providing energy support for the devel-
opment of mining society, but also its radiation
and comprehensive service capabilities play a
huge role in promoting economic and develop-
ment of society, at the same time, the develop-
ment of society also be affected and restricted.
Causing lot of ecological problems such as sur-
face subsidence, air pollution, depletion of water
resources, soil erosion and desertification and
which in turn restrict the development of soci-
ety. Whether mining city can keep sustainable
development, ecological environment and human
activities can be coordinated, all that request us
to qualitatively and quantitatively analysis and
evaluate all aspects of the ecological environment
of mining city, to provide scientific basis for
improving the environmental quality of urban
ecological mining and implementing sustain-
able urban development. The paper is based on
the analyses of the specific characteristics and
problems of the mining city Wuan, select the
appropriate ecological environmental factors of
the local conditions with AHP. General assess-
ment model of mineral citys eco-environmental
quality is set up under series of principles and
index comprehensive evaluation method (Gu
et al. 2008; Chen et al. 2012). And aimed at pro-
viding the basis for mining city conservation with
a more scientific reasonable evaluation to the
ecological environment of Wuan.
2 THE MINING CITY OF WUAN
ECOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
STATUS AND DATA SOURCES
Wuan is located in Hebei provinces in China, the
geographical position is longitude 113 45114
22, north latitude 36 2837 01, the city has a
total area of 1819 km2, it has jurisdiction over 13
towns and 9 townships, 502 administrative villages.
By the end of 2011, the total population was up
to 791234. GDP per capita reached 66769.2 yuan.
Urban green coverage rate reached 52.1%, per
capita park area 12.66 m2. At the same time, water
resources amounts to 33 107 m3, per capita shares
of 271 m3 (Zhang 2013).
Wuan is rich in mineral resources, such as coal,
iron, cobalt, and so on. It is the important energy
base of Hebei provinces, and also is one of 58 focus
coal producing counties (cities). It is abundant in
coal, iron, limestone, nonmetals resources (Zhang
2013), the total amount of coal is up to 23 108t,
Iron ore total reserves is 5.5 108t; The heavy
industry which produced large amount of waste
has a high proportion, and it accounts for added
value of above scale industrial for 67.81%. Sulfur

611

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 611 8/27/2014 6:04:21 PM

 dioxide emissions are up to 58094t, the situation of
air pollution is serious.
This paper used the natural ecological environ-
ment data such as coal reserve production ratio,
mineral reclamation rate, and so on; social eco-
logical environment data like greening coverage,
per capita cultivated land; and social economic
dates like Engels Coefficient to assess the ecologi-
cal environment of the whole city. The sources of
dates comes from Statistical yearbook of Wuan
in 2011, Abandoned land reclamation planning of
Wuan, mineral resources planning of Wuan and
some related literatures.
3 EVALUATION OF ECOLOGICAL
ENVIRONMENT OF WUAN
3.1 The establishment of evaluation system
Mining city is a complicated ecological system
which based on human mining activities and natu-
ral environment, we should focused on the social
and economic factors that human product as well
as the natural environment factors, at the same
time, ecological problems come from mining activi-
ties also should be taken seriously. Considering all
factors, general assessment model of mineral citys
eco-environmental quality is set up. Taken the eco-
logical problems existed in study area into consider-
ation, combined the previous evaluation of the city
ecological environment and characteristics of min-
ing city, we select 22 evaluation indexes of mining
ecological environment quality in Wuan based on
the scientific principle, the dynamic principle, prac-
tical principle, level principle, measurable princi-
ple, and divided into 3 levels (target layer, criterion
layer, index layer) (Hu et al. 2006; Gu et al. 2012;
Chen et al. 2007; Lu et al. 2009; Zhang 2008).
Use the fuzzy math to analysis the indexes qual-
itatively and quantitatively. We select ecological
quality X as factors, and divide it into three parts,
that is NQ (b1), SQ(b2), SF(b3). They make up the
set X = {b1, b2, b3}, three subsets that are lower level
evaluation indexes constitute three matrix respec-
tively, they are B1 = {c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6}; B2 = {c7, c8,
c9, c10, c11, c12, c13, c14, c15, c16}; B3 = {c18 c17, c19, c20,
c21, c22}. To find out the characteristic value and
characteristic vector for each matrix, then do nor-
malization (Liu et al. 2004).
3.2 The assignment process of evaluation index
The essence of comprehensive index evaluation
method is used in this paper to gather each sin-
gle index evaluation effectively, to gain knowl-
edge of things in general (Kasanen et al. 2000).
Standardize the indexes and transform the value
612
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 612
of each index into [0, 1] measurement range to
eliminate the influence of the differences between
different indexes dimension (Gu et al. 2012).
Considering the factors have positive and nega-
tive relationship to ecological environment qual-
ity (positive correlation is expressed as evaluation
index factor increases, the ecological environment
quality index is lager, negative evaluation factor
index increase, the ecological environment qual-
ity index is smaller, on the contrary). According
to the index of the forward and reverse relations
(Li et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2008). Taking the value
of each index transformed into the corresponding
membership degree, the selection of membership
function is commonly used in triangular fuzzy dis-
tribution function:
Positive correlation index membership degree
calculation formula:
0 if x a
x a
f x) = if a < x < b (1)
b a
1 if b x
Negative relationship index membership degree
calculation formula:
0 if x a
x a
f x ) = 1 if a < x < b (2)
b a
1 if b x
According to the model to determine the
membership function and calculate the member-
ship degree, and the optimal value and the worst
value of relevant factors are defined according to
national, industry standards and some indexes are
obtained from some related literature (Hu et al.
2006; Gu et al. 2012; Wu 2005). The determination
of the scope of the factors evaluation and member-
ship degree are as follows (Table 2).
Analysis on membership degree of each index
scatter diagram, we get that the selection of index
distribution is relatively uniform; there is no lin-
ear relationship between each other, so the corre-
sponding index can be used as evaluation indexes
for the assessment of ecological environment of
mining cities Wuan.
3.3 Ecological vulnerability model based
on Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
In this paper, AHP method is selected to combine
spatial information with expert advice to make
comprehensive decision quantitatively based on
multi-criteria system (Zhang 2008; Wang 2011).
8/27/2014 6:04:22 PM
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 613

Table 1. List of data set and corresponding weight of each evaluation indicator by AHP method.

Index Weight
Target layer Criterion layer Index layer Meaning and effect of index properties value

Ecological Natural Coal reserve production ratio C1 Reflect the potential utilization of coal resources. Positive index 0.064993
quality of ecological Per capita green park area C2 To a certain extent, reflect the specific regional Positive index 0.022443
mining city environment environmental quality of human settlements.
quality Percapita cultivated land C3 The ratio of total area of arable land and the total Positive index 0.025012
(NQ) b1 number of people.
Greenification coverage C4 The ratio of areas of greening plants and the total Positive index 0.020912
area of the city.
Annual SO2 emissions C5 Air pollution situation of industry. Negative index 0.040897
Geological disaster area per capita C6 The ratio of geological disaster area and total population. Negative index 0.040897
The mining wastelands proportion C7 The ratio of abundant land and total area of mine. Negative index 0.040897
Mine-land re-reclamation C8 The ratio of reclamation area and total area. Positive index 0.040897
Social Urbanization rate C9 The ration of urban population and total Positive index 0.093701
ecological population within the jurisdiction.
environment Comprehensive utilization rate The ratio of total comprehensive utilization of industrial Positive index 0.06008
quality of industrial solid waste C10 solid waste and the sum of the volume of industrial
(SQ) b2 solid wastes produced and comprehensive utilization
613

of the previous storage.

Percentage of treated urban sewage C11 The ratio of city sewage quantity under the treatment Positive index 0.054291
and the total discharge of sewage.
Standard discharge rate of Industrial The ratio of Industrial wastewater discharge standards and Positive index 0.054291
wastewater C12 the total.
Standard discharge rate of Industrial The ratio of standard discharge Industrial soot emissions Positive index 0.06008
soot emissions C13 and the total.
Density of population C14 Population aggregation in unit land area. Negative index 0.108581
Water consumption per capita C15 The ratio of total water consumption and number of the Positive index 0.054291
total population.
Road area per capita C16 Road area per capita. Positive index 0.054291
Social City of Engel coefficient C17 The relationship between income and food expenditure. Negative index 0.018376
economic factors Real GDP per capita C18 Gross domestic product that each worker creates every year. Positive index 0.020836
(SF) b3 The third industry accounted for Reflect the situation of industrial structure. Negative index 0.029899
the proportion of GDP C19
Urban and rural income ratio C20 Urban per capita disposable income and rural per Negative index 0.020836
capita net income.
Mineral output growth C21 The ratio of total output value of mineral resources and Positive index 0.036752
the one last year.
Million yuan GDP energy The ratio of total energy consumption and Gross Negative index 0.036752
8/27/2014 6:04:23 PM

consumption C22 Domestic Product (GDP) In jurisdictions.

 Table 2. List of data set and corresponding optimal value, worst value, parameter value and membership.

The optimal The worst Parameter

Indicators Unit value value values Membership

Coal reserve production ratio C1 % 35 10 10.16 0.0064

Per capita green park area C2 km2/per 40 1 12.66 0.3
Per capita cultivated land C3 hm2/per 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.2
Greenification coverage C4 % 50 20 52.1 1.07
Annual SO2 Emissions C5 mg/m3 1.15 0.25 0.58 0.6333
Geological disaster area per capita C6 m2/per 10 35 16.56 0.2624
The mining wastelands Proportion C7 % 30 17 14.28 0
Mine-land re-reclamation C8 % 90 0 30 0.3333
Urbanization rate C9 % 50 20 22.1 0.07
Comprehensive utilization rate of % 100 10 65 0.6111
industrial solid waste C10
Percentage of treated urban sewage C11 % 100 80 90.5 0.525
Standard discharge rate of industrial % 100 72 100 1
wastewater C12
Standard discharge rate of industrial % 100 88.9 99.1 0.9189
soot emissions C13
Density of population C14 per/km2 400 3000 435 0.0135
Water consumption per capita C15 206 50 122 0.4615
Road area per capita C16 m2/per 15 7 16.7 1
City of Engel coefficient C17 % 20 60 25.7 0.1425
Real GDP per capita C18 Million yuan 40 3 6.3 0.0892
The third industry accounted for the % 80 30 42.47 0.7506
proportion of GDP C19
Urban and rural income ratio C20 % 1 2.5 2.25 0.8333
Mineral output growth C21 % 90 50 >100% 1
Million yuan GDP energy consumption C22 0.5 1.2 0.65 0.2143

After established the index system of the hier- Table 3. Comprehensive evaluation criterion layer
archical model, starting from the second floor of importance of every index.
the model, on the same layer of each factor are
compared, and with grading method to judge the The importance
of scale Definition description
degree of their relative merits or important degree,
and the results formed a judgment matrix. The val- 1 i and j factors are equally important
ues of judgment matrix are presented according to 2 i factor is more important than
the data and experts opinion (Lv et al. 2005). Here j factor slightly
can be referenced from 1 to 5 scales to quantify the 3 i factor is more important than
importance of the judgment. This articles impor- j factor
tance index layers are divided into five grades, 4 i factor is more important than
that are equally important, somewhat important, j factors significantly
important, important, and very important. 5 i factors than j is absolutely important
For each layer compared two factors to find out Reciprocal The importance of the two factors
the characteristic value and characteristic vector for corresponding exchange sequence
each matrix, and to normalization. After calculation, comparisons
rule layer weights are 0.297, 0.540, 0.163, all CIs are
below 0.1, and they are meeting the requirements,
through the consistency check (Lv et al. 2005). evaluation unit is, the better its ecological environ-
According to the above method of each index layer ment quality condition. The specific formula of
is calculated under the rule layer, get the weight of comprehensive weighted index method (Gu et al.
each evaluation index values as shown in Table 1. 2008) is as follows:
After the standardization of indicators, use the
comprehensive weighted index method to conclude n
the score of each evaluation unit and add up all the Wi ai pi (3)
figures. The greater the comprehensive score of i =1

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 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 The index system of comprehensive
evaluation level
This system on the basis of the comprehensive
domestic and foreign relevant evaluation system,
consulting relevant experts to build the evaluation
system of the mining cities Wuan five levels, and to
explain to the appropriate level. At the same time
choose V = {excellent, preferable, general, inferior,
terrible} five levels to estimate Wuan ecological
environment quality level.
4.2 Urban ecological environment level results
According to the evaluation system of the envi-
ronmental quality mining city Wuan ecological
environment quality criterion layers are: Natural
ecological environment index is 0.29; Social eco-
logical environment index is 0.37; Economic and
ecological environmental index is 0.55. The natural
ecological environment and social ecological envi-
ronment index are on inferior development level,
economic index of ecological environment is on the
general level, so it needs to strengthen governance.
The whole society ecological environment
index comprehensive value of 0.436 is calculated
by the comprehensive weighted method for Sum
of NQ, SQ, and SF. According to the ecological
environment quality levels (Table 4), we know that
the ecological environmental quality in Wu an is
on the general level, and the city green coverage
rate, the natural population growth rate, per cap-
ita road area is beyond the average level in Hebei
province, industrial wastewater emissions rate is
reached to the optimal value. Wuan is mining cit-
ies at the same time, it ignored the comprehensive
utilization of mining land when mining exploita-
tion, resulting generate a lot of abounded mine
land, the geological disasters caused by mining
activities were often happened, mine reclamation
rate is only 30%, it is far below the average level
in Hebei province. In a word there exist security
problems of land use of mining activities; the
Table 4. Grading standard of the evaluating results of
mining cities.
Evaluation Comprehensive Degree of the
grade index environment quality
I 0.81.0 Excellent
II 0.60.8 Preferable
III 0.40.6 General
IV 0.20.4 Inferior
V <0.2 Terrible
615
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 615
urban ecological environmental quality develop-
ment level is low.
5 CONCLUSIONS
This article introduced mineral output growth rate,
coal reserve-production ratio, proportion of min-
ing abandoned land, mine reclamation rate and
other indicators to reflect the characteristics of the
mining cities, also considering other environmen-
tal quality influence factors such as urban devel-
opment city green coverage rate, park green land
area per capita, etc; Social and economic factors
index like city Engel coefficient, the third industry
of GDP and reflect industrial development factors
such as industrial solid waste comprehensive uti-
lization, industrial wastewater emissions success
rate, etc. To make comprehensive assessment to
the ecological environment quality accurately, we
select 22 evaluation indexes to reflect the charac-
teristics of mining city; the results are: The ecologi-
cal environment quality of Wuan is on the general
level of development, the main influence factors
are the natural ecological environment quality and
social ecological environment quality are all on the
inferior level. The main reasons are (1) The devel-
opment of mineral resources cause great damage
to the land, produced a large amount of mining
abundant land; (2) The strength for coal resources
exploitation is too strange that destroyed the bal-
ance of ecological environment, at the same time,
the reserve-production ratio of coal is 10.16,
Hoarding after a large number of coal resources
exploitation, it is a waste of resources; (3) Mine
reclamation rate value is only 30%, it is low, mainly
because Wuan pays attention to the exploitation
and ignoring destruction of land management; (4)
Urban sewage treatment is poor, wastewater treat-
ment rate is only 90.5%, the discharge of sewage
increased destruction of environmental.
It is concluded that in order to optimize resource
allocation, reduce land destruction and realize sus-
tainable development, three measures should be
implemented: (1) the vertical integration strategy
(2) mineral exploitation and (3) land reclamation;
the horizontal integration of enterprises and gov-
ernment, establishment of land reclamation plan.
Increase the comprehensive utilization of indus-
trial solid waste and urban life sewage treatment;
when utilize of mineral resources, it should also
pay attention to the work regulation of land rec-
lamation, to achieve the goal that mining use
comprehensive improvement of integration. As the
mineral resources are non-renewable resources, it
need to be used in a more planned moderation way,
so supervision of the coal resources mining needed
to strengthen, formulate strict laws and regulations
8/27/2014 6:04:24 PM
 should be formulated; crack down on the black
coal and the exploitation of mineral resources that
against the related laws and regulations severely,
intensify type clean energy use, reduce the mining
of coal resources. As for the leading industries of
coal, steel, building materials industry that pro-
duce smoke and dust emissions should be treated
before discharge into the atmosphere, to reduce
atmospheric pollution; and also should strengthen
the intensity of urban greening, to build a harmo-
nious ecological, energy saving energy resources
city together.
REFERENCES
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Areas With Dongtai City of Jiangsu Province as
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Xiao-li, Wang Ming-quan, 2008, Ecological Vul-
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Ecologica Sinica, 25(8):20902095.
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8/27/2014 6:04:24 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Surface regeneration of coal tips: 15 years of mine rehabilitation

in a former coal mining region in Southwest Germany

B.K.C. Chan & A.W.L. Dudeney

Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK

S. Meyer
LEG Saar, Landesentwicklungsgesellschaft Saarland mbH, ATRIUM Haus der Wirtschaftsfrderung,
Saarbrcken, Germany

ABSTRACT: This paper presents observations centered on an EU project dealing with coal spoil
re-vegetation, emphasizing the use of sewage sludge mixed with wastes from other industries to form
artificial top soil for field emplacementspecifically on both flat surfaces and slopes on coal tips at
Reden and Duhamel in the Saarland region of Germany. It indicates that stable fertile soil can be
created even on steep slopes. From developments over some 15 years (particularly at the Reden site),
time has shown the original restoration on the tips was largely successful with planted species provid-
ing a lasting green surface with progressive replacement of planted species by natural ruderals. Some
woody shrubs became naturally established, but, within the time frame of the development, there was
little evidence of substantive natural succession to include woodland trees. Even though regulation
in Germany now discourages spreading of sewage products, the success of the technology provides
a potentially economic methodology for the effective long-term surface restoration of brownfield
dumps elsewhere.

1 INTRODUCTION sustainable and plant retardation and regres-

Mining of coal deposits has left a legacy of large
numbers of abandoned mines with their associated
spoil heaps which represent an eye sore from the
surrounding environment. The enactment of strin-
gent laws requiring that the land be returned to
an acceptable condition meant that land reclama-
tion has now become normal part of the planning,
approval and operation of most surface mines.
The spoil heaps in the past were often slow to re-
vegetate naturally, the surfaces tending to dry out
in the summer leading to dust problems. Many
heaps caught fire due to the residual coal causing
a local hazard. These problems led increasingly to
costly rehabilitation of tips and associated derelict
land.
Much research have been carried out, espe-
cially in agriculture and forestry since they are
the most common land uses for reclaimed colliery
spoil (Hester & Harrison 1997). Most reclama-
tion schemes have used conventional agricultural
or forestry techniques, with fertilizers and lime
as amendments. Improved results have often
been achieved initially, but these have not proved
sion has followed due to nutrient depletion fol-
lowing rapidly leaching (Smith, 1996, Bradshaw
and Chadwick, 1980). An alternative reclamation
practice using different materials as growth media
have proven more successful and produced some
outstanding results. They included bottom ash and
lime (Tedesco et al. 1999); Arbuscular-Mycorrhizal
Fungi (AMF) and composited sewage sludge
(Thorne et al. 1998), sewage sludge and limestone
(Joost et al. 1987) and Pulverized Refuse Fines
(PRF) (Chu & Bradshaw 1996). Thus, useful soil
substitutes have been produced from otherwise
worthless waste materials.
The addition of sewage sludge to land has the
benefit of containing essential plant nutrients and
organic matter, which improves soil physical prop-
erties (Pagliai & Sequi 1981, Smith et al. 1992a). It
resulted in a 19- and 57- fold increase in extractable
P in the 05 and 510 cm soil horizon respectively.
Sludge application significantly increased plant
biomass (both above ground and below ground),
and plant density and foliar cover, although ben-
eficial effects often decreased with time (Brofas
et al. 2000, Thorne et al. 1998). Vegetation growth

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 response showed that the greatest vegetation
height increase occurred during the second year
after sludge application, and then leveled off (Sop-
per 1989). However, in general, vegetation cover
improved over the five growing seasons following
sludge application. Little deterioration was evident
even after 10 years. Sites not treated with sludge
remained barren. Thus, use of sewage sludge pro-
vides a reasonable and rational method of manag-
ing a waste material which would otherwise need
disposing of by some other, perhaps less beneficial,
route. The present work reports on the use of sew-
age sludge together with other wastes.
2 BACKGROUND
More than 20 years ago many dumps and tailings
ponds in the Saarland coal mining area required
restoration due to their unsightly effects on the
landscape. Pressure from authorities and the green
influence in politics led to this new standard for
industries. The area had to be prepared for future
reintegration with the nature or re-use while the
mining process was still in progress. The mining
companies needed to invest substantially to re-
vegetate the waste rock dumps.
The rock material is nearly black, therefore
very hot in summer. It generates acid when in
contact with rain. Water usually penetrated rap-
idly through the loose surface and was not avail-
able to growing plants. Many small trees were
planted, but most did not survive. Therefore the
mining companies and their engineering depart-
ments created a new top-soil made from waste to
spread on surfaces, retain water, and provide a
fertile growing medium. It was necessary to bring
organic material onto the dumps and add nutri-
ents (Saarberg Brger information 1994, Stalljan,
E. 1983, 1984). The mixture also brought in funds,
because companies paid for disposal to get rid of
their waste. The combination of waste disposal,
improvement of existing site situations and soil
condition, and financial gain became the drivers
for artificial soil production. However, authorities
gave strict instructions about the chemical content
of this new material and gave permissions only for
special sites to be used as receptors for artificial
top soil.
The mixture of artificial top soil was made of
wood chips, sewage sludge, chalk and mineral soils
taken from sites all over the region. The mixed
material was tested to ensure nutrient levels were
not over the limit set by the authorities, and left to
mature for several months. The product was spread
using a mobile machine fitted with a rotor arm to
throw the material onto both flat ground and steep
slopes. Thus, in 1994, as part of a full scale rec-
618
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 618
lamation project, the 14 ha plateau of the Reden
tip was covered to a depth of 2 m with a com-
pacted mixture of 80% coal spoil, 10% composted
wood refuse and 10% sewage sludge, and seeded.
The hope was that the natural succession would
occur, without separate planting of small trees
and therefore improve and accelerate the greening
process. It would also save former planting costs.
At the beginning, there was a uniform and luxuri-
ant growth of grass on the artificial soil. However,
after two years, the dominant plants were Cirsium
vulgare (spear thistle), Chenopodium album (fat
hen) and similar invasive species, rooting to depths
up to 1.2 m (Kleber et al. 2000). The takeover by
nettles and thistles was mainly due to ideal con-
dition (sunny and dry) and high nutrient content.
The authorities therefore required some plots had
to be kept free of this waste-top soil, to make way
for red list (rare) species to establish under more
extreme conditions on the dumps, despite their
slow growth (Barting & Strau, 1987).
A monitoring program was demanded by
authorities to find out if the process worked, if
the nitrogen content and heavy metals were under
the permitted level and to see if after some years
bushes and trees would follow.
3 OBJECTIVE
The 4-year EU project ROMBUSS aimed to
develop newly designed mixtures of Artificial Top
Soil (ATS), which would provide improved fertile
surface strata for restoration. It was expected to
provide the mining industry with an environmen-
tally friendly and economic method to rehabili-
tate waste-dumps, on flat areas and steep slopes,
without problems experienced in earlier work. The
objective of the paper is outline research carried
out, i.e., to assess the ATS performance in terms
of plant establishment and growth on several test
plots at two mine sites in the Saarland (Reden and
Duhamel). The paper is also intended to outline
developments up to the present time (particu-
larly at Reden) commenting on the success of the
technology used in creating a stable long-term
restoration.
4 PROJECT WORK
4.1 Description of the sites
The Reden tip is located within the forest of Staats-
forst Neunkirchen, approximately 3.5 km west of
the town of Neunkirchen and 3.5 km north-east
of the town of Friedrichsthal. Mining operations
ceased in this area in 1996. The spoil tip is largely
rectangular in shape, measuring approximately 0.8
8/27/2014 6:04:24 PM
 0.9 km, excluding an adjacent lagoon. It con-
tains some 15 million cubic meters of waste rock
and rises to approximately 6080 m above the sur-
rounding area.
Duhamel is located within the Saarlouis-
Dillinger Saar valley, approximately 2.2 km east
of the town of Saarlouis and 0.5 km north of the
town of Ensdorf. The Bergwerk Ensdorf was an
active site until 2010. The spoil tip is roughly circu-
lar, approximately 0.72 km in diameter, excluding
the lagoon, and has an elevation 130140 m above
the surrounding area.
4.2 ROMBUSS project
The ROMBUSS Project (19982001) was based on
test plots at Reden and Duhamel amended at the
surface by designed mixtures of artificial topsoil
(ATS). The ATS comprised two components: (a)
an inorganic fraction which represents the matrix
of the ATS and (b) an organic fraction, which
makes the ATS fertile and promotes plant growth.
The organic fraction consisted mainly of sewage
sludge from household wastewater purification
plants. The inorganic portion of the mix consisted
of industrial residues like ash, waste rock and con-
struction debris. The organic components were
weathered for at least six months before mixing
with mineral components. Table 1 shows the differ-
ent components of the two types of ATS mixture
(Saarmix 1 and Saarmix 2). The mixed material
was tested in laboratories, to avoid a huge concen-
tration of nutrients, especially nitrogen (maximum
10,000 kg per hectare) and then stored for a while
in heaps to gain a homogeneous material, compa-
rable to compost.
The plots were vegetated using a restoration
seed mixture recommended by Wardell Armstrong
for its readily identifiable grasses in the field,
low maintenance but resistant species (primarily
Agrostis/Festuca), large nitrogen-fixing com-
ponent (comprising a combination of Trifolium
repens and Medicargo lupulina), with no vigorous
or aggressive species (such as perennial rye-grass)
and suited to low nutrient, mildly acidic conditions.
Table 2 shows the composition of seed mixture.
Table 1. Composition of the two ATS mixture.
Saarmix 1 Saarmix 2
Sewage sludge (digested) 20% 30%
Paper sludge 20%
Wood chips 20% 20%
Construction debris 40% 50%
Physical appearance Finer Coarser
texture texture
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 619
Table 2. Composition of seed mixture.
Species %
Grass
Agrostis capillaris (common bent-grass) 10
Festuca rubra (red fescue) 35
Festuca ovina (sheeps fescue) 25
Poa pratensis (smooth meadow-grass) 10
Phleum pratense (Timothy grass) 10
Forbs
Trifolium repens (white clover) 7
Medicago lupulina (black medick) 3
The seed mixture was supplied by Breininger in
Germany and was sown by SaarMontan on site
with a sowing rate 20 g/m2, as recommended by the
supplier.
At Reden two relatively flat test plots were
on the SW side at the top of the dump, together
with a reference plot having waste rock only. At
Duhamel there were six test beds on steep slopes,
three on the southern slope (high solar radiation)
and three on the north side slope (low radiation).
Sowing was carried out soon after ATS applica-
tion. Subsequent plant development was recorded
at suitable intervals until Oct 2001, thus providing
full observation equivalent to three growing sea-
sons at Reden and Duhamel north side, and two at
Duhamel south side.
4.3 Observations up to 2001
Leachate samples were collected from lysimeters
installed in the plots and analysed on site for pH,
dissolved oxygen and conductivity, and in the
laboratory for nutrients, organic matter and met-
als (ROMBUSS Final Report, 2002). The dis-
solved oxygen was within the range of 2375%.
As expected, the dissolved oxygen was usually
low (2030%) beneath ATS. Conductivity read-
ings ranged initially from 9.2 mS/cm under ATS to
2.5 mS/cm after 68 months. The rest of the lysim-
eters (under spoil) stayed fairly constant through-
out at about 2 mS/cm. The pH of the leachate in all
lysimeters was within the range of 6.58 through-
out the 18 months of monitoring.
4.3.1 Heavy metals
Analyses of individual components (sewage
sludge, wood chips, paper sludge, fly ash and con-
struction debris) of the ATS were made by means
of solid analysis (digestion and AAS analysis for
metals) and an eluate analysis (1:10 extraction for
24 h and subsequent AAS analysis for heavy met-
als). These tests showed that leachable concentra-
tions of heavy metals were low. No significant
619
8/27/2014 6:04:24 PM
 heavy metal concentrationsgreater than the
limiting values of waste application on ground
(LAGA 2007)were found in the tested resi-
dues. More generally, leachate taken from differ-
ent lysimeters in the field showed very low metal
concentration within the threshold of drinking
water quality (Council Directive 98/83/EC, 1998).
It was demonstrated that metalseventually dis-
solved from the ATSwould anyway be retained
by the underlying waste dump material even to a
larger extent.
4.3.2 Nitrogen
Lysimeter tests showed that nitrogen was leached
from ATS initially at high concentrations (mainly
as nitrate, in the range 10001500 mg/L NO3)
and rapidly washed out of the ATS. Even though
decreasing, nitrate remained at considerable con-
centrations during 612 months. Figure 1 shows
examples of nitrate concentrations from leachate
collected from field lysimeters in 2000 & 2001.
Numerical transport simulations (carried out by
other members of the ROMBUSS consortium)
showed that nitrate was (given the dimensions
of the waste dumps at Reden and Duhammel)
highly attenuated during passage through the
dumps. Initially high starting concentrations of
some 1500 mg/L (measured in the lysimeters)
were computed to be reduced to 100 mg/L over
a period of 60 years. During that time period the
plume front should have travelled 75 m and not
yet reached the base of the dump. However the
simulations also showed that the outer slopes of
the dumps are more critical with respect to lea-
chate transport and that significant dissolved
species might reach ground level. There is also
a potential risk of nitrate leaching through the
sides of the dumps into the local surface waters.
As a consequence of the modelling studies, it was
considered desirable to apply ATS with lower
nitrate levels (either different blending or pre
Figure 1. Nitrate concentration from field lysimeters in
2000 & 2001.
620
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 620
leaching before application) on the more critical
slopes.
4.3.3 Nutrient availability
Nutrient availability along the soil profile was
good for both Saarmix 1 and Saarmix 2. There was
adequate P, K and Mg available in all the soils for
plant uptake.
4.3.4 Vegetation
Germination and initial growth were highly
dependent on the initial conditions, but after a
year of growth, differences were largely evened
out. It was found that the dry mass of plants was
directly proportional to the thickness of ATS
down the slope for Duhamel south and north
sides. In general, little difference in plant germi-
nation and establishment could be observed as a
direct result of differing aspect or slope, despite
the possibility that the water retention in ATS
material was probably reduced where spread on
a slope.
Regarding the overall cover of planted seed
mixture species at Reden and Duhamel, Trifolium
repens (white clover) was the dominant plant spe-
cies, e.g., on the Saarmix 2 Plot 6 at Reden, whilst
Phleum pratense (Timothy grass) was the domi-
nant plant species, e.g., on the Saarmix 1 Plot 5.
The cover of Agrostis capillaris (common bent-
grass) and Festuca rubra (red fescue) increased
slightly on both test plots by 2001, indicating that
it may take longer for these species to become
established in competition with T. repens and P.
pratense.
A clear difference between growth on the steep
and flat test plots at Duhamel and Reden, respec-
tively was evident. F. rubra performed better than
P. pratense on both of the steeper test plots at
Duhamel North, the opposite of the results from
the flatter test plots at Reden. Potentially, the
recognised stress tolerance of F. rubra provided
this species with an advantage over P. pratense
on the steeper slopes of the Duhamel North test
plots. It was probable that plant available water
was more likely to be a limiting factor here than
on the flat test plots at Reden. The finer leaves
of F. rubra would probably reduce evapotranspi-
ration rates (loss of water), whereas P. pratense
having larger leaves, was more likely to suffer
drought stress.
Overall, three components of the seed mix-
ture, P. pratense, F. rubra and T. repens, success-
fully established on some, but not all, of the test
plots. Other species, such as A. capillaris and M.
lupulina had limited success, whereas Poa. pratensis
and F. ovina did not appear to establish at all. Bare
ground on all plots decreased as a result of pro-
gressive colonisation by ruderal species.
8/27/2014 6:04:25 PM
 4.4 Observations in 2009
Visits were made to the sites on 29th May2nd June
2009, mainly to observe the plant species and collect
leachate from lysimeters. Conductivity from the four
lysimeters at Reden site remained high, ranging from
1.86 mS/cm, pH was fairly constant at 7.28.0 and
dissolved oxygen remained low at 1838%. Heavy
metals remained within the drinking water stand-
ard (Council Directive 98/83/EC,1998). Hydrogen
sulfide odour from the leachate indicated anaerobic
conditions beneath the ATS layer, from where high
concentrations of sulfur (93190 mg/L) were con- Figure 3. Duhamel north side slope in 2000.
firmed by ICP-AES. Vegetation, e.g., in plots 5 and
6, was dense and plots were covered with ruderal
species. The majority were 60150 cm high Urtica
dioica (stinging nettle), some Cirsium vulgare (spear
thistle) and a few flower shrubsRosa canina. The
area adjacent to the plots (where formerly there was
a pond), was covered with grasses. Reference test
plots, e.g., Plot 1 at Reden, with loose waste rock,
showed a sparing covering of grasses.
Test plot 5 at Duhamel south side was inac-
cessible (having been covered with waste rocks to
make path for people walking to the top). At Plot 6
(Duhamel north side), the original planted species Figure 4. Duhamel north side slope in 2009.
Festuca rubra was replaced by about 90% coverage
of Arrhenatherum elatius (tall oatgrass shown in Table 3. Comparison of plant species at Reden test
Fig. 2), together with small amounts of some other plots 5 and 6 in 2001 and 2014.
ruderal species. Roots penetrated through the ATS
layer to the waste rock. The area next to the test 2001 2014
plot was covered in ruderal species. In general, the
north side slope was almost fully vegetated despite Plots
Species Plot 5 Plot 6 5 and 6
limited plant species in the test plot. Figures 3 and
4 show vegetation in Duhamel north side slope at Ruderal species
the beginning of the project and in 2009. Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) 0.60 0 } 70
Cirsium vulgare (spear thistle) 2.23 1.20 }
4.5 Observations in 2014 Galium aparine (cleavers) 5.03 3.10 ]
Regarding the test plots in Reden, 70% were cov- Dactylis glomerata 0.20 0 ] 30
(orchard grass)
ered by Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) and Cirsium
Bromus sterilis 0.10 0 ]
vulgare (spear thistle) and some other shrubs and
Matricaria perforate 25.10 2.80
grasses like Galium aparine (cleavers), Dactylis glom-
Bare ground 4.30 24.45 0
Planted species
Trifolium repens 2.40 46.45 0
(white clover)
Phleum pretense 40.67 1.40 0
(Timothy grass)
Festuca rubra (red fescue) 12.23 2.75 0

erata (orchard grass), Bromus sterilis, Anthriscus

Figure 2. Arrhenatherum elatius at Duhamel north side
slope in 2009.
sylvesteris (cow parsley), Arrhenatherum elatius,
Solidago spec. and some bushes like Rosa canina
and Rubus fructicosus (blackberry). There are no
trees, nor a large variety in species. Table 3 shows
comparison of different species in Reden test plots
in 2001 and 2014. Figures 5 and 6 show the vegeta-
tion at Reden dump in 2014.

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Figure 5. The top of the re-cultivated Reden dump in
2014: dense vegetation with mainly shrubs and bushes,
and small trees. The area is open to the public. Source:
SHS, Mailnder.
The sites became green rapidly at the start and
vegetation continued to grow in 2014. The ecologi-
cal result might be criticized, because there is a lack
of variety of species and succession seems to end in
a very dense, nitrogen dominated mixture of rud-
eral flora. Existing trees did not grow by succession.
In 2014 there exist those trees that were planted and
survived before soil was placed on surfaces. These
existing trees perhaps had benefited from the sub-
strate application. Figures 7a7d show photos of
15 years rehabilitation at Reden test plots.
Nowadays, landscape designers and tour-
ist experts claim gaps between vegetation keep
the view open from the top of the dump into the

Figure 6. Reden test plot in 2014: vegetation is very

dense, mainly shrubs, some bushes, not many varieties.
Source: LEG, Meyer. Figure 7b. August 2000.

Figure 7a. April 2000. Figure 7c. June 2009.

Figure 7d. June 2014.

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 surrounding area. Most visitors like this second
hand nature, especially shrub vegetation, but
nature activists would prefer rare species that estab-
lish under dry and nutrient depleted conditions.
5 A MASTERPLAN FOR THE FORMER
MINE IN REDEN
At the time ROMBUSS ended in 2001, the gov-
ernment decided to restructure the former mine in
Reden and buy the land from the mining company
RAG, who gradually withdrew from the site. A
project company called IKS was founded to bring
back public life, new jobs and a modern outfit to
the former mine. A master plan was developed and
step by step the area was transformed into a place
for tourists, regenerative energy (solar panels, geo-
thermic use of mine-water), nature-experience and
landscape design. Over some 12 years 35 mil-
lion were invested in infrastructure and buildings.
Together with local politics and regional adminis-
tration the site was transferred.
The former mining companies also took part in
this restructuring process, especially in the decon-
tamination and modeling processes (costs-by-
cause principle). Synergies between all participants
were involved transforming the mine from a closed
industrial area to a designed and open place for the
general public (Fig. 8). The re-cultivated dump and
the tailings ponds were also part of this restruc-
ture process and new concept, but the top of the
dump and the ROMBUSS test plots stayed nearly
untouched, because second-hand nature after
re-cultivation had already taken place and nobody
would like to destroy this.
The mine had four main planning areas, created
by landscape designers VISTA from Amsterdam
and based on the industrial shaped landscape:
Energy garden (with photovoltaic panels) with
humid biotope at the former tailings pond
Figure 8. The Reden former mine in 2014 with water
garden, monument protected buildings, new infrastruc-
ture (foreground) and dump (background), Source: IKS,
Preusser.
623
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 623
Dump garden on top of the dump with shrubs,
perennials and trees already established on the
artificial top soils (integrating with the test plots
of ROMBUSS)
Central area with new public utility infrastruc-
ture and building sites around the monument
protected former mine buildings
Water garden, the lowest point of the area (used
for rainwater collection of the whole site), a
former freight yard and it is the landscape design
highlight of the mine.
Since 2012 all mines in Saarland are closed; the
re-cultivated sites of the dump and pond are green,
mainly by shrubs, perennials and also by some trees
established by succession. Some areas still have
high nutrient levels and are remain covered with a
dense carpet of nettles; not open for other species.
There is little difference in vegetation on the top
soil all over the top of the dump. Small differences
may have been caused by the original nutrient con-
tent of the mixture, the season (weather and polli-
nation) when the mixture was put on the site, and/
or the compaction of the waste rock underneath.
As already mentioned authorities had claimed to
encourage rare species or even red list species to estab-
lish under difficult conditions. These areas still have
open vegetation, and show more variety in species.
6 GENERAL DISCUSSION
Observations made confirm that tip restoration
with mixed wastes, particularly sewage sludge, pro-
vides a practical long-term method for improving
the appearance and utility of otherwise barren or
patchily vegetated surfaces for which original soil
cover has been lost. Steeply sloping south facing
surfaces, more exposed to sunshine and drying
out, seemed to benefit from drought resistant spe-
cies but in general re-vegetation (in the sense of a
plant-covered surface) was successful regardless
of slope or aspect. Tips were re-vegetated for the
long term with little or no overall regression, i.e.,
loss of green cover (even though ruderal or pioneer
plants largely took over) and no deleterious leach-
ing of nutrients to the general environment. Under
the particular cooperative consortium conditions
employed the process was also economic.
During the 1015 year overall period of the
study, almost all the plants originally seeded on
the tips were replaced naturally by ruderal spe-
cies. However, although some shrubs and small
trees became established, there was little evidence
within the period of widespread natural progres-
sion to wooded landscapes. Without deeply rooted
species, particularly trees, distributed liberally over
the tip surfaces, especially on steep slopes, a meas-
ure of physical instability is expected. Indeed, some
8/27/2014 6:04:35 PM
 slumping could be seen at Duhamel. Biodiversity
also remained quite low. Clearly a longer period of
stabilization is required.
Nonetheless, as has been seen, the Reden tip
(and adjacent land) has become a pleasant pros-
pect as a multi-faceted public amenity. The tip at
Duhamel, while not now directly accessible, has
also become a more acceptable sight from adjacent
roadways. In respect of the steep slopes at this site,
it was interesting to note (in 2009) that the original
plant species Festuca rubra was replaced naturally
by Arrhenatherum elatiuswhich might be consid-
ered to be more drought resistant, tolerant of soil
movement, and suitable for a lower fertility soil.
Despite the technical and amenity success of
the endeavor described, regulatory conditions
have changed in Germany, causing a decrease in
re-cultivation by sewage spreading. Thus, the type
of process employed there would now be largely
impractical. Nonetheless, such a process could still
be envisaged elsewhere, e.g., in the UK or China.
More generally the process can be seen as an
early application of the principles of integrated
waste management (Dudeney et al. 2013) in which
all products of a mineral enterprise are considered
to be of value, even if left un-redeveloped for some
years after mineral production has ceased. As in
this work, a consortium of interested organiza-
tions would cooperate and participate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the European
Commission for funding the ROMBUSS project
and the consortium of partners for their contribu-
tions, especially Professor F. Ludwig Wilke and
Frank Repmann (Technical University Berlin); Pro-
fessor Sevket Durucan and Ji-Quan Shi (Imperial
College); David Brignall and Dolores Byrne (Wardell
Armstrong). Special thanks are also due to the site
personnel for assisting with the field visits, including
after the formal ROMBUSS project ended.
REFERENCES
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etationskundliche berlegungen zu Bergehalden im
Saarland. Natur und Landschaft 62(12).
Bradshaw, A.D. & Chadwick, M.J. 1980. The restoration
of land. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Brofas, G., Michopoulos, P. & Alifragis, D. 2000. Sewage
sludge as an amendment for calcareous bauxite mine
spoils reclamation. Journal of Environmental Quality
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Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the
quality of water intended for human consumption.
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Chu, L.M. & Bradshaw, A.D. 1996. The value of Pul-
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Dudeney, A.W.L., Chan, B.K.C., Bouzalakos, S. & Huis-
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Hester, R.E. & Harrison, R.M. 1997. Land Reclamation
after coal-mining operations. Contaminated land and
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Joost, R.E., Olsen, F.J. & Jones, J.H. 1987. Revegetation
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Formation of mineral N (NH4+, NO3) during miner-
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Regional Working Group on waste. http://www.
mwkel.rlp.de/File/Leitfaden-Strassenbauabfaelle-
pdf/. Accessed on 13 July 2014.
Pagliai, M. & Sequi, P. 1981. The influence of applica-
tions of slurries on soil properties related to run-
offexperimental approach in Italy. In Brogan J.C.
(ed.) Nitrogen losses and surface run-off from land-
spreading of manures. Wexford, May 2022, 1980.
The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers,
p. 4465.
ROMBUSS Final Report, 2002. Brite-EuRam III, Con-
tract No. BRPR-CT97-0578, Project No. BE97
4254. Rehabilitation and Revegetation of Mining
Waste-Dumps by the Use of Industrial and Domes-
tic Sewage Sludges from Waste-Water Purification
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Saarberg Brgerinformation 1994. Schlmme und
Holzreste machen die Halde schneller grn.
Smith, S.R. 1996. Agricultural recycling of sewage
sludge and the environment. Wallingford: CAB
International.
Smith, S.R., Hall, J.E. & Hadley, P. 1992a. Compositing
sewage sludge wastes in relation to their suitability for
use as fertilizer materials for vegetable crop produc-
tion. Acta Horticulturae 302: 203215.
Sopper, W.E., 1989. Utilisation of sewage sludge in the
United States for mine land reclamation, In Hall, J.E.
(ed.) Alternative uses for sewage sludge. WRc Med-
menham, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Stalljan, E. 1983. Standortfaktoren einer Abraumhalde
des Steinkohlebergbaus, Vereinigung fr angewandte
Botanik, Gttingen.
Stalljan, E. 1984. Standortverhltnisse und Begr-
nungsmglichkeiten von Bergehalden. Glckauf For-
schungshefte 45.
Tedesco, M.J., Teixeira, E.C., Medina, C. & Bugin, 1999.
A. Reclamation of spoil and refuse material produced
by coal mining using bottom ash and lime. Environ-
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Thorne, M.E., Zamora, B.A. & Kennedy, A.C. 1998.
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8/27/2014 6:04:36 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Mined land use selection using a modified version of TOPSIS method,

that can handle uncertainty, by accepting inputs as D numbers

V. Khechadoorian & M. Osanloo

Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: Mined land use management and mine reclamation are considered an undeniable compo-
nent of modern mining plan. Multi criteria decision making methods are one of the tools that have been
widely used in determining the appropriate alternative among all scenarios of land use, along with land
suitability analysis. But when applying a multi criteria decision making method, the criteria designed to be
used in the study are mainly cost oriented, or only technical aspects of the problem are considered. In this
study its tried to develop a new approach for after mining land use selection, by combining the concept
of D numbers introduced by Deng, with the TOPSIS method idea (shortest geometric distance from the
positive ideal solution and the longest geometric distance from the negative ideal solution). Criteria used
in the method are designed considering sustainable developments triple bottom line. Finally a case study
with real world data from Sarcheshmeh copper mine of Iran is provided to illustrate the model use. The
results show that the alternative museum or exhibition of mining innovations is the most appropriate one
among the others, according to the similarity index.

1 INTRODUCTION most cases multi criteria decision making meth-

The concept of sustainable development was first
introduced at the United Nations Earth Summit
Conference in Rio de janeiro, Brazil in 1992. It is
defined as follows: development that meets the
needs of the present, without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own
needs (Nathorial & Bardos, 2004). The concept
of sustainability is consisted of three components
named environmental, economical and social
(Allen, 1995). The unsustainable nature of mining
and mineral deposits has led the communities and
governors, to think a secondary operating plan
for mining sites after their depletion or closure,
so that the community and future generations will
have means to sustain their life in forms of a bet-
ter economical and social situation, in a healthy
environment.
In order to determine a proper post mining plan,
the first step is to determine the potential land
uses that fit the site specifications. Consultancy
about these alternatives should be made with com-
munities and stakeholders involved with the mine
site. Its very likely that more than one alternative
are suggested in this stage.
The second step is the choosing process of the
final plan among those suggested by previous stud-
ies, which should be the most feasible and proper
one of the available choices, with respect to the
policy made by governments or stakeholders. In
ods are the tools used for this purpose, but in most
studies evaluation criteria used in the models are
designed considering only the technical specifica-
tions of the mined land.
In this study evaluation criteria are designed
considering sustainable development, and a modi-
fied version of the TOPSIS multi criteria decision
making method is used, that accepts its input data
in a special form known as D numbers, which is
an extension of Dempster-Shafer theory of evi-
dence. A concept named super ideal solution space
is introduced that seems to be of great use when
deciding about land reclamation or post mining
land use.
1.1 Dempster-shafer theory of evidence
Dempster-Shafer theory of evidence is used to
handle uncertain information. It needs weaker
conditions than Bayesian theory of probabil-
ity. Dempster-Shafer theory of evidence has the
advantage of directly expressing uncertainty by
assigning the probability to the subsets of the set
composed of multiple objects, rather than to each
of the individual objects. The probability assigned
to each subset is limited by a lower bond and an
upper bond, which respectively measure the total
belief and the total plausibility for the objects in
the subset. Dempster-Shafer theory has the abil-
ity to combine pairs of bodies of evidence. A few

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 examples are here to illustrate the basic concepts
of the theory (Deng, 2012).
Let be a set of mutually exclusive and collec-
tively exhaustive events indicated by:
= {E1, E2, , Ei, , En} (1)
where set is called a frame of discernment. The
power set of is indicated by 2, namely
2 = {, {E1}, , {En}, {E1, E2}, ,
{E1, E2, , Ei}, , } (2)
The elements of 2 or subset of are called
propositions. For example if A 2, A is called a
proposition.
For a frame of discernment = {E1, E2, , En},
a mass function is a mapping m from 2 to [0,1],
formally defined by:
m: 2[0,1] (3)
which satisfies the following conditions:
m( ) = A2 m( A ) = 1 (4)
In DempsterShafer theory, a mass function is
also called a Basic Probability Assignment (BPA)
of the frame of discernment X. The assigned prob-
ability m(A) measures the belief exactly assigned
to A and represents how strongly the evidence sup-
ports A. If m(A) > 0, A is called a focal element,
and the union of all focal elements is called the
core of the mass function.
Associated with each mass function is the belief
measure and plausibility measure, Bel function and
Pl function respectively. For a proposition AC
the belief function Bel: 2[0,1] is defined as
Bel( A ) = BcA m(B) (5)
The plausibility function Pl: 2[0,1] is defined
as:
Pl( A ) Bel( A ) B
A m(B ) (6)
where = A.
Obviously, Pl(A) Bel(A), these functions Bel
and Pl are the lower limit function and upper limit
function of the probability to which proposition
A is supported, respectively. According to (Shafer,
1976) the difference between the belief and the
plausibility of a proposition A expresses the igno-
rance of the assessment for the proposition A.
Dempster-Shafer theory also has the ability to
combine bodies of evidence with Dempster-Shafer
rule of combination (Deng et al., 2014a; Deng,
2012; Deng et al., 2014b).
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 626
1.2 D numbers
D numbers were introduced by Deng and is used
by him in supplier selection and environmental
impact assessment problems.
D numbers are an extension of Dempster-
Shafer theory of evidence. Some strong hypoth-
eses regarding the frame of discernment and
basic probability assignment, limit the ability of
Dempster-Shafer theory to represent some kind
of information. First frames of discernment must
be a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
set. In most real world problems this hypothesis
is difficult to satisfy. For example linguistic terms
like good or bad, have intersections that this char-
acteristic questions the use of Dempster-Shafer
theory while converting linguistic values to numer-
ical ones.
Second, basic probability assignments in
Dempster-Shafer theory must be with complete
constraint or the summation of all focal elements
in a basic probability assignment must equal to 1.
But in most of the time the evaluators dont have
the overall knowledge and the assessment is only
on the basis of partial information (Deng, 2012).
To overcome these shortcomings of the
Dempster-Shafer theory D numbers were intro-
duced by Deng. Its defined as follows:
Definition 1. Let X be a finite nonempty set, D
numbers is a mapping formulated by:
D: [0,1] (9)
with
Bc ( ) 1 a d D( ) = 0 (10)
where is an empty set and B is a subset of .
It is found that the definition of D numbers
is similar to the definition of mass function.
But note that, first different from the concept of
frame of discernment in DempsterShafer theory,
the elements in set X do not require mutually
exclusive in D numbers. And second, the com-
pleteness constraint is released in D numbers. If
Bc ( ) = 1 the information is said to be com-
plete; if Bc ( ) 1, the information is said to
be incomplete. An illustrative example is given to
show the D numbers properties as below.
Example 1. Suppose a project is assessed, the
assessment score is represented by an interval
[0,100]. In the frame of DempsterShafer theory,
an expert could give a BPA to express his assess-
ment as:
m({a1}) = 0.2
m({a3}) = 0.7
m({a1, a2, a3}) = 0.1
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 where a1 = [0,40], a2 = [41,70], a3 = [71,100] the
set of {a1, a2, a3} is a frame of discernment in
Dempster-Shafer theory.
However, if another expert gives his assessment
result by using D numbers, it could be:
D({b1}) = 0
D({b3}) = 0.6
D({b1, b2, b3}) = 0.1
where b1 = [0,45], b2 = [38,73], b3 = [61,100].
Note that the set of {b1, b2, b3} is not a frame
of discernment actually, because the elements
in the set are not mutually exclusive. Due to:
D({b1}) + D({b3}) + D({b1, b2, b3}) = 0.9, the
information is incomplete. This example has
shown the differences between the mass function
and D numbers.
For a discrete set = {b1, b2, ..., bi, ..., bn}, where
bi R and bi bj if i j a special form of D numbers
can be expressed by
D({b1} = v1
D({b2}) = v2
D({bi} = vi
D({bn}) = vn (11)
or simply denoted as D = {(b1, v1)), (b2, v2), ..., (bi,
vi), ..., (bn, vn)}, where vi > 0 and n=1 vi 1.
Some properties of D numbers are introduced
as follows.
Definition 2. Permutation invariability. If there
are two D numbers that
D1 = {(b1, v1), , (bi, vi), , (bn, vn)}
and
D2 = {(bn, vn), , (bi, vi), , (b1, v1)}
then D1 D2.
Example 2. If there are two D numbers:
D1 = {(0,0.7), (1,0.3)} and D2 = {(1,0.3), (0,0.7)}
then
D1 D2.
Definition 3. For D = {(b1, v1), (b2, v2), , (bi,
vi), , (bn, vn)}, the integration representation of
D is defined as
I(D) = ni =1 b i v i (12)
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 627
where bi R, vi > 0 and ni =1 bi v i.
Example 3. Let D = {(1,0.2), (2,0.1), (3,0.3),
(4,0.3), (5,0.1)}, then
I(D) = 1 0.2 + 2 0.1+3 0.3
+ 4 0.3 + 5 0.1 = 3.0
There are also equations to combine bodies of
evidence in form of D numbers (Deng et al., 2014a;
Deng, 2012; Deng et al., 2014b).
2 METHODOLOGY AND CALCULATIONS
2.1 Defining assessment standards
Real world problems always have subjective prop-
erties that should be converted to numerical values.
This problem occurs specially when talking about
environmental or sustainable development issues.
The most common approach toward this problem
is to define a system that dedicates scores to sub-
jective values judged by the experts so these values
can be formulated. This approach has some short-
comings like the uncertainty with the conversion
process. Table 1 shows the assessment standard
used in this study.
Note: In this study the goal is to choose post
mining land use (considering sustainable devel-
opment), the conversion system has a midpoint
with a score of 5 that shows Situation will be
like pre/while mining times, because in most
cases the social and economical situation of an
area gets better with the starting of a mining
activity, while the environment gets damaged,
so pre mining situation should be considered for
environmental criteria and, while mining situa-
tion, for social and economical criteria. This kind
of scoring system will help us to develop a con-
cept named super ideal solution space that will be
explained later.
2.2 Generating the input of the system
(D numbers)
Assume there are 10 experts who are equally
authoritative. Five experts give their assess-
ment as Like pre/while mining situation, three
experts as Slightly worse than pre/while min-
ing situation and two experts as Slightly bet-
ter then while/pre mining situation. Now we
can generate D numbers as {(5, 0.5), (4, 0.3), (6,
0.2)}. The first parameters of a D number show
the score given by experts (Table 1) and the sec-
ond ones show the portion of the experts with
the same assessment. In this case its said that the
information is complete because all the experts
made assessments about the problem, or in other
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 Table 1. Assessment grades and their numerical values.

Description Numerical rating Assessment grade

Major positive effect on criteria compared to pre/while mining situation 10 E

Significantly better than pre/while mining situation 9 D
Moderately better than pre/while mining situation 8 C
Better then pre/while mining situation 7 B
Slightly better than pre/while mining situation 6 A
Like pre/while mining situation 5 N
Slightly worse than pre-while mining situation 4 A
Worse than pre/while mining situation 3 B
Moderately worse than pre/while mining situation 2 C
Significantly worse than pre/while mining situation 1 D
Major negative impact on criteria compared to pre/while mining situation 0 E

words the summation of the second parameters R11 R1m

is equal to 1.
R=    (14)
Now assume that there are 10 experts who are
equally authoritative. Five experts give their assess- Rn1 Rnm
ment as Like pre/while mining situation, three
experts as slightly worse than pre/while mining
situation, one expert as Slightly better than pre/ 2.4 Ideal and counter-ideal solution
while mining situation, and one expert thinks that In classic TOPSIS method the ideal solution is con-
its not possible to forecast the outcomes of the prob- sisted of the best scores experts give to alternatives
lem using the existing information. In this case the for each criteria but in this study the ideal solution
information is said to be incomplete and D numbers is when an alternative gains point 1 for cost related
will be generated as: {(5, 0.5), (4, 0.3), (6, 0.1)}. criteria and five for rest of the criteria. Its because,
Let x be the summation of the second param- this method is designed for mine reclamation or after
eters of D numbers. If x is equal to one then the mining land use selection and Its possible to make
information is said to be complete if not its said circumstances in an area better than what it was
that the information is incomplete and 1x is the before. Any alternative gaining more points than
uncertainty with the decision. Note that the uncer- this ideal solution is in the super-ideal solution space.
tainty with each alternative shouldnt be greater The counter-ideal solution is the solution that gains
than one otherwise that alternative is eliminated 5 for cost related criteria, and 1 for the rest of the
from the decision space. criteria.
2.3 Generating the decision matrix
The information collected from the experts is dis- 2.5 Calculating the geometric distance
played in form of a matrix. Assume there are n cri- from the ideal solution
teria and m alternative in the decision space. The Equations 15 and 16 are used to calculate the
decision matrix R will be generated as equation 14. geometric distance of the answers from the ideal
Elements of the matrix are in the form of D solutions:
numbers. The next step will be the normaliza-
tion of the decision matrix. In order to do so the
D numbers should be aggregated to gain a single d( iiw ) nj=1(t( ij) t( w
wj 2
i = 1, 2, ,m (15)
value. Equation 12 is used for this purpose.
After the aggregation of the D numbers for
the normalization process of the decision matrix,
d( ib ) nj=1(t(ij) t( b
bj 2
i = 1, 2, ,m (16)
equation 13 is used.
where(iw) and d(ib) are L2-norm distances from
R( ij
i) the target alternative i to the worst and best con-
i)=
t( ij ,i , , , m, j n
n
i =1 i )2
R( ij ditions, respectively. t(wj) is the normalized ideal
solution and t(bj) is the normalized counter-ideal
(13) solution.

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 2.6 Calculating the similarity to the worst
condition
d( iib )
S( iiw ) = , S( iw
i ) , i = 1, 2, , m.
(d( iw ) d( ib))
(17)
S(iw) = 1 if and only if the alternative solution
has the worst condition; and S(iw) = 0 if and only
if the alternative solution has the best condition.
Rank the alternatives according to Siw =
(i = 1,2, , m).
3 CASE STUDY-SARCHESHMEH
COPPER MINE
Sarcheshmeh Copper mine located in 160 km of
southwest of Kerman and 60 km of south of Raf-
sanjan. Geological reserve of mine has been esti-
mated over than 1.2 billion tons sulfur copper ore
deposit. Additional minerals such as molybdenum,
gold and silver were found in mine too. Sarchesh-
meh mine is considered to be the tenth largest cop-
per deposits worldwide. Currently the altitude of
the mine pit ranges from 2900 to 2300 meters and
it will range from 3100 to 2070 by the mines final
plan.
Production units of Sarcheshmeh Copper Com-
plex involve the mine, concentrator, smelter, refin-
ery, foundries and leaching.
After visiting the mine site and consulting the
mine experts, all of them had the opinion that,
Sarcheshmeh mine has a great effect on the area,
and definitely needs a good reclamation plan.
3.1 Potential after mining land uses
Mined land use must be compatible with the mine
site specification, and should be identified from a set
of potential choices. These choices can serve the com-
munity better, likewise or worse than mining times, in
economical, social and environmental aspects. Some
of the practiced after mining land uses are listed in
Table 2 (Soltanmohammadi et al., 2010).
Questionnaire forms were designed by the
authors to ask the mine experts about the best land
uses that fit the technical properties of the mine
area. The alternatives museum or exhibition of
mining innovations, shrubs and native forestation,
industrial plant and wildlife habitat were suggested
by most of the experts. According to the experts
opinion lake or pool choices were inappropriate
because of the presence of sulfuric minerals that
can easily generate sulfuric acid if contacted with
water. There is also a national park near the mine

Table 2. Formerly practiced mined land uses.

Land use types Exercised post-mining land uses Abbreviations

1. Agriculture Arable Farmland AF

Garden G
Pasture or Hay-land PH
Nursery N
2. Forestry Lumber Production LP
Woodland W
Shrubs and Native Forestation SNF
3. Lake or pool Aquaculture A
Sailing, Swimming, etc. SW
Water Supply WS
4. Intensive recreation Sport Field SF
Sailing, Swimming or Fishing SWF
Pond, etc. P
Hunting H
5. Non-intensive recreation Park and Open Green Space POGS
Museum or Exhibition of Mining MEMI
Innovations
6. Construction Residential R
Commercial C
Industrial I
Educational E
A sustainable community SC
7. Conservation Wildlife Habitat WH
Water Supply WS
8. Pit back filling Possibility of landfill (as a last resort) L

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 Table 3. Criterias designed to be used in the model. pit so hunting is prohibited in the area. The far dis-
tance of the mine from the nearest town (Rafsan-
Criteria Abbreviation jan) makes the recreational choices, not feasible.
Costs Operational CO
Capital CC 3.2 Criteria used in the model
Economical Society Income SI
Change in Real CRSV Note that the criteria were designed considering
State Value sustainable developments triple bottom line. In
Investment Absorption IA most studies the environmental, economical and
Change in Governmental CGI social impacts of the secondary land use is ignored
Income and only the compatibility of the alternatives with
Social Impact on Immigration II the existing environment is considered.
Impact on Life Quality ILQ Criteria designed to be used in the model are
Need of Educated NEW shown in Table 3.
Workforce
Impact on Education IE
Environmental Impact on Soil IS 3.3 Application of the model to the collected data
Impact on Air Quality IAQ
According to the scores given by the experts
Impact on Water Quality IWQ
Impact on Wildlife IW Table 4 is generated in D numbers form for each
alternative.

Table 4. Scores collected from the experts for each alternative, in D numbers form.

Alternative museum or exhibition

Criteria Alternative industrial of mining innovations

CO (2, 0.36), (3, 0.16), (7, 0.16), (4, 0.16) (1, 0.64), (2, 0.36)
CC (2, 0.36), (4, 0.48) (1, 0.48), (2, 0.36), (4, 0.16)
SI (2, 0.32), (4, 0.36), (9, 0.16) (1, 0.48), (2, 0.52)
CRSV (2, 0.32), (3, 0.16), (4, 0.2), (9, 0.16) (3, 0.48), (2, 0.2), (4, 0.16), (5, 0.16)
IA (2, 0.32), (3, 0.16), (4, 0.2), (8, 0.16) (3, 0.48), (2, 0.36), (4, 0.16)
CGI (1, 0.16), (2, 0.32), (4, 0.2), (9, 0.16) (1, 0.68), (2, 0.16), (3, 0.16)
II (1, 0.16), (2, 0.16), (4, 0.16), (5, 0.2), (7, 0.16) (1, 0.84), (2, 0.16)
ILQ (1, 0.16), (3, 0.16), (4, 0.36), (5, 0.16) (1, 0.36), (6, 0.48), (7, 0.16)
NEW (2, 0.32), (4, 0.2), (5, 0.16), (6, 0.16) (1, 0.52), (2, 0.48)
IE (2, 0.32), (4, 0.2), (5, 0.16), (6, 0.16) (2, 0.48), (5, 0.52)
IS (6, 0.32), (2, 0.16), (3, 0.2), (5, 0.16) (5, 0.36), (6, 0.16), (7, 0.16)
IAQ (1, 0.16), (3, 0.2), (5, 0.32), (6, 0.16) (2, 0.48), (5, 0.52)
IWQ (1, 0.16), (3, 0.2), (5, 0.32), (6, 0.16) (5, 0.2), (6, 0.16), (7, 0.32), (8, 0.16), (10, 0.16)
IW (6, 0.16), (5, 0.16), (1, 0.16), (3, 0.2), (4, 0.16) (5, 0.36), (7, 0.48), (8, 0.16)

Criteria Alternative shrubs and native forestation Alternative wildlife habitat

CO (1, 0.84) (1, 0.32), (2, 0.36)

CC (1, 0.48), (2, 0.36) (1, 0.16), (2, 0.32), (3, 0.2)
SI (1, 0.48), (2, 0.2), (3, 0.16) (1, 0.16), (2, 0.32), (3, 0.2)
CRSV (1, 0.36), (2, 0.32), (7, 0.16) (1, 0.16), (2, 0.16), (3, 0.2), (6, 0.16)
IA (1, 0.48), (2, 0.2), (3, 0.16) (1, 0.32), (2, 0.16), (5, 0.2)
CGI (1, 0.84) (1, 0.48), (4, 0.2)
II (1, 0.64), (2, 0.2) (1, 0.32), (2, 0.16), (4, 0.2)
ILQ (1, 0.16), (2, 0.2), (6, 0.32), (10, 0.16) (1, 0.16), (4, 0.2), (6, 0.16), (8, 0.16)
NEW (1, 0.64), (2, 0.2) (1, 0.32), (2, 0.16), (4, 0.2)
IE (1, 0.48), (2, 0.36) (1, 0.48), (4, 0.2)
IS (6, 0.16), (7, 0.16), (8, 0.36), (10, 0.16) (7, 0.36), (8, 0.16), (10, 0.16)
IAQ (7, 0.16), (8, 0.36), (9, 0.16), (10, 0.16) (7, 0.36), (9, 0.16), (10, 0.16)
IWQ (6, 0.16), (7, 0.36), (8, 0.16), (10, 0.16) (6, 0.36), (8, 0.16), (10, 0.16)
IW (7, 0.2), (8, 0.16), (9, 0.16), (10, 0.32) (6, 0.32), (8, 0.16), (10, 0.2)

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 Note that information for the alternative SNF is
not complete because the sum of all second param-
eters of the D numbers for each criteria is 0.84. So
the amount of uncertainty for this alternative is
0.16. Thats because one of the experts didnt give
any scores for this alternative (didnt find it suit-
able for the mine site). Its also true for the alter-
native I. But for alternatives MEMI and WH the
information is completed because the sum of all
the D numbers second parameter for each criteria
is equal to one.
For next step the D numbers aggregated deci-
sion matrix is generated using equation 1.
Next the normalized decision matrix is
generated.
As explained earlier the ideal choice will be the
alternative that gains the score 1 for the cost related
criteria and 5 for the rest of the criteria, while its
information is completed. So the ideal solution will
get the score 1, for the cost related criteria, and 5
for the rest of the criteria, in the aggregated D num-
bers matrix. In normalized aggregated D numbers
matrix the score for the cost related criteria will be
0.057, and 0.287 for the rest of the criteria. So all
the scores greater than 0.287, for non economical
criteria show the super ideal solution space. The
geometrical distance of the alternatives from the
ideal solution should be calculated.
About the counter-ideal solution, that gains 5
for cost related criteria and 1 for the rest of the cri-
teria while information being complete, in the nor-
malized decision matrix the score for cost related
criteria will be 0.635 and 0.127 for the rest of the
criteria. The geometric distance of the alterna-
tives from the counter-ideal solution is shown in
Table 7.
The similarity of the alternatives to the
counter-ideal solution is calculated in Table 8.

Table 5. Aggregated decision matrix.

Criteria Alternative I Alternative MEMI Alternative SNF Alternative WH

CO 2.96 1.36 0.84 1.04

CC 2.64 1.84 1.2 1.4
SI 3.52 1.52 1.36 1.24
CRSV 3.36 3.28 2.12 2.04
IA 3.2 2.8 1.36 1.64
CGI 3.04 1.48 0.84 1.28
II 3.24 1.16 1.04 1.44
ILQ 2.88 4.36 4.08 3.2
NEW 3.2 1.48 1.04 1.44
IE 3.2 3.56 1.2 1.28
IS 3.64 3.88 6.56 5.4
IAQ 3.32 3.56 7.04 5.56
IWQ 3.32 7.08 6.36 5.04
IW 3.16 6.44 7.32 5.2

Table 6. Normalized form of the aggregated decision matrix.

Criteria Alternative I Alternative MEMI Alternative SNF Alternative WH

CO 0.247 0.100 0.057 0.087

CC 0.22 0.13 0.081 0.117
SI 0.29 0.112 0.092 0.104
CRSV 0.28 0.11 0.143 0.171
IA 0.267 0.20 0.092 0.137
CGI 0.25 0.109 0.056 0.107
II 0.270 0.08 0.070 0.121
ILQ 0.240 0.32 0.276 0.269
NEW 0.267 0.109 0.070 0.121
IE 0.267 0.26 0.081 0.107
IS 0.30 0.28 0.444 0.454
IAQ 0.277 0.26 0.476 0.467
IWQ 0.277 0.52 0.430 0.423
IW 0.263 0.47 0.495 0.437

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 Table 7. The geometrical distance of the alternatives Table 8. The similarity of the alternatives
from the ideal and counter ideal solutions. to the counter ideal solution.

Geometrical Geometrical distance Similarity to the

distance from from counter- Alternatives counter-ideal solution
Alternatives ideal solution ideal solution
I 0.743293
I 0.2615014 0.7571783 MEMI 0.753565
MEMI 0.3091245 0.9437393 SNF 0.722186
SNF 0.4041967 1.0507264 WH 0.751925
WH 0.3296680 0.9992367

Table 9. Ranking of the alternatives according to different policies in Sarcheshmeh copper mine.

Ranks according to the number

Ranks according to Ranks according to of assessments in the super ideal
Alternatives the similarity index the amount of uncertainty solution space

I 3 2 3
MEMI 1 1 2
SNF 4 2 1
WH 2 1 1

Now the alternatives can be ranked according to
the similarity index (Table 9).
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
While dealing with real world problems, there are
always subjective judgments that should be con-
verted to numerical values. Theres always some
uncertainty with this conversion process. This is
specially true when the problem is about mine sus-
tainable development.
In this study a new approach for converting
subjective values to numerical ones, is introduced,
using an extension of Dempster-Shaffer theory,
named D numbers that has the advantage that can
directly present the amount of uncertainty with the
problem. Also TOPSIS method has the advantage
that the results of the selection process are asso-
ciated with smaller amount of risk compared to
other multi criteria decision making methods like
VIKOR method.
The combination of these models while keep-
ing the advantages of the classic TOPSIS method,
makes it easier to handle risk and uncertainty, for
the decision maker.
This model is useful for every decision making
problem associated with uncertainty.
This model also has the advantage that shows
flexibility in the selection process, so that the alterna-
tive rankings can be changed according to the policy
made by the decision makers. The application of this
model to Sarcheshmeh copper mine in Iran ranked
the reclamation alternatives as shown as Table 9.
As its visible the alternative museum or exhibi-
tion of mining innovations gained the first rank
according to similarity index and the amount of
uncertainty. These results seem logical because
using the mine site as a museum or exhibition,
doesnt need any major preparation and just needs
the full scale mining activities to be ceased, so
theres not much amount of uncertainty or risk
associated with this plan.
The alternative shrubs and native forestation
gained the first rank according to number of
assessments in super ideal solution space. This
one also seems logical, because covering the
mining site with native flora will make the envi-
ronmental situation of the area, almost like pre
mining times.
Using the area as a wildlife habitat, has the same
effect as shrubs and native forestation, because
native fauna can not survive without native flora.
Alternative industrial didnt gain the first rank
for any of the policies due to the harms it will do to
the environment and lesser economical and social
benefits it has, compared to mining activity.
REFERENCES
Allan, R. 1995. Sustainable mining in the future: journal
of Geochemical Exploration. Vol. 52: 14.
Dempster A. 1967. Annals of mathematics and statistics.
38: Upper and lower probabilities induced by a multi-
valued mapping: 325339.
Deng, Y. 2012. D numbers: theory and applications:
Journal of information & computational science.
9(9):24212428.

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 Deng, X., Hu, Y., Deng, Y. & Mahadevan, S. 2014a.
Supplier selection using AHP methodology extended
by D numbers: Expert systems with applications.
41:156167.
Deng, X., Hu, Y., Deng, Y. & Mahadevan, S. 2014b.
Environmental impact assessment based on D numbers:
Expert systems with applications. 41:635643.
Nathorial, C.P. & Bardos, R.P. 2004. Reclamation of con-
taminated lands: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. P 212.
Shafer, G. 1976. A mathematical theory of evidence, Prin-
ceton: Princeton university press.
Soltanmohammadi, H., Osanloo, M. & Aghajani, A.
2008a. Deriving preference order of post-mining land
use through MLSA framework: application of an
outranking technique. Environ Geol, DOI 10.1007/
s002540081563-y, Sprinder verlag.
Soltanmohammadi, H., Osanloo, M. & Aghajani, A.
2008b. In: Post-mining symposium, Nancy, France.
Developing a fifty attribute framework for mined land
suitability analysis using AHP-TOPSIS approach.
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Soltanmohammadi, H., Osanloo, M., Rezai, B. &
Aghajani Bazzazi, A. 2008c. Achieving to some out-
ranking relationships between post mining land uses
through mined land suitability analysis: International
journal of environmental science and technology 5(4),
535546.
Soltanmohammadi, H., Osanloo, M. & Sami, A. 2008d.
In:3rd international seminar on mine closure, Johan-
nesburg, Sout Africa. Suitability analysis for post-
closure management options using a multi-stakeholder
decision support tool.
Soltanmohammadi, H., Osanloo, M. & Aghajani Baz-
zazi, A. 2010. An analytical approach with a reliable
logic and a ranking policy for post-mining land-use
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Why restore habitat? A case study on one small corner of the world:
The cultural, regulatory, and public health drivers of habitat restoration
in San Diego, California, USA

M. Nieto & R.T. MacAller

RECON Environmental Inc., San Diego, CA, USA

ABSTRACT: Local population growth fuels the demand for food, housing, infrastructure, raw materi-
als, energy, and countless other needs to sustain thriving human communities. These consumptive needs
can put significant strains on open spaces, natural resources, air and water quality, and can ultimately
degrade the overall quality of human life. At the local level decision makers are confronted by competing
pressures from regulatory requirements, to community needs, to business drivers in an effort to find a bal-
ance between natural resources and the economic needs of the people. The primary aim of this presenta-
tion is to share with the global community how this balancing act is successfully unfolding and evolving in
a growing metropolitan communitythe city of San Diego, California, USA. In addition, the presenta-
tion will describe the unique challenges of the region and translate the successes and failures into lessons
to aid others in their balancing efforts. A key component of obtaining this balance in the region is through
the restoration of sensitive ecosystems and habitat to replace what has been lost in the development of
housing, infrastructure, and mining. Innovations in habitat restoration have been successfully employed
to repair and mitigate impacts from these economically necessary developments, while improving air and
water quality, providing habitat for sensitive species, and satisfying the citizens need for open spacean
important resource for the community.

1 INTRODUCTION 200 undeveloped urban drainages and canyons

The City of San Diego is a growing, major city on
the Pacific coast of the United States. San Diego is
located in on the southwestern tip of the state of
California, approximately 120 miles south of Los
Angeles on the border with Mexico. The region is a
hot spot for natural resources and has a trajectory
of rapidly growing urban development. San Diego
has become a de facto laboratory of policy and res-
toration innovations for balancing civic needs and
the environment.
A part of the reason for San Diegos high level of
biodiversity is also responsible for the regions pen-
chant for urban developmentmainly its unique
climate and varied topography. San Diego has a
near perfect Mediterranean climate with warm,
dry summers and mild winters with most rainfall
occuring between December and March (Allaby
2006). This climate pattern is unique within North
America, is only found in five regions on the globe,
and, in addition to providing year-round recrea-
tional opportunities, has evolved a unique set of
flora and fauna. The city of San Diego is char-
acterized by dissected canyon-mesa topography.
Most urban development has taken place on the
flat, easily-constructible mesa tops, leaving over
(Schad 2011). These canyons act as both refugia
for plant and wildlife species as well as drainages
for ephemeral streams and wetlands. The region
has seven major watersheds which generally flow
east to west, starting as small ephemeral drainages
which join others to form larger intermittent and
perennial river systems terminating in coastal estu-
aries and lagoons (Lightner 2011).
2 ECONOMY, POPULATION,
AND POLLUTION
2.1 Economy
San Diego has a strong, growing economy
with a Gross Metropolitan Product (GMP) of
187.6 billion dollars in 2013, and a labor force
of approximately 1.6 million (NUSIPR 2013).
The metropolitan economy is resilient due to a
combination of revenue sources, including techni-
cally advanced research facilities, a thriving mili-
tary industry, a climate which attracts tourists as
well as an educated and talented workforce, and
global trade. San Diego is home to three major
universities. These research facilities have spurred
growth and the creation of an innovation hub for

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 biotechnology, genomics, communications, cyber-
security, and clean tech (NUSIPR 2013). San
Diego is also home to the Pacific Fleet of the US
Navy. In addition to direct military employment,
approximately 5% of civilian jobs in San Diego
are military-related (Ham 2008). A mild climate,
beaches, and visitor attractions contribute to
tourism, as the regions third largest industry.
Tourism contributes approximately 18.7 billion
to the Gross Regional Product (GRP) (San Diego
Tourism Authority 2014). In addition, San Diegos
deep water port and proximity to U.S.-Mexico
border crossings have made it a locus for interna-
tional trade.
2.2 Population
San Diego is the second most populous city in the
state of California and the seventh largest city in
the United States (US Census 2010). Its population
has been steadily rising since 1950 and is expected
to continue to grow into the foreseeable future.
Before World War II the San Diego region had a
relatively small a population of 560 K. In 1960,
the post-World War II baby boom nearly doubled
the population. Since then, San Diego County has
grown at a slowly decreasing rate of approximately
500 K per decade, with a current population of
near 3.2 M. In 2050, the projected population is
expected to be 4.4 M. (SANDAG 1999, 2010). As a
result of a growing economy, growing population,
and prime coastal location, southern California
has some of the most expensive undeveloped land
values in the world (Meffe et al. 2002).
2.3 Pollution
With increased population and urbanization, envi-
ronmental pollution has become an increasing
concern for San Diego residents. Land use conver-
sion in California (especially changes from open
space and agricultural to urban uses) has had a
negative impact on water quality in the State with
the majority of deleterious effects coming from
Non-Point Source pollution (NPS) (Charbonneau
1993). NPS does not originate from a single dis-
charge point, but comes from a variety of diffuse
sources, including surface runoff, percolation,
and atmospheric deposition (USEPA 1987). The
largest NPS in California by volume is suspended
sediment and nutrient pollution (nitrogen
phospohorus) (Charbonneau 1993). Soil erosion is
a major environmental challenge in the US, with
total costs estimated in billions of dollars (Pimental
1995). Erosion from rainfall and wind transport-
ing exposed soil is especially significant on slopes.
Soil erosion can cause a loss of soil water reten-
tion, soil nutrients, ecological processes, fisheries,
636
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 636
siltation rates, public health concerns related to air
and water quality, and leads to an increased cost
of water treatment (Gray 1989). In urban areas
increased storm runoff and stream channel erosion
can significantly increase downstream sediment
loads, due to increased magnitude and frequency
of hydrologic flows in watersheds with a large per-
centage of impermeable surfaces (Trimble 1975).
One urbanized stream in Southern California, San
Diego Creek, eroded 100,000 megagrams of sedi-
ment per year over a 10 year period (Trimble 1997).
In addition to suspended sediment pollution, run-
off from agricultural and urban land uses can be
high in nitrate-nitrogen and phosphorus, and can
stimulate eutrophication (Zedler 2005). This ero-
sion can also alter stream flow patterns and overall
functioning of coastal and riparian ecosystems,
degrading habitat for native plant and animal pop-
ulations (California Land Use Partnership 2014).
3 SAN DIEGO NATURAL RESOURCES
AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Varied topography, wide variety of micro climates,
unique edaphic characteristics, regional isola-
tion, and a Mediterranean climate have produced
a myriad of endemic species and habitats within
San Diego County. The region is home to over
2,000 species of native plantsmore than any
other area of similar acreage in the United States
(Rebman and Simpson 2006). A total of 162 dis-
tinct vegetation communities have been identified
in western San Diego County including variants
of pine forests, oak woodlands, riparian forests,
coastal sage scrub, chaparral, grasslands, marshes,
and vernal pools (SANDAG 2011).
The combination of high, localized biodi-
versity and urbanization pressures described
above has led to some troubling statistics. As a
state, California has more threatened and endan-
gered species than any other in the continental
United States (USFWS 2014). Within the state,
San Diego stands out as a hot spot of threat-
ened natural resources. Coastal sage scrub, a
low-growing shrubland vegetation community,
dominates many upland areas in western San
Diego and is considered the ninth most endan-
gered ecosystem in the continental United States
having lost 90% of its area in the last 100 years
(Noss and Peters 1995). San Diego County has
44 Federally Threatened and Endangered (T&E)
species, which is more than the T&E species of 35
States (USFWS 2014a). The T&E species within
San Diego County account for 14% of the total
for the entire State (44 of 319), even though the
county accounts for only 3% of the land area of
California (USFWS 2014a, US Census 2010).
8/27/2014 6:04:43 PM
 In addition to the philosophical need to preserve
biodiversity, natural habitats within San Diego
provide ecosystem services which help preserve ele-
ments of quality of life for San Diego residents.
Ecosystem services are ways in which human-
ity benefits from ecosystem processes (Costanza
1999). Ecosystem services provided by San Diego
habitat include: water filtration to improve water
quality, flood absorption, denitrification, soil
conservation and stabilization, noise abatement,
carbon sequestration, and less quantifiable serv-
ices such as improved aesthetics and recreation
opportunities.
Water purification by wetlands has been well
established (Tilton et al. 1976). In addition to natu-
ral wetlands within drainages and lagoons, artificial
wetlands (planted with native species) play a sig-
nificant role in secondary and advanced (Nitrogen
removal) waste treatment in San Diego County
(Gersberg 1986). For instance, locally native reeds
and bulrushes (Phragmites sp. and Scirpus sp.)
were shown to be very efficient at removing ammo-
nia and nitrates from effluent in waste treatment
plants. The oxidized rhizospheres on deep root
bases of the reeds and bulrushes are implicated
in increasing the ability of sediment microbes to
denitrify effluent waters (Gersberg 1986).
San Diego also suffers from occasional, but
intense, flooding. A flood in 1980 on the San
Diego River caused an estimated 120 million dol-
lars of damage (Bainbridge 1997). Globally, the
loss of wetlands and their ability to absorb large
amounts of flood waters has amplified the inten-
sity and economic cost of flooding (Ramsar 2002).
Vegetated waterways in San Diego have been
estimated to reduce the need for water retention
structures by 82 million cubic feet, translating into
$164 million dollars per 20 year construction cycle
(USDA 2003). The same study estimated that City
of San Diego urban and open space vegetation
removed $10.8 million dollars worth of air pollu-
tion, and sequestered over 9,000 tons of carbon
per year (USDA 2003).
4 REGULATION AND RESTORATION
Native plant communities and sensitive species in
San Diego are regulated by a myriad of Federal,
State, and local agencies with varying goals, man-
dates, and jurisdictions. San Diego has several reg-
ulatory frameworks which require the permitting
of impacts to these locally important resources.
Any permitted impacts are usually accompanied
by required mitigation measures, often including
habitat restoration.
The Federal government regulates impacts to
wetlands and sensitive species, using a regulatory
637
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 637
tool kit which includes the Clean Water Act (CWA)
and Endangered Species Act (ESA). The primary
agency involved in wetland regulation is the US
Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) through the
authority of Section 404 of CWA and Section 10
of the Rivers and Harbors Act. Mitigation, includ-
ing avoidance and compensatory mitigation, is
tied to the permitting process under Section 404
(Kruczynshi 1990). In addition to section 404 of
the CWA, wetlands are regulated under a no-
overall net loss policy from Section 307 of the
Water Resources Development Act. This policy
is intended to prevent the loss of wetland acreage
and/or functions and values due to development.
The wetland acreage versus functions/values
debate is controversial and will be discussed fur-
ther below. In San Diego County compensatory
mitigation has resulted in an increase of 51% of
total wetland area in 1991 (Fenner 1991). The ESA
is administered by the US Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice (USFWS) which permits and mitigates signifi-
cant impacts to Federally listed sensitive species via
the requirement to produce Habitat Conservation
Plans (HCPs) which can also include measures for
avoidance, minimization, and restoration.
The State of California regulates wetlands and
habitats with the Regional Water Quality Control
Board (RWQCB), which asserts jurisdiction over
all state waters and wetlands via the CWA and the
California Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
Act. The California Department of Fish and
Wildlife (CDFW) regulates riparian habitats asso-
ciated with watercourses and State sensitive species
via sections 16001607 of the Fish and Game Code
and California Endangered Species Act (CESA),
respectively.
At a local level, the San Diego region has several
policies and plans which also encourage conserva-
tion and restoration. The Multiple Species Conser-
vation Program (MSCP) is a regional plan which
comprehensively addresses development impacts
to selected sensitive species and native vegetation
communities. The study area includes 900 square
miles in western San Diego County (Ogden 1998).
In general terms, the MSCP is a planning document
which balances economic growth and ecological
priorities to allow development of low quality habi-
tats, while encouraging the conservation and resto-
ration of high quality sensitive natural resources at
a regional level. The MSCP study area includes the
majority of private land in the county, which has
a higher potential to be developed and will likely
require federal and state permitting. As a result of
several sewage spills into wetlands, the San Diego
City Council passed the San Diego City Council
Policy 400-14, which encourages the relocation of
sewer infrastructure outside of environmentally
sensitive lands to avoid impacts to wetlands and
8/27/2014 6:04:43 PM
 other sensitive habitats when economically feasi-
ble. Impacts associated with the relocation of sewer
infrastructure as a result of this policy often result
in the restoration of wetland and upland habitats
in urban canyons in San Diego.
5 LESSONS LEARNED
Conservation and restoration in San Diego has
been developing over the past 40 years. Over that
time, the process has evolved, and challenges and
successes in land planning, restoration, and eco-
system service maintenance have been identified.
5.1 Land planning
Urban and suburban sprawl in California has
been shown to limit economic opportunities, com-
petitiveness, and environmental quality (Bank of
America, resource agency of California 2004).
Large challenges to sensitive natural resources
can be regional in scale and difficult to solve with
parcel-by-parcel treatments. In order to meet mac-
ro-scale environmental challenges, regional land
planning and habitat conservation should be inter-
related and codependent (Greer 2004). The MSCP
plan was created to provide a regional frame-
work for local semi-independent jurisdictions
with built-in flexibility for those jurisdictions to
develop according to their specific needs. Another
planning success in the region has been Smart
growth policies. These policies are currently in
place in the City and County of San Diego, and
encourage growth in areas with existing infra-
structure and reduce development expansion into
agricultural and open space areas (Greer 2004).
Incorporating reliable conservation funding into
the planning process has been problematic. As
sensitive habitats and wetlands within the MSCP
preserve areas will require maintenance in perpe-
tuity, there is a necessity for increased, long term
funding for management, maintenance, monitor-
ing, and land acquisitions of preserve areas (Greer
2004).
5.2 Restoration planning
Restoration areas are increasingly limited in avail-
ability and affordability. Because there is little
flexibility in site selection, detailed restoration
planning becomes very important to ensuring suc-
cess. Comprehensive ecological variables need to be
integrated into restoration planning for long term
sustainability. These variables include: hydrology,
salinity, soil grain size, soil fertility, and target spe-
cies pollinators (Zedler 1996). Targeted improve-
ments on degraded ecosystems offer the most hope
638
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 638
for the restoration of ecosystem services, while
creation of ecosystems in areas where they have
not existed before offer the least hope of success
(Palmer 2009). As the science of restoration ecol-
ogy is relatively young, experimentation and adap-
tive management must be part of many restoration
strategies (Zedler 1996).
Created ecosystems have been most successful
when located adjacent to existing habitats of the
same type (Zedler 1996). Reduction of habitat
fragmentation has been shown to reduce resto-
ration lagthe delayed development of habitat
functions and values after restoration implemen-
tation has been completed (Hexel &Hastings
1999). Patches of habitats connected by cor-
ridors will decrease restoration lag depending
on target species specific dispersal abilities and
requirements (Rosenberg et al. 1997). In general,
smaller habitat restoration projects have lower
resiliency than larger sites (Huxel & Hasting
1999, Zedler 1996).
Assessments, such as the California Rapid
Assessment Methodology (CRAM) and Hydroge-
omorphic Model (HGM) are currently being used
throughout California to quantify functions and
values of existing and restored wetlands (Wiskind
2008 & Smith et. al 1995). The results of func-
tional assessments of past wetland restoration
efforts in southern California have been troubling.
HGM was used to study 70 wetland restoration
sites in Orange County, just north of San Diego,
with similar natural resources and urbanization
pressures (Sudol 1996). When HGM scores for
these mitigation sites were compared to scores at
seven reference sites, it was found that none of the
sites were successful, even when a success thresh-
old was set at 80% of functional capacity scores
of the reference sites. Inadequate site hydrology
(in the form of appropriate stream channel and
floodplain formation) was deemed the main factor
in functional site failure. If restoration success for
these projects were judged solely on acreage based
on the Federal no-net loss policy, they would
be considered successful, even while dramatically
failing to produce the functions and values of the
original wetlands.
It also may be inaccurate to assume that habi-
tat restoration planning will result in a decrease
of overall municipal revenue. In a 2014 study,
the USFWS found that salt marsh restoration in
the South San Diego Bay National Wildlife refuge
created 130 jobs, $7.3 M in direct investment, and
$13.4 M in local revenue (USFWS 2014b). This
economic estimate does not include other potential
benefits from increased ecosystem services in San
Diego Bay, including augmented game fisheries,
improved water quality, rising property values, and
enhanced quality of life near open space.
8/27/2014 6:04:44 PM
 5.3 Ecosystem services
As noted above, restoration sites (particularly
aquatic sites) are not providing equivalent ecosys-
tem services as previously impacted habitats. If
improved ecosystem services are a target of habitat
restoration, it is important to measure the relation-
ship between both ecosystem processes and serv-
ices (Palmer 2009).
Some caution should be exercised in solely focus-
ing restoration efforts on specific ecosystem services,
as biodiversity goals an ecosystems services are not
necessarily related. Restoration efforts focusing on a
single ecosystem service can negatively impact biodi-
versity or other desired ecosystem services (Bullock
2011). There may be inherent tradeoffs between bio-
diversity and ecosystem services depending on the
goals of the project (ex: plantation forests have high
carbon sequestration values but low biodiversity).
That being said, studies in Oregon have found a
strong correlation between biodiversity and ecosys-
tem services (Nelson 2009).
6 CONCLUSION
There is an old trope about ecology that it isnt
rocket science; its much harder than that (Hill-
born and Ludwig 1993). Over the last 40 years, con-
servation planning and restoration in San Diego
has struggled to protect biodiversity and ecosys-
tem services under increasing development pres-
sure and the disappearance of open space. Habitat
restoration, under a regional planning framework,
provides a tool to successfully achieve conserva-
tion and public health goals. However, care must
be taken to ensure restoration is carefully planned
and implemented to truly achieve ecosystem func-
tions, values, and services.
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State University.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

A case study of land reclamation and ecological restoration of mine

F.D. Liu, X.Z. Xu, C.B. Zhao & C.X. Ji

A.A. Inner Mongolia Fu Cheng Mining Co., Ltd., Inner Mongolia Province, China

ABSTRACT: Mine land reclamation and ecological restoration is a comprehensive system engineering,
involving many aspects of technology, organization and management work. Regions relate to land,
mineral company, environmental protection, land resources, finance and other departments of agriculture
and forestry. In the mining area environmental protection and comprehensive management, land reclama-
tion and vegetation restoration is the most effective way. Aim is to achieve the ecological restoration area,
forming a comprehensive ecological, social and economic utilization. The government should strengthen
the investment, at the same time, the correct guidance, guidance, encourage enterprises to take this job
to run as an industrial mining enterprise, the reasonable coordination of land reclamation and ecological
restoration in the process of the ecological benefits, social benefits and economic benefits of the rela-
tionship between the ecological benefits, economic basis, benefits for the purpose, the land reclamation
and ecological restoration of ecological benefits and social benefits into economic benefits, the realization
of local and enterprise winwin benefit, the benefit of the people.

1 INTRODUCTION little money used to protect environment results in

Mineral land reclamation and ecological restora-
tion is a comprehensive work that related to tech-
nology, organization, management and so on. In
terms of one zone, it involves some departments
consisted of land, mine cooperation, environment,
resource, finance, agriculture, forestry and so on.
Land reclamation and vegetation recovery is the
best solution to protect mineral environment and
improve all. Only study the theory in degenera-
tion and renovation of mineral ecology and var-
ied pattern of mineral land mass can we solve the
question of land reclamation and ecological resto-
ration of mine. Research and spread technology of
strengthening vegetation recovery, renewing earth,
recycling solid and liquid scrap to renovate envi-
ronment of local zone so that combine ecology,
society and economy to make economic profit,
social profit and ecological profit. Thus, mine
cooperation should make it be industry to deal for
reaching winwin between government and mine
cooperation that will make profit for local people.
Broadly, the profit of land reclamation and eco-
logical restoration of mine which consists of mining,
compositive use of mineral resource, land reclama-
tion and ecological renovation starts with mining
coal until achieve mineral renovate results. As usu-
ally, the profit of mining keeps separate accounts,
and there exists a special computing rule between
cooperation and local tax revenue. It belongs to the
profit which sells the mineral resource, and apply
in something besides mine, whats more, the fact of
excluding the profit of mining from profit of land
reclamation and ecological restoration of mine.
Competitive use of mineral resource that influ-
ences foregone evaluating profit and profit of land
reclamation and ecological restoration of mine is
the end of researching, prospecting, evaluating,
and exploiting. It is a complicated evaluate system
consists of geology, exploiting technology, wash-
ing, economy, society, and so on. Since its com-
plexity, the profit of compositive use of mineral
resource is excluded from profit of land reclama-
tion and ecological restoration of mine.
In narrow sense, profit of land reclamation and
ecological reconstruction of mine only means two
parts: the benefit of land reclamation and eco-
logical restoration. Because of mine land recla-
mation and ecological reconstruction of mining
enterprises, local farmers and herdsmen and the
government, society, which have different require-
ments, objectives and benefits of the medium and
long term; In a certain period of time, one stage
of system is damaged with ecosystem, another
may enter the ecological model establishment
stage, and something else has already entered the
dynamic the balance ecological system, and differ-
ent stages have different requirements of function
and benefit; staggered measures and its function,
benefit in the process of reconstruction, and the
duration of the different. Therefore, the land rec-
lamation and ecological reconstruction in mining
area is difficult to be analyzed with conventional
methods and indexes of benefit. At the same time,

641

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 641 8/27/2014 6:04:44 PM

 affected by unpredictable inflation influence, eco-
logical restoration which be completed nearly half
a century, is also difficult to analyzed by eco-
nomic value. Benefit mainly focused on the eco-
logical benefit and social benefit, economic benefit
and longterm development and the ultimate goal
of embodiment.
The most serious problem is the destruction of
land resources during mining exploitation. The
characteristic of large amount exploiting and
dumping can result in ground subsidence, large
area of topsoil stripping layer, unreasonable occu-
pied in fertile, sharp decline in arable land. With
the mining depth, the destruction of land resources
will be more and more serious.
Because of the mine environment and land
ecological problems associated with the mining
enterprise life cycle, this determines that the land
reclamation and ecological restoration is a long
and arduous work: solving the environmental
problems such as land subsidence, waste water
discharge and slag discharge that will occur dur-
ing the process of production and development; at
the same time, we need to solve difficult problems
of ecological reclamation, the scope resulting from
land subsidence along with benefit of company.
Therefore, the land reclamation and ecological res-
toration of mine which needs a longterm planning
and management plan, step by step, step by step
to implement cannot be a short time, a onetime
investment to finish.
2 AFFECTING FACTORS OF MINE
LAND RECLAMATION AND
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Mine land reclamation and ecological restoration,
environmental governance problem belongs to a
mine, the main factors affecting the work are as
follows:
1. Mining area is the ecological environment is
fragile, easily damaged, and ecological restora-
tion period. Such the northwest arid and Semi-
arid Desertification Area: less precipitation,
poor soil, sandy soil, poor water retention. With
the mine mining, the ground vegetation damag-
ing, ground subsiding, water leveling, resto-
ration of the ecological environment is more
difficult.
2. Only the discharge of pollutants is considered in
original environmental protection measures that
vegetation restoration, especially land reclama-
tion and vegetation recovery is not involved.
3. Mineral resources management system is
not perfect. At present, the management of
mineral resources asseted in China is relatively
642
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 642
backward, mine environmental governance
being lack of capital investment, the mine envi-
ronment to restore is in great pressure.
4. Initial mine construction damaged vegetation a
lot; Because there is no waste discharge site con-
struction and environmental protection facilities
construction is not built, which results in solid,
liquid waste discharged nearby destructing veg-
etation and environment.
5. The mode of exploitation and utilization of
mineral resources is extensive. Some mining
enterprises do not pay attention to protect envi-
ronment taking the extensive exploitation mode
for development to light protection. In a great
degree, the ecological environment of mine and
its surrounding destroyed.
6. During mining, industrial waste discarded into
the surrounding environment occupying land
and destroying local vegetation results in death
of the vegetation, land degradation.
7. In the process of underground mining, because
of underground goaf, surface subsidence, the
shallow groundwater decline, surface water
shortage being in addition, aggravates surface
dry, this influences vegetation growth and
recovery. In addition to ground atmospheric
precipitation, serious weathering, land deserti-
fication expands.
8. The mineral cooperations objective of pursuing
profit conflicts with environmental protection.
The mine enterprise resource covers an area of
large, large capital input, at the same time, the
land reclamation and ecological restoration is
in long cycle, ecological benefit effective is slow,
leading to the majority of enterprises to save
investment and reduce production costs, less
investment in environmental governance, espe-
cially for the repair of land reclamation subsid-
ence area.
The key is reclamation, soil building in the proc-
ess of land reclamation, ecological reconstruction
because the mining damages the land resources,
soil resources, water resources. Soil water resources
and land resources, are closely linked, such as pre-
cipitation, groundwater, rivers and lakes are related
to land, soil. However, during modern production
process, the measure of land reach to hundreds of
square kilometers, resulting in landform change,
groundwater, rivers and lakes dry up, plant com-
munity, soil, land can not be used to eliminate non
production capacity even loss all land. So the rec-
lamation, soil building, the rational development
and utilization of land resources has become the
basic project of land reclamation and ecological
reconstruction in mining area. At the same time,
the government policy support, the enterprises
own production technology, resource management,
8/27/2014 6:04:44 PM
 industrial waste disposal, environmental protec-
tion input directly affects the ecological restoration
of capital and the speed of progress, especially the
enthusiasm of local enterprises and the land recla-
mation and ecological restoration, which is the key
control project.
3 MEASURES OF MINE LAND
CONSERVATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT
3.1 Government
1. Establishing concept that environmental pro-
tection and economic development should
be in coordination. Set access mechanism for
environmental protection when enterprises are
introduced.
2. The government should build the correspond-
ing environmental protection policy and long
term planning, playing the role of guiding and
invested in environmental basic protection
work.
3. On one hand, the government should formu-
late relevant incentive policies to encourage
enterprises to invest in land reclamation and
ecological restoration. On the other hand, for-
mulate preferential standards to give support
and encouragement in the tax and economic
policy.
4. Government takes part in cooperating review
companys research and preliminary design,
especially the content of waste water and waste,
air pollution, the other industrial waste and
environmental protection in mining area, con-
sidering to recycling industrial waste and land
reclamation of mining area. In the produc-
tion process, consider the introduction of new
technology, optimizing the production process,
reducing waste emissions and the destruction
of the land. Just pay attention to environmental
protection from the design stage.
3.2 Mine enterprises
1. On one hand, establishing concept that
the environmental benefit should be a part of
the benefit of enterprises, paying attention to the
environmental protection from the design and
construction stage, which the enterprise devel-
opment develop with environmental protection
simultaneously. On the other hand, put an end
to the first failure of governance construction.
2. Protect land and vegetation when enterprises
were in construction process. In the process
of construction enterprises should plan out
the storage location for mountain surface soil,
643
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 643
tillage soil, humus soil to the preservation, for
virescence. In mining activities, should be strictly
in accordance with the planning of mining side
edge treatment, with mining with governance,
prevention of geological disasters, preventing
pollution and destruction of water environment
and atmospheric environment. At the same
time, main traffic arteries and visual range of
landscape cannot be impacted and destroyed.
3. Introduce advanced production technology,
optimize technology. First, put production of
waste in the production process and the produc-
tion area to reduce discharging industrial waste.
Second, introduce equipment and technology
to build waste recycling facilities for reclying
industrial production waste into recyclable
resources, such as, cycling waste water, gangue
flotation filling, realizing the mine waste not
rise well, sewage efflux.
4. At the initial stage of the construction, enter-
prises invest to plant vegetation of being strong
vitality, easy to survive, low cost, quick effect,
not easy to damage the vegetation surround
industrial square for Windbreak and sand fixa-
tion band, stable climate environment. Plant
afforestation and vegetation restoration in the
completed area to form similar or better stable
environment.
5. Mine production, the area time steps for recla-
mation and ecological reconstruction of min-
ing subsidence, and firmly grasp the does not
relax, forming another industrial enterprises,
the development and construction accord-
ing to the actual implementation of the place
where the enterprise is located.
3.3 Collaboration of government and enterprises
Pay attention to the ecological benefit, social ben-
efit and economic benefit and overall coordination
of schedule in the process of collaboration.
3.3.1 There are three key technologies
need to be paid more attention
1. The stability of the artificial landscape remod-
eling. Keeping disturbed land safe relates to the
content on bearing capacity of foundation, rock
and soil mechanics, etc. At the same time, dis-
turbed land is very loose so that it can loss a
lot, especially surface particulate matter, such
as soil, sand etc. The ranger people disturbed
land and the speeder people disturbed land will
result in faster of soil quality being damaged.
2. Reconstruct reasonable soil profile. Apply
soil science small biological cycle theory
in designing surface coverage and imitating
of nature made soil movement to put humus,
parent material soil and soil slaking. It is very
8/27/2014 6:04:44 PM
 important to promote and accelerate biological
weathering which is the key to soil, especially
improvement of toxic substances.
3. To optimizate structure of being used of land
resources. The cultivated land, garden, wood-
land, grassland in mine area will change a lot
after exploitation. This change relates with the
mine production technology, production scale,
the service life greatly and be controlled by min-
ing location land use planning. It relates to the
proportion, structure of Agriculture Forestry
Animal Husbandry tillage grassland restoration
rate, cultivated grassland restoration period,
important problems of dynamic equilibrium of
the total cultivated land years etc. Because the
main purpose is to conserve water, soil, sand
fixing, enhances soil fertility, improving habitat
Table 1. The relationship between different ecosystem and benefit in mining area.
Ecosystem of being
Ecosystem construction and protection
Regional The construction of
distribution production areas,
protection of land
reclamation area and
shelterbelt planting area
The final direction Woodland
of land use
Function Improve soil fertility, wind
break and sand fixation,
formation into vegetation
coverage for the main
objective of local
microclimate to gain
the ecological benefit
The engineering Trees of being alive easily
characteristics and strong vitality. Grass
of vegetation of being seed breeding
and easy growth,
shortterm forest,
complete vegetation
engineering reliability,
vegetation, in the local
vegetation, less input.
But at this stage, the
economic benefits do
not show up
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 644
with action of being protection function, benefit
mainly focus on ecological benefits. Meanwhile,
social benefits are only reflected in the reduc-
tion of natural disasters, such as protecting
new land from suffering the destruction and
desertification, reducing wind erosion and sand
mining hazards, landslide, debris flow hazards
etc. But there is no condition for social benefit
to form. In addition, this stage may also have
a small amount of economic benefit. In all, in
this stage, it mainly relates to the comprehensive
utilization benefit of protection for the land.
3.3.2 Progress of land reclamation
After planting of trees and vegetation large-scale
soil and reasonable protection stage, ecological
benefit is more obvious and social benefits promote
Ecosystem of being Ecosystem of being production
development and protection and management
The dump slope, collapse of The living area, industrial
mined out area, lake area Plaza, nursery stock base,
reclamation area agriculture
pasture etc.
Focus on grass fishing land Forest, animal husbandry,
agriculture, fishing, vice
Control wind and rain Keep the scenic, aquaculture,
erosion, conservat water, livestock, farming, captive,
protecte vegetation, clean nursery stock base, in order
air, clean soil to improve to obtain economic benefits
the ecological environment as the main purpose
for the purpose of coordinating with the
ecological benefits ecological and social benefits
and social benefits
Trees of being good material The high value of vegetation,
and fast growth. Seed or seedlings and transplanting
seedling reproduction to big trees, inhibition of plant
adjust plant competition. competition, limit plant
Forming from the outside invasion, vegetation for
to the inside, from high to flower gardening seedling
low dimensional ecological types or economic crop. The
environment, which plant artificial lake focus on
invasion is not limited. irrigation and ecological
The project of shortterm farming. Quickly making the
vegetation is reliable which trees, crops, flowering shrubs
vegetation focus on local form into vegetation reliably,
domain environment and cost is larger, but the
vegetation, but requires economic benefit is high.
good material; The purpose The stages of vegetation
of the artificial lake is to selective is more clearly and
store water and improve the economic value is high
environment. This stage
focus on forest and land
of being relatively fine,
high selectivity, providing
ecological benefits
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8/27/2014 6:04:44 PM
 steadily while economic benefits begin to take
shape. After soil protection and improvement,
using comprehensive treatment of mine waste-
water, Enterprises and local government develop
agriculture forestry animal husbandry consists of
construction of green belts, improving pasture,
experimental farmland, and artificial water lake.
Plant local good material, easy survival trees as a
windbreak belt, as far as possible segmentation,
partition grid layout planning to form climate
environment. Planting suitable, easy to survive, the
higher value of the grassland protection of land
surface in the grid, to improve soil and the soil
fertility. Do farming, construct ecological water
lake, store mine wastewater treatment in internal
grid protection forest and grassland. It improves
soil and water environment within the region for
the next phase of development for agriculture, life,
industrial production water. This stage belongs
to defense development which ecological benefit
is reflected more obvious, at the same time, bring
certain local social benefit, providing economic
benefit security for ecological reconstruction.
3.3.3 Winwin situation of the government,
farmers and herdsmen and enterprise
tripartite has been achieved
After the construction of the second phase of
development, ecological environment of soil qual-
ity developed and improved forming into the stage
of production and business operation, with rea-
sonable land development, ensuring the ecologi-
cal benefits and social benefits to obtain economic
benefit for realizing the sustainable development
of the economy and the environment; Gov-
ernment, farmers and enterprises all win there
benefit. Because of water conservation, soil con-
servation and ecological benefits behaves well, and
basic production function conditions is formed in
mining area ecosystem, economic benefit can be
considered as the dominant. At the same time, the
social benefit is not only reflected in the reduction
of natural disasters, but also has risen to promote
social progress, As the improvement of agricul-
tural infrastructure, improving land productivity,
the unemployment of farmers and herdsmen and
surplus labor play, improving labor utilization,
adjusting the structure of land use and rural pro-
duction structure, adapting to the market econ-
omy, improving the environmental capacity, ease
the contradiction between people and land, pro-
mote getting rid of poverty. This is unified stage
of mine economic benefit, ecological benefit and
social benefit highly.
The ecological system in mining areas is a
compound ecological system, which divided into
three kinds: Ecosystem of being construction
and protection; Ecosystem of being development
645
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 645
and protection; Ecosystem of being production
and management. The three types of ecosystem
in mining area using the final direction, distribu-
tion, function and vegetation characteristics of the
project as showed in Table 1.
4 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
Inner Mongolia Fu Cheng Mining Co. Ltd. locats
on the western edge of Maowusu Desert of Erdos,
which little rain, no river on surface, wind, large
evaporation, large temperature difference between
day and night, mainly in Elaeagnus angustifo-
lia and low drought tolerance of ground vegeta-
tion, belongs to arid and semiarid. desert climate.
According to the relevance of the using structure
and efficiency of land resources, combined with
the actual production and operation of mining
enterprises, benefit of land reclamation and eco-
logical reconstruction efficiency is analyzed with
the example of Inner Mongolia Fu Cheng Mining
Co. Ltd.
4.1 At the stage of deign
The protection of the latter ecological environ-
ment and the deep treatment of industrial water
and living water which achieves the standard of
drinking and agricultural irrigation, builds three
levels of water treatment providing water for land
reclamation and irrigation is considered in the
design phase of mine. Planning environmental
protection engineering of water lake, shelterbelts
realizes the purpose of storing water dispens-
ing and windbreak and sand fixation and adjust
environment.
4.2 At the stage of construction
Construction should be carried out strictly with
the planning to implement and pay attention to
the protection of being and storage reclamation
soil resources. Especially plan waste soil site and
reclaimed soil storage space to store the unified
reclamation soil with protective trees of elaeagnus
angustifolia. Green vegetation protection engineer-
ing and mine construction are implemented simul-
taneously investing to protect environment, actions
as follow: Plant square mesh shelterbelt around
mine area with the local hardy, drought resistant,
grow easily, fast molding of elaeagnus angustifo-
lia. Plant local hippophae rhamnoides, sand inside
square mesh shelterbelt. Constructional area,
especially, industrial square outside the building
planted the protective hedge of elaeagnus angus-
tifolia before. Design and carry out planning, pro-
tection synchronously.
8/27/2014 6:04:44 PM
 4.3 After the completing of construction
Invest funds for greening around industrial square
and and mining mining area after construction,
develop green engineering as the request of green
mine required by local government.
4.3.1 Formulating of technique scheme
According to local ecological conditions and prin-
ciple of suitting ones measures to local condi-
tions, lay down technical solutions to select plant
drought, cold, salt tolerance of local large size
of Sophora japonica, Robinia pseudoacacia, silk
floss wood, Xinjiang Yang, Elaeagnus angustifolia
which is easy to survive. First, ensure the survival
rate to change the local environment for improving
the level of design. Using different vertical height
to plant kinds of trees to form a climate reducing
wind erosion on the surface and buildings. Planting
large amount of trees strengthen the effect of wind
prevention and sand fixation.
4.3.2 Providing of technical support
Provide the technical guarantee, increasing min-
ing pits space, backfill mellow soil and fertilizer
according to the proportion of qualified. Store
water with macromolecular water retaining mate-
rial. It requirements that soil must be configured
in sand and clay using of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and organic fertilizer to make the soil in
the air, water, nutrient rich for maximum improve-
ment of soil. The tree hole should be covered with
the plastic avoid heat of sand burn the root of the
tree on summer. Because of high evaporation and
high temperature steam trees can be watered at
morning or night. Measures of keeping the tem-
perature which consist of straw, and plastic film,
building wall etc should be carried out to protect
trees in winter. Mine water treatment instead of
local groundwater containing alkali, fluorine which
has a great influence on plant growth, irrigating
long time resulting in high dead mortality, is used
for greening irrigation.
4.3.3 Later management and maintenance
Strengthen the management of latter conservation
efforts. Set up a special green conservation manage-
ment organization and divided green area responsi-
bly to achieve full maintenance management. In the
last three years, Inner Mongolia Fu Cheng Mining
Co. Ltd. strengthend the greening construction
to achieve large seedlings initial results, plant-
ing 10534 trees, 51913 strains, flowers and shrubs
262795 strains, reaching to area by 229440 m2,
mining industry wide land vegetation coverage rate
of 80%, vegetation coverage rate 30%.
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 646
4.4 Land reclamation and ecological restoration
is synchronous with the production and
management
Synchronized with the mine production and man-
agement, take actions to start the reclamation and
ecological restoration in mining subsidence area to
build artificial ecological system with an important
industry to be implemented, managed, operated
of land reclamation and ecological restoration in
the company. Based on the good effect of previ-
ous work, which soil conditions, water conditions
and climatic environment improved in the min-
ing area, industrialization shall be operated on
reclaimed land in mining area. Part of the land
was contracted to landscaping company to build
the green seedlings base: cultivation of greening
seedling, cultivation of greenhouse vegetables,
animal husbandry of cattle and sheep farming
farmland, captive, irrigating with treated industrial
water; The water lake was used for diversion irri-
gation farming, ecological wate. A green seedlings
base and ecological breed area has initially formed
in the reclamation of land. According to land rec-
lamation and ecological restoration will continue:
Plant flaky material good high added valuable shel-
terbelts and fast growth of economic crops; Rent
land of reclamation to local farmers to develop
agricultural and pastoral practices get economic
benefits for company and farmers. Finally, it will
form into a developed pattern of agriculture, for-
est, herd, deputy, fishing industry with mine enter-
prises coordinatly. Achieving winwin harmonious
situation between local government and enterprise
with economic development promoting ecological
protection, ecological protection industrialization
promoting economic development.
5 CONCLUSION
In all, it is a long term and arduous work for
mine land reclamation and ecological recon-
struction which needs consider and preparation
at the design and construction stage of mining
enterprises and local government, ensuring per-
sistent policy support and capital investment.
Coordinating configuration of economic benefit,
ecological benefit and social benefit in the system
and shortening the unified time economic benefit,
ecological benefit and social benefit can achieve a
high degree of unity of the three major benefits as
the best pursuit of planning and design of ecologi-
cal system within the system and realize harmony
mine construction, production, living and ecologi-
cal environment.
8/27/2014 6:04:44 PM
 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Research on land reclamation pattern in mining cities of loess plateau

areawith Shuozhou city as an example

D.H. Liu
School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

Z.H. Xu
Chengde Municipal Bureaux of Land and Resources, Chengde City, Hebei Province, China

ABSTRACT: As a brittle eco-area, the type of land use in loess plateau is varied. In the mine city, land
destructions and ecological environment problems are serious, and the land utilization problems have
certain regional characteristics. This paper based on a case study in the mining city of Shuozhou, Shanxi
province, combines its land reclamation planning, analyses its present situation and main problems in
land utilization, summarizes 13 land reclamation patterns with regional characteristics. These patterns
include 4 kinds of improvement land. In allusion to these kinds of land, the corresponding ecological
reclamation patterns are concluded. The research concludes several land reclamation modes, which will
be used as reference in future practice and standardize the land reclamation. On the basis of speeding up
local agricultural production, the land reclamation will improve the natural, living and production envi-
ronment, and promote the economic and social sustainable development.

1 INTRODUCTION abundant. So through land reclamation, especially

In recent years, China has obtained the remark-
able benefits on economics, society and ecology
through the promotion of the land reclamation
work, based on the integrated land use planning
and land reclamation planning (Wang 2011). Dif-
ferent conditions in natural, society and economics
will decides the structure and the way of land utili-
zation (Zhao & Zhang 2010). Then it will affect the
measure of land reclamation and form the specific
land reclamation pattern finally (Gu & Dai 2009).
The loess plateau area, which locates at the cross-
bedding of north China and northwest China, has
loess accumulation, rich mineral resources. And the
characteristics of dry climate, rainfall concentrated
and vegetation sparse lead to land desertification,
grassland degradation, soil erosion problems, frag-
ile ecological environment, etc (Deng 2008). Farm-
ing grazing ecotone is a transition zone derived
from long-term collision and fusion between farm-
ing culture and grazing cultural (Song & Zhang
2007). In these areas, it has specific environment
of natural and humanistic and land use pattern
attributable to the influence of special landscape
pattern, climate conditions, social factors and eco-
logical environment construction, etc. Shuozhou
city in Shanxi province is a typical mining city in
loess plateau area farming grazing ecotone with
obvious regional features and varied land types.
The reserved land resources in Shuozhou are
by developing large area of wild grass land and
saline-alkali land, such as the key project of com-
prehensive treatment in one hundred thousand mu
saline-alkali land, will provide foundation for agri-
cultural modernization, support for space expan-
sion of regional urbanization, source of land for
new type of industrialization, protection for eco-
logicalization in urban and rural.
At present, the academia proceeds the study on
land reclamation pattern mostly from the aspects
of engineering technology or organization man-
agement, instead of classification for regional char-
acteristics. Based on regional characteristics and
main problems in land use, combined with natu-
ral, cultural and social development in local area,
this research takes several typical kinds of land
types for land reclamation as the research object,
discusses the direction of land management. This
paper based on a case study on Shuozhou city,
combined with the local land reclamation planning
work, in order to provide a typical case of land rec-
lamation pattern research in loess plateau.
2 GENERAL SITUATION IN SHOUZHOU
AND DATA SOURCES
Shuozhou city lies in the north part of Shanxi
province in China. The geographical coordinates
is located in east longitude 11153291133501,

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 north latitude 390507401753. The land area is
10624.35 km2. With its unique resource and location
advantages, Shuozhou has become a new type of
energy-chemical industry base in China dominated
by Coal and electricity, the largest raw milk base
in Chinese agricultural region and the significant
ceramic production base in the northern China.
The basic data for this research comes from the
survey data of land use change in ShuoZhou city.
3 PRESENT SITUATION
AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF LAND USE IN SHUOZHOU
3.1 Present situation of land use
Shuozhou is located in Shanxi northwestern loess
plateau and the southwest edge of Datong basin.
The city is revolved around mountains from south,
north and west side, in the middle is alluvial plains
of Sanggan river. At the end of 2010, there is
675700 hm2 agricultural land, which cover 63.60%
of the total area; 64700 hm2 construction land,
accounted for 6.09% of the total; 322100 hm2 other
land, accounted for 30.32% of the total area. The
present situation of its land use in the year of 2010
is shown in Table 1.
3.2 Characteristics of land use
From the description of land use situation in
Shuozhou, some characteristics there can be con-
cluded as follows. Firstly, the quantity of arable
land there is high, but the overall quality is poor.
So it is difficult for the production potential and
the resources advantages to get fully exerted. Sec-
ondly, the scattered layout of rural settlements and
low degree of its intensive utilization lead to the
overall characteristics of the idle internal land, the
disorder sprawl and inefficiency of land use, par-
ticularly in mountain hilly region which mostly in
its northwest area. Thirdly, huge area of damage
land after mining, causes serious ecological envi-
ronment problem, such as geological disasters,
occupation of land, destruction of the natural
landscape and cultural relics, etc. Lastly, with the
rich reserved land resources, which including water
area and natural reserved area and accounting for
30.32% of the total area, Shuozhou has a great
land development potential.
4 RESEARCH ON LAND RECLAMATION
PATTERN IN SHUOZHOU
Based on principles of intensive economical use of
land, adjust measures to local conditions, appro-
priate scale and overall efficiency (Li et al. 2012),
combined general characteristics of land use in
ShuoZhou city, the land reclamation patterns
of Shuozhou are classified into four categories
including agricultural land reclamation, rural resi-
dential areas reclamation, mining abandoned land
reclamation and unused land development. Then
in accordance with the direction, each type of seg-
ment has been subdivided, as shown in Table 2.
4.1 Farmland reclamation
Shuozhou City locates in the economic zone for
ecological animal husbandry in Yanmenguan

Table 1. Present situation of land use in Shuozhou 2010.

Land name
Proportion
Stair land Secondary land Area/hm2 (%)

Total land area 1062435.11 100.00

Farmland Total 675657.49 63.60
Arable land 395873.08 58.59
Garden land 918.81 0.14
Forest land 217718.43 32.22
Grassland 1555.89 0.23
Farmland for other use 59591.28 8.82
Construction land Total 64687.75 6.09
Urban and rural construction land 50781.06 78.50
Traffic and water-engineering land 9217.80 14.25
Construction land for other use 4688.89 7.25
Land for other use Total 322089.87 30.32
Water area 17309.07 5.37
Nature reserved area 304780.80 94.63

*This table uses the classification system of land use planning in China.

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 Table 2. Land reclamation patterns in Shuozhou City.

Type of reclamation Type of patterns Regional characteristics

Farmland reclamation Transformation in basic Solid foundation combined with facilities of

Rural residential land
reclamation
Industrial and mining
wasteland reclamation
Development of
unused land
farmland pattern irrigation and drainage, field roads, farmland
Industrial agriculture With reasonable layout of agricultural industry
pattern and promising future for the development of
modern agriculture
Ecological agriculture Far from center of the city and playing an
pattern important role for ecological function
Abolishment and With scattered layout and lack of infrastructure
combination pattern and public facilities
Local transformation Away from city and town, isolated location,
pattern extensive land-use
Town import pattern Close to urban areas, with perfect infrastructure
and public service facilities
Transference for Poor natural environment condition, traffic
ecological inconvenience and serious geological disasters
construction pattern
Cultivated land Short of land resources, good surrounding
increasing pattern environment, easily change into available status
Circulating economy Tailings occupied lots of land resources, clear
pattern prospects for waste things development
Ecological restoration In the scope of urban planning or scenic spots,
pattern clear prospects of economic development
Agricultural development Great potential of development, concentrated
pattern distribution, good basic conditions
Industrial development With good location conditions, great area and
pattern concentrated layout
Ecological development Long distance to town and industrial park,
pattern with forest land around and well ecological
environment

Area. With bright agricultural characteristics, it
is the national dominant grain-producing areas
and the main ecological animal husbandry base
in Shanxi Province. The land for agriculture use is
mainly composed of cultivated land, wooded land
and agricultural land for other utilization. Also it
contains a small amount of garden land and grass-
land. On the purpose of adjusting the structure
and layout of land utilization, creating conditions
for the development of large-scale high-efficiency
agriculture and accelerating the pace of construc-
tion for the new city, the reclamation patterns
for agricultural land can be divided into pattern
of transformation in basic farmland, pattern of
industrial agriculture, and pattern of ecological
agriculture.
4.1.1 Transformation in basic farmland pattern
Pattern of transformation in basic farmland is
mainly for the cultivated land with solid founda-
tion, which can become the high efficiency, stable
yield, high yield and high standard basic farmland
combined with facilities of irrigation and drain-
age, field roads, farmland protection, etc, through
the upgrade. In Zirun town and Shalenghe town,
the land reclamation for agricultural land should
aim at the construction of high standard basic
farmland by the way of improving farming condi-
tions, increasing the area of effective arable land,
improving the quality of cultivated land. So the
transformation in basic farmland should choose
high quality farmland, especially farmland in plain
area, in which mining activities are seldom. Also
the cost of land reclamation to improve the culti-
vation environment in these areas is low.
4.1.2 Industrial agriculture pattern
Pattern of industrial agriculture focuses on the
regions with reasonable layout of agricultural
industry and promising future for the development
of modern agriculture. These areas will eventually
become the base of modern agriculture with local
characteristics after land reclamation, which can
build a new platform for the adjustment of indus-
trial structure. In the strategy of one county one
specialty, Pinglu develops industry of potatoes,
Youyu develops industry of small coarse cereals,
Shuocheng develops suburban agriculture, etc.

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 Therefore, the operator should design scientific
regulation schemes according to the requirement
of local industrialization development after the
land suitability evaluation for crops with local
features.
4.1.3 Ecological agriculture pattern
Ecological protection, governance, and improve-
ment are the main contents of ecological agri-
culture pattern, in which healthy, sustainable
landscape ecological system of farmland can be
constructed through the reasonable design of
channels, the design of protective grove, field roads
and farmland landscape, etc (Xu 2009). Because
of the fragile ecological environment in Shuozhou
city, especially in the northwestern and southern
district, the work of land reclamation should take
full consideration of ecological construction, in
order to improve the ability of regional ecological
security and increase the area for effective cultiva-
tion at the same time.
4.2 Rural residential land reclamation
In 2010, there is 32900 hm2 rural residential area
in Shuozhou. And the per capita of rural resi-
dential area is 357.12 m2, which is greater than
the limit standard of 140 m2 set by the state. In
recent years, the number of rural residential area is
increasing, along with the rural reform and open-
ing up, especially for the improvement of economic
status and life concepts in the loess plateau area
(Cha & Huang 2000). On the purpose of reduc-
ing the number of per capita quantity of rural
residential area, denormalizing the scattered lay-
out, specifying the village construction planning,
improving the public service facilities, the recla-
mation patterns for rural residential area can be
divided into Abolishment and coalescence pattern,
Local transformation pattern, Town import pat-
tern and Transference for ecological construction
pattern. Then it will promote intensive and eco-
nomical utilization of land, realize the co-ordinate
development between urban and rural, accomplish
the construction of new rural area finally (Wu &
Yuan 2009).
4.2.1 Abolishment and combination pattern
Abolishment and coalescence pattern for rural
residential land refers to the combination of sev-
eral villages and towns, at the same time cancelling
the existence of other villages and towns. With the
speeding up of the agricultural modernization and
rural urbanization, scattered layout of villages do
not contribute to its construction of infrastructure
and public facilities, also do not conduce to the
agricultural mechanization of farming. So natural
villages that intensive-use and small-scale should
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 650
be integrated according to the principle of nearby.
And abandoned settlement after the combination
can be reclaimed into cultivable land. For this kind
of land reclamation pattern, the operator should
pay attention to investigating the situation of vil-
lages and towns. Then land in villages and towns
are recombined after the land planning of towns in
order to improve land use efficiency.
4.2.2 Local transformation pattern
Pattern of local transformation for rural residen-
tial land aims at the area which is far away from
city or town, relatively isolated located, with
extensive land-use, poor surroundings and living
conditions, uncompleted infrastructure and pub-
lic facilities (Chen et al. 2010). Such villages have
amounts of land resources including large area of
idle land, and generally they are inconvenient to
associate with other villages around. Therefore,
for this type of land reclamation, the investigation
of the villages development is important. After
long-term considerations on the development of
the village, the operator can carry out scientific
management of the village according to local land
planning.
4.2.3 Town import pattern
Town import pattern for rural residential land
aims at the area next to the city and equipped
with developed infrastructure and public service
facilities. This pattern will change the way of local
production and life, finally realize the integration
of urban and rural development. Moreover, the
reclamation for rural residential land should keep
a reasonable degree, especially for the urban-rural
fringe position (Yun 2011). In this area, it should
protect arable land in that area, maintain the eco-
logical security in urban, build area livable living
environment, along with urban expansion. There-
fore, for this type of land reclamation pattern,
operators should pay attention to the change of
land value during the land consolidation process.
So local residents can share the development of
urbanization through rational allocation of land
increment income.
4.2.4 Transference for ecological construction
pattern
Transference for ecological construction pattern
means that guiding residents who had lived in
the village with disgusting natural environment,
inconvenient traffic, geological disasters, etc, to
migrate, from a long-term perspective. In recent
years, following the rapid development of the coal
enterprise, serious landuse problems such as land
subsidence and fracture arise. So this kind of vil-
lage should actively guide the residents to migrate
into small cities or towns in a planned step.
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 4.3 Industrial and mining wasteland reclamation
Shuozhou city is the important energy indus-
try base in China due to rich mineral resources
and the booming industry of coal and electric-
ity. Shuozhou has produced raw coal for 685.698
million tons during 2005 to 2010. And it has been
known that 0.076 hm2 land on average might be
collapsed, damaged or occupied after producing
ten thousand tons coals. Obviously the coal indus-
try contributes to the regional economy even to
the national economy, at the same time brought
a series of problems which effect the ecological
environment most. At present there are more than
300 disused mines in Shuozhou mainly including
unused opencast coal mine, abandoned junkyard,
unused enterprise land, etc. And the scale of indus-
trial and mining land reclamation is 5069.44 hm2.
On the purpose of improving the regional natural
environment and living surroundings, accelerating
the pace of agricultural production, forcing the
sustainable development of economy and society
in Shuozhou, the reclamation patterns for indus-
trial and mining wasteland can be divided into
Cultivated land increasing pattern, Circulating
economy pattern, Ecological restoration pattern.
4.3.1 Cultivated land increasing pattern
Cultivated land increasing pattern for industrial
and mining wasteland mainly aims at the area
short of land resources. Wasteland in this area
will be restored into the desired state of available
especially cultivated land, through the engineering
measure for comprehensive development. Land
improvement projects in Wujiayao and Maojiazao
will add 244.31 hm2 arable land. It can be seen that
this pattern will not only ease the human-land con-
tradictions and other contradiction caused by coal
mine or abandoned junkyard, but also become the
effective way to realize farmland dynamic balance
in mining area. Therefore, engineering technology
can be applied in land reclamation for destroyed
land due to mining activities, in order to increase
effective arable land, make up the surplus culti-
vated land occupation by the mining production,
and promote the dynamic balance of total arable
land in mining area.
4.3.2 Circulating economy pattern
Circulating economy pattern for industrial and
mining wasteland usually applies for the area with
many tailings occupying of land. In this way it
manages to reduce the hidden troubles of tailings
dam bursts and piping bursts through the recovery
of valuable components as building materials, raw
materials for light industry, production of hollow
bricks and tiles, etc (Huang et al. 2004). In 2010,
Shuozhou produced large amounts of solid wastes
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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 651
including 32 million tons coal gangue, 5 million
tons coal ash and 1.2 million tons flue gas desul-
furization gypsum, etc. These productions will
bring the problems of land occupation and envi-
ronment pollution which can be solved through the
development of circular economy. As the industrial
park construction of solid waste comprehensive
utilization in Shentou town, a resources-products-
renewable resources circulation pattern is formed
to realize the efficient utilization of the wastes.
Therefore, operators should make full use of the
mine wastes, especially the materials that have
occupied land, when developing the circular econ-
omy in mining area, forming the resources recycle
pattern.
4.3.3 Ecological restoration pattern
Ecological restoration pattern for industrial and
mining wasteland is aiming at the area in the urban
planning scope or the region around scenic spots,
where arable land development is limited and the
future of the economic development is not clear.
In order to restore its ecological environment land-
scape, the way of remodeling through the land-
scape and transformation for the current structure
should be carried out, such as establishing geologi-
cal science park and forest park, etc.
4.4 Development of unused land
Shuozhou city is located in loess plateau area farm-
ing grazing ecotone with complex landscape pat-
tern including basin plains of Shuotong area and
hilly area of northwestern Shansi. The land devel-
opment potential in Shuozhou is great because of
large amounts of unused land especially unused
grassland and saline-alkali land, which totally
accounted for 93.54% of the total area of unused
land. So patterns for unused land development are
divided into Agricultural development pattern,
Industrial development pattern and Ecological
development pattern.
4.4.1 Agricultural development pattern
Development and utilization of agricultural pat-
tern for unused land is aimed at the area with great
development potential of concentrated distribution
unused land and good conditions of infrastructures.
It can effectively increase the yield of unused land
reclamation through engineering technology. It
was known that drought, concentrated rainfall and
poor water condition are key factors for restricting
the construction of the grass in loess plateau area
(He 2003). For waste-grassland, water saving irri-
gation and efficient cultivation technology contrib-
ute to make full use of light, heat, water and other
resources, improve soil structure and improve the
grassland production. And for saline-alkali land,
8/27/2014 6:04:45 PM
 the open trench irrigation-drainage and pipe irri-
gation-drainage can be used to reduce the extent of
salinization and increase the land value.
4.4.2 Industrial development pattern
Development and utilization of industrial pat-
tern for unused land is aimed at the area with
good location conditions, great area and concen-
trated layout. It will drive the development of local
economy through scale industry development.
ShuoZhou plays the core role in the economic zone
for ecological animal husbandry in Yanmenguan
Area. So it should strengthen animal husbandry,
which is an important industry in supporting its
healthy development of economic transforma-
tion in the future, through grassland rotation and
grassland transformed from cultivable land, etc. In
saline-alkali land area, such as Heshengbao town,
the reclamation should be based on the charac-
teristic resources, in order to extend the industrial
chain of related agricultural products and improve
the added value of it. Finally modern agricultural
industry system with great local characteristics
can be formed through the construction of mod-
ern agriculture demonstration park, logistic park
of agricultural products and agricultural products
processing park.
4.4.3 Ecological development pattern
Development and utilization of ecological pattern
is aimed at the area far away from town and indus-
trial park, which has well ecological environment
and forest land around. This pattern will guide the
direction of ecology in unused land development
gradually and exert its ecological landscape func-
tion. Shuozhou is the important constituent part
of windbreak in northwestern Shanxi, as well as
a rising industrial city of northern ecological gar-
dens. So based on land reclamation and ecological
environment reclamation, the unused land devel-
opment in Shuozhou will promote the construction
of ecological city and achieve the city development
goal natural, ecological, modern, livable and
happy new town. Therefore, the operator should
improving land ecological environment step by
step for the development of unused land, accord-
ing to the ecological idea in land reclamation, such
as planting trees. Ultimately the function of land
ecological landscape can be fully used.
5 CONCLUSION
The essence of the land improvement is to harmo-
nize the relationship between nature and society in
the regional perspective, thus to build a harmoni-
ous man-land system (Yin 2012). Visibly, the work
of land reclamation will vary correspondingly
652
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 652
with the development of the regional economy
and society. The thought train of the research is
adjusting measures to local conditions and high-
lighting key ideas. After analyzing the land type in
Shuozhou which is a typical mining city in Loess
Plateau, the research has concluded 13 kinds of
land improvement patterns which has the regional
characteristics of Shuozhou for farmland, rural
residential land, industrial and mining land,
unused land. Moreover, it puts forward the fol-
lowing suggestions of study of land improvement
in future.
It is important to establish the concept of eco-
logical civilization and to develop the essential role
of ecological renovation in the work of land rec-
lamation. The research presents different patterns
of ecological land reclamation for varied land use
according to the characteristics of land use and the
need of ecological landscape construction, in order
to guide the sustainability of environmental devel-
opment and strengthen the ecological landscape
service ability of land gradually.
Diversification and integration is the inevita-
ble developing trend of land reclamation as com-
monness still exists in regional environment. Some
reclamation measures can be mutually promoted
through practice in region, even becoming the
land reclamation pattern which would be learned
among different areas.
Following the principle of adjusting to local
conditions, the promotion of land reclamation
must be creative combined with similarities in land
utilization. The effect of various patterns above is
difficult to quantify because of lacking of practical
cases. So ShuoZhou and other similar areas should
carry out the research of land reclamation pattern
combined with local actual. Then the effective pat-
tern can be popularized and applied in the area
with similar land use problems.
REFERENCES
Cha Xuan, Huang Shao-yan. 2000. Research on sustain-
able land utilization path in loess plateau areas. China
Land Science 14(4):3538.
Chen Yu-fu, Sun Hu, Liu Yan-sui, 2010. Reconstruction
models of Hollowed villages in key agricultural regions
of China. Acta Geographic Sinica 65(6):727735.
Deng Xiang-zheng, 2008. Analysis of land use conver-
sions. Beijing: China Land Press.
Gu Xiao-kun, Dai Bing, Chen Bai-ming, 2009. Spatial
distribution and characteristics of land consolidation
patterns in rural areas of China. Scientific and Techno-
logical Management of Land and Resources 26(1):15.
Huang Jing-jun, Ni Hong-sheng, Hua Jian-wei, 2004.
Demonstration model of the environment protec-
tion in mines and recovery and rehabilitation of the
geological environment of abandoned mining areas.
Geological Bulletin of China 23(11):11131117.
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 He Jing-li., 2003. Discussion on the integrated rec-
lamation pattern for grassland degradation in the
Beijing-Tianjin sand area. Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation 17(6):171173.
Li Yu-fang, Xun Wen-hui, Jia Yan-ping., 2012. Discussion
on pattern and strategy of rural land reclamation in
Shenyang city. Scientific and Technological Manage-
ment of Land and Resources 29(1):109112.
Song Nai-ping, Zhang Feng-rong., 2007. The Changing
pocess and mechanism of the farming-grazing tran-
sitional land use pattern in ordos. Acta Geographic
Sinica 62(12):12991308.
Wang Shi-yuan., 2011. 100 cases of land consolidation
[M]. Beijing: Geological Press.
Wu Gang, Yuan Xiao-zhi., 2009. Research on rural land
consolidation pattern and policy in Liaoning province.
Land Resources (11):4043.
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Wu Lan-tian, Peng Bu-zhuo., 1998. The Diversity of land
consolidation in China. Soil 6:305310.
Xu Gang., 2009. Analyzing the approaches and design
of ecological land renovation projects. Shanghai Land
Resources 33(1):5154.
Yun Wen-ju., 2011. Thoughts on accelerating land
consolidation innovation. Journal of Huazhong
Agricultural University, 6:15.
Yin Shuai., 2012. Research on the economic value change
of arable land before and after implementing land
consolidation. Chongqing: Southwest University.
Zhao Wei, Zhang Zheng-feng., 2010. Research on
regional lang consolidation patterns in China. Journal
of Jiangxi Agriculture 22(12):181182.
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 Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation Hu (Ed)
2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02724-4

Ecological restoration of coalmine spoils by establishing certain woody

plantations in a dry tropical environment, India: A case study

A.N. Singh
Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

D.H. Zeng
Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China

ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the ecological aspects of the rehabilitation of coal mine spoil
through dense plantations of selected woody species. On the basis of ecological and economic potential,
four species were selected for plantations: Albizia lebbeck, A. procera, Tectona grandis and Dendrocalamus
strictus. The selected species are indigenous and possess varied ecological characteristics. Two species were
short-statured legume trees (A. lebbeck, A. procera), one a slow growing timber tree (T. grandis) and the
last a fast growing woody grass (D. strictus). The objective of the present study was to assess the impact of
plantations on the restoration of biological fertility. The impact of plantations was measured up to 6 years
of age for A. lebbeck, A. procera, and T. grandis and up to 5 years of age for D. strictus. Soil redevelopment
was monitored as indicated by chemical characteristics such as nutrient concentrations, accumulation of
organic C and total N, levels of mineral N and PO4-P, and rate of N-mineralization. Development of soil
microbial biomass and levels of microbial nutrients were also determined. The result showed that rede-
velopment of soil biological fertility on mine spoil was strongly integrated with vegetation growth and
nutrient cycling tended to become tighter with age of plantation indicated a positive pattern of ecological
restoration by desirable plantations with increasing age. To understand the complete mechanism of resto-
ration strategic and applied research is highly recommended.

Keywords: ecological restoration; coal mine spoil; biomass; NPP; Albizia lebbeck; Albizia procera;
Tectona grandis; Dendrocalamus strictus; nutrient cycling; soil redevelopment

1 INTRODUCTION and other unfavourable physico-chemical charac-

Significant alterations in the terrestrial biosphere
have occurred due to rapid expansion of human
population, economic development and associated
processes such as deforestation, environmental
pollution and contamination (Singh et al. 1995,
Bradshaw 1997a, Parrotta et al. 2001, Ren et al.
2007). Expansion of industrialization needs mas-
sive energy generation for which huge quantity of
coal is extracted through mining, causing exten-
sive landscape destruction. In India, total annual
coal production estimated during 199495 was 325
million tones and this was expected to increase to
417 million tones by 19992000, of which the con-
tribution of opencast mining would be about 252
million tones (Banerjee 1990). Opencast coal min-
ing removes surface earth, piling it over unmined
land and forming chains of external dumps, i.e.,
mine spoil or overburden. Mine spoils possess very
rigorous conditions for both plant and microbial
growth because of low organic matter contents,
teristics (Singh et al. 1995, 1996, Singh and Singh
1999, Singh et al. 2002). Because of these limita-
tions plant growth tends to be less vigorous than
on adjacent undisturbed sites. The goal of restora-
tion is usually to develop an ecosystem, native to
the area where mining occurred, which is sustain-
able in the long term (Chambers et al. 1994).
Ecological restoration concentrates on proc-
esses such as persistence of species through natural
recruitment and survival, functioning food webs,
system-wide nutrient conservation via relation-
ships among plants, animals and the detrivore com-
munity (Jackson et al. 1995). However, the process
of natural succession on mine spoils is slow due to
the removal of top soil resulting in elimination of
soil seed bank and root stocks, and due to soil pro-
file disturbances (Parrotta 1992, Bradshaw 1997a).
Ecological restoration of such habitats requires
the establishment of a self-sustaining of soil/plant
system in which nutrient release rates are adequate
for plant growth. Although the immediate goal of

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Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 655 8/27/2014 6:04:46 PM

 rehabilitation programs is to establish a vegeta-
tion cover that will prevent soil erosion and loss of
nutrient runoff, but long-term goal should always
be soil ecosystem development (Singh et al. 1995,
1996, Kabrna, 2011).
Tree plantations have been recognized for their
ability to restore soil fertility and ameliorate micro-
climatic conditions (Singh et al. 2002). Plantations,
being fast growing and highly productive systems,
are nutrient sinks (Lugo 1992a). Trees and shrubs,
however, have an advantage of providing a perma-
nent cover on disturbed areas with little or no addi-
tional care or maintenance (Parrotta 1992, 1997).
However, impacts of trees on soil fertility depend
on their nutrient cycling characteristics such as lit-
ter chemistry and decomposition (Filcheva et al.
2000, Singh et al. 2004a). In addition to the nutri-
ent sink function due to mass accumulation, some
plantation species exhibit high nutrient use effi-
ciency and may be more effective nutrient sink than
to the other species (Lugo 1992b). It is evidently
documented that the ability of different plant spe-
cies to modify mine spoil characteristics has been
found to differ considerably (Singh et al. 2004a, b).
A study was conducted by Alexander (1989a, b)
on tin mine spoil in Jos plateau, Nigeria, planted
with Acacia albida and Eucalyptus camaldulensis,
showed that the physical conditions in the top 20
cm of the soil was higher nutrient contents and
better physical conditions under the plantations
of Acacia albida species while plantations of E.
camaldulensis caused a progressive increase in the
soil acidity and reduction of base contents. This
decrease in base saturation and pH indicates that,
under current management practices, the long-term
effect of eucalypts is one of progressive degrada-
tion of already poor soils. This is exactly the oppo-
site result to that which was envisaged by the Mine
Land Reclamation Unit when it adopted the policy
of establishing eucalypt plantations in Nigeria. On
the other hand, many afforestation trials might be
fail due to adverse ecological conditions of coal-
mine spoil (Panagopoulos and Hatzistathis 1995).
Therefore, a desired species for planting on mine
spoils should possess the abilities (i) to grow on
poor and dry soils, (ii) to develop the vegetation
cover in short time and to accumulate biomass rap-
idly, (iii) to bind soil for arresting soil erosion and
checking nutrient loss, and (iv) to improve the soil
organic matter status and soil microbial biomass,
thereby enhancing the supply of plant available
nutrients (Singh and Singh 1999). In addition, the
species should be of economic importance.
A survey of literature indicates a conspicuous
lack of information on the impact of plantations
on re-developing soil of mine spoils (Bradshaw
1983, Parrotta 1999, Panagopoulos and Hatzis-
tathis 1995, Parrotta et al. 2001). Therefore, our
656
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 656
study focused on plantations of three native tree
species (Albizia lebbeck, Albizia procera, Tectona
grandis) and one woody grass (Dendrocalamus
strictus) chosen for their growth and economic
potential. The objectives of the study were: (i) to
estimating biomass, net primary productivity and
nutrient dynamics of planted species, (ii) to assess
the impact of plantations on restoration of bio-
logical fertility of soil, and (iii) to investigate the
relationships between redevelopment of soil and
vegetation.
2 METHODS
2.1 Study site and climate
The plantations under study were situated in the
west section of Jayant Block, which is located in
the northeastern part of Singrauli Coalfield in the
district of Sidhi (M.P.) between latitudes 24645
241115 N and longitude 823640824115
E. The study area is situated on a plateau above
the plain on its southwest side. The average eleva-
tion at the foot of the plateau is around 300 m
above mean sea level. The climate of the area is
tropical monsoonal and the year is divisible into
a mild winter (NovemberFebruary), a hot sum-
mer (AprilJune) and a warm rainy season (July
September). Data collected at a meteorological
station present on the site showed that the mean
monthly minimum temperature within the annual
cycle ranges from 628C and mean monthly maxi-
mum from 2040C. The rainfall annually averages
1069 mm, of which about 90% occurs during late
June to early September. The rainfall is character-
ized by a high degree of inter-annual variation, as
during the study period 19801996 it ranges from
700 to 1450 mm yr1 (Singh et al. 2004a). Physico-
chemical characteristics of fresh mine spoils were
reported in Singh et al. (2004a). Values indicated
neutral pH, high bulk density, low Water Holding
Capacity (WHC) and poor soil nutrients. In com-
parison, plantations had neutral pH (6.587.22)
slightly lower bulk density (1.601.67 g cm3), and
higher WHC (253.2286.5 g kg1).
2.2 Experimental design
All the plantations were raised in the month of
JulyAugust by planting nursery-raised seedlings
in previously dug pits of 40 cm 40 cm 40 cm
size at a spacing of 2 2 m. Plantations of A. leb-
beck, A. procera and T. grandis were raised in 1990
by planting 7 to 8 months old nursery raised seed-
lings. D. strictus were raised in 1991 by planting
eight months nursery-raised seedlings. All the plots
were seeded in 1994 at the rate of 6 kg ha1 with
8/27/2014 6:04:46 PM
 Dinanath grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin.) for
preventing soil erosion and loss of runoff nutrients.
Total planted area for A. lebbeck and A. procera
was 1.5 ha, each, whereas the same for T. grandis
and D. strictus was about 0.5 ha, each.
For sampling three permanent plots were estab-
lished for each species. The size of the sample plots
was 25 25 m for A. lebbeck and A. procera, and
15 15 m for T. grandis and D. strictus. Five indi-
viduals of average height and diameter (clumps
in case of D. strictus) were marked in each rep-
licate plot by using waterproof paint for various
measurements from 1993. Number of individu-
als (clumps in D. strictus) in each plot was inven-
toried in February 1993. The stocking density at
the time of plantation was 2500 individuals ha1.
About 7188% individuals survived after 3 years
of plantation establishment. Highest survival rate
was observed in the case of A. procera and the low-
est in the case of T. grandis. Data collection was
carried out annually in the months of February
March from 1993 to 1996.
2.3 Cycling of nutrients
Gross nutrient uptake (amount of nutrients associ-
ated with the net primary production) was com-
puted by multiplying the value of net primary
productivity of different components with their
respective N and P concentrations (Singh 1999).
The total N in plant samples was determined by
the microkjeldahl method (Jackson 1958). For
total P, plant material was digested in a mixture
of HClO4, HNO3 and H2SO4 (1:5:1) and the digest
was analyzed for P by a phosphomolybdic acid
blue color method (Jackson 1958). The values for
nutrient uptake by tree layer and herb layer were
summed up to represent the total gross uptake by
the vegetation. Component wise net uptake was
estimated by adjusting for nutrient withdrawal
before leaf fall. Internal cycling of N and P as
reflected by nutrient retranslocation (withdrawal)
was estimated by using the formula of Singh and
Singh (1991b). Mature green and senesced leaves
were collected in SeptemberOctober and Decem-
ber 1994, respectively.
2.4 Soil sampling and analysis
Three soil samples were collected at random from
each of the three permanent plots using 15 15
10 cm monoliths during September in 1994, 1995
and 1996. Each time, the samples from within a
plot were thoroughly mixed to yield one composite
sample per plot; this yielded three samples for each
plantation on each sampling date. Large pieces of
plant materials were removed and the field-moist
soil was sieved through a 2 mm mesh screen. Each
657
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 657
soil sample was divided into two parts. One part in
the field-moist condition was used for the meas-
urement of available nutrients (NH4-N, NO3-N
and PO4-P), and microbial C, N and P.
Organic C was determined by dichromate oxida-
tion and titration with ferrous ammonium sulphate
(Allen et al. 1986). Kjeldahl N was determined by
the microkjeldahl method (Jackson, 1958), and
NH4-N was extracted by 2M KCl and analyzed by
the phenate method (APHA, 1985). NO3-N was
measured by the phenol disulphonic acid method,
using CaSO4 as the extractant (Jackson, 1958).
Bicarbonate extractable Pi was determined by the
ammonium molybdate-stannous chloride method
(Sparling et al. 1985). The soil was digested in a
triple acid mixture of HClO4, HNO3, and H2SO4
(1:5:1) and the digest was analyzed for P by a phos-
phomolybdic acid blue color method (Jackson,
1958). Microbial biomass C, N and P were deter-
mined by chloroform fumigation and extraction
methods (Brookes et al. 1982, 1985a, b, Vance et al.
1987) as described in Srivastava et al. (1989), Singh
and Singh (1999) and Singh et al. (2004a, b). Net
nitrogen mineralization, nitrification and ammo-
nification were determined by the in situ buried
bag incubation method (Eno 1960). All results are
expressed on an oven dry soil (105C, 24 h) basis.
2.5 Statistical analysis
To observe the effects of age and species on vegeta-
tional and soil parameters, the data were subjected
to analysis of variance. Regression analyses were
performed as required. All the statistical analyses
were performed using SPSS-PC statistical software
(SPSS, 1996).
3 RESULTS
3.1 Cycling of N and P nutrients
Amounts of nutrients re-translocated from leaves
before leaf fall. Percent re-translocation from
senescing leaves of all plantation species was var-
ied 39.953.2% for N, and 53.958.3% for P. On
the area basis, these values convert to 50.9895.30,
43.7071.45, 11.4120.19 and 66.0689.80 kg N
ha1 yr1 in A. lebbeck, A. procera, T. grandis and D.
strictus plantations, respectively. The correspond-
ing values for P re-translocation were 4.588.58,
4.777.62, 1.071.88 and 11.0114.88 kg ha1 yr1
(Singh, 1999).
The net uptake N (after adjustment for internal
recycling) in the tree layer among species increased
significantly with increasing plantation age; being
maximum (190.11305.11 kg ha1 yr1) in A. leb-
beck followed by D. strictus (129.87200.05 kg
ha1 yr1), A. procera (110.66186.24 kg ha1 yr1)
8/27/2014 6:04:46 PM
 and T. grandis (29.6347.73 kg ha1 yr1) planta-
tion (Fig. 1). However, the net uptake N in the herb
layer component was not significantly different
due to age, species and interaction.
The net uptake P for the aboveground stand veg-
etation among species significantly increased from
8.07 to 21.39 kg ha1 yr1 (4- to 6-yr old plantation
in tree species and 4 to 5 yr age in D. strictus) and
the total tree layer P uptake from 1.43 to 19.44 kg
ha1 yr1 (Fig. 2). The effect of age and species on
the net uptake P for stand vegetation belowground
component was significantly different, while in
case of herb layer component there was insignifi-
cant effect of age, species and their interaction.

3.2 Nutrient availability, N-mineralization

and soil microbial biomass
Soil organic C, Kjeldahl N and total P contents
significantly increased with age and plantation
species; whereas values being maximum (6.09.0 g Figure 2. Net phosphorus uptake (after adjustment
kg1, 0.70.8 g kg1 and 0.200.20 g kg1) in A. leb- for internal recycling) by different layers of vegetation
beck and minimum (2.33.0 g kg1, 0.20.3 g kg1 of certain native woody plantations raised on mine soil.
and 0.160.19 g kg1) in T. grandis plantation at Bars are 1 SE.
age 4 to 6 yr (Fig. 3). Both C/N and C/P ratios were
significantly differed due to species while C/P ratio
was insignificant due to age and interaction age
species (Fig. 3). An increasing trend with age and
plantation species was also evident for mineral N
(nitrate-N+ ammonium-N) and P (Fig. 4). These
increases were not statistically significant with age;
while the effect of species revealed significant dif-
ferences for mineral-N (Fig. 4). N-mineralization
rate was significantly affected by plantation age

Figure 3. Soil Organic Carbon (SOC), Kjeldahl N

(TKN), Total Phosphorous (TP) and their ratios (C/N,
C/P) of certain native woody plantations raised on mine
soil. Bars are 1 SE.

and was significantly different among species.

Figure 1. Net nitrogen uptake (after adjustment for However, rate of nitrification was not affected by
internal recycling) by different layers of vegetation of plantation age but affected by the species, thus,
certain native woody plantations raised on mine soil. the rate was significantly lower in T. grandis and
Bars are 1 SE. higher in A. lebbeck plantation (Fig. 4).

658

Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 658 8/27/2014 6:04:46 PM


Figure 4. Mineral N (NH4-N + NO3-N) available phos-
phorous (PO4-pi) and rates of N mineralization and
nitrification of certain native woody plantations raised
on mine soils. Bars are in 1 SE.
Figure 5. Soil Microbial Biomass C (MBC), Microbial
Biomass N (MBN) and Microbial Biomass P (MBP) of
certain native woody plantations raised on mine soil.
Bars are in 1 SE.
Soil microbial biomass C, N and P signifi-
cantly varied from 105.16 to 483.0, 17.73 to
56.21 and 8.6722.03 g g1 dry soil, respectively,
in A. lebbeck, A. procera and T. grandis planta-
tion as the age increased from 4 to 6 yr (Fig. 5).
Similarly, microbial C, N and P increased with
plantation age at 4 and 5 yr age in D. stricus and
ranged between 217.65319.13, 29.3137.54 and
12.7316.17 g g1 dry soil, respectively (Fig. 5).
ANOVA revealed significant differences due to
age and plantation species in microbial biomass
C, N and P, but the species and age interaction
were insignificant.
659
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 659
4 DISCUSSION
4.1 Nutrient re-translocation rate,
cycling of N and P nutrients
Nutrient re-sorption from senescing leaves, by min-
imizing nutrient loss, could be just as important as
uptake in altering nutrient balance, especially in
low-nutrient environments (Pugnaire and Chapin
1993). Killingbeck (1996) considers re-sorption as
a keystone process in most of the ecosystems and
according to him, it is one of the most important
of all strategies employed by plants to conserve
nutrients and consequently, influence processes as
varied as competition, nutrient uptake and produc-
tion. Analysis of re-translocation data for nitrogen
and phosphorus during senescence of foliage indi-
cated that re-translocation in terms of percentage
is always more for phosphorus compared to nitro-
gen which is in conformity with the global data set
analyzed by Aerts (1996). However, on the area
basis nitrogen re-translocation is 611 times more
than phosphorus re-translocation. This is because
of much higher concentration of N in foliage com-
pared to P. Analysis of global data set by Aerts
(1996) indicated that mean nutrient resorption
efficiency was 50% for N and 52% for P. Scott et al.
(1992) reported resorption efficiencies of 1773%
for N and 4182% for P in six Brazilian rain for-
est species. In our study across the species ranges
for N and P resorption were 4053% and 5458%,
respectively, indicating that these values fit in the
data reported in the literature.
For nearby native forest magnitude of re-
translocation during senescence of foliage esti-
mated through nutrient/Ca ratios for N and P was
reported as 67% and 70%, respectively (Singh and
Singh 1991b), representing 54.7381 kg N ha1
yr1 and 3.855.60 kg P ha1 yr1. All the species
in the present study planted on mine spoils show
area basis re-translocation values in the same
range except for T. grandis where re-translocation
was very low. However, percent re-translocations
in mine spoil plantations were lowers compared
to nearby native forest (Singh and Singh 1991b).
In the present study, D. strictus retranslocated
50% N and 58% P amounting to 66.0689.8 kg N
ha1 and 11.0114.88 kg P ha1 per year. In nearby
bamboo plantation, Tripathi and Singh (1994)
reported 5862% N and 5559% P retransloca-
tion. This translated into retranslocation value
of 9.0463.87 kg N ha1 yr1 and 0.552.92 kg P
ha1 yr1. Li et al. (1998) calculated retransloca-
tion for the leaves of giant bamboo (Phyllostachys
pubescens) as 43% for N and 52% for P translating
into resorption of about 5.512.6 kg N ha1 and
0.30.6 kg P ha1. Furthermore, they reported that
retranslocation was always higher in poor years
8/27/2014 6:04:48 PM
 when recruitment was lower. Therefore, if we con-
sider bamboo plantations alone, the plantations on
mine spoils are internally cycling more nutrients
through re-translocation. On area basis, D. strictus
had highest N and P re-translocation followed by
A. lebbeck and A. procera, while T. grandis had very
low per hectare re-translocation. Re-translocation
rate for N and P in senescing leaves on area basis
increased with the increasing age of plantation.
This obviously resulted from the increase in foliage
biomass, the latter being used in calculation of per
unit area values for nutrient re-translocation.
In the present study values for N and P uptake
ranged from 135.44386.86 and 10.0226.65 kg
ha1 yr1, respectively. Compared to these values,
corresponding values reported by Singh and Singh
(1991a, b) for nearby mature forest were lower
(100.0164.4 kg N ha1 yr1 and 6.711.1 kg P ha1
yr1). Similarly in nearby bamboo plantations stud-
ied by Tripathi and Singh (1994), N and P uptake
values were respectively 176184 and 79 kg ha1
yr1. High uptake values in the present plantations
are related with high production levels found in
them compared to native forest studied by Singh
and Singh (1991a) and nearby bamboo plantation
studied by Tripathi and Singh (1994).
4.2 Effect of plantations on soil biological fertility
Structure and functioning of normal soils have
developed by natural processes acting on an origi-
nally skeletal material without human aid (Brad-
shaw 1997a; Robert et al. 2011). Soil development
processes, especially the breakdown of original
rock material, and the differentiation of horizons
take a very long time (maybe many thousands of
years) because underlying physico-chemical proc-
esses, such as breakdown of clay minerals are long
drawn out processes (Bradshaw 1997b). According
to Bradshaw (1997a, b), such pedological develop-
ment must be distinguished from biological soil
development, which includes the development of
soil organic matter, nutrient capital and nutrient
cycling processes because these biological quali-
ties can develop much more rapidly. This is par-
ticularly true for soil development on mine spoils
where biological processes are more important as
breakdown of clay minerals and other physical
processes have already played their role. Therefore,
emphasis in the present study was on biological
processes only. Further, any study, which involves
an examination of the effect of a soil-forming fac-
tor on soil development, requires that remaining
four factors remain constant (Alexander 1989a, b).
In the present study climate, relief, parent material
and time were same for all plantations. Therefore,
differences found between the soil properties can
be attributed primarily to vegetation. Plantations
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 660
of four species were intensively studied for their
effects on soil redevelopment on mine spoil as by
reported by Singh and Singh (1999) and Singh
et al. (2004a, b).
There was a general improvement in soil prop-
erties due to establishment of plantations. An
increase in water holding capacity of soil, decrease
in bulk density and elevated levels of soil organic
carbon, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus
and exchangeable cations was observed across the
plantations (Singh et al. 2004a, b). Many studies
show that tree plantations improve soil condi-
tions by increasing the mass and concentrations
of organic matter and available nutrients (Lugo
et al. 1990, Lugo et al. 1992b, Parrotta 1992,
1999, 2001, Panagopoulos and Hatzistathis 1995,
Filcheva et al. 2000). The selection of planted spe-
cies significantly affects these results. Some species
accumulate mass and nutrients more than others,
or they can influence the accumulation of a par-
ticular nutrient and not other. Other species may
not have an effect on soil chemistry (Lugo et al.
1990, Filcheva et al. 2000). In the present study
the greatest effect of species on soil redevelopment
was exhibited by A. lebbeck followed by D. stric-
tus. Slow growing T. grandis was not as effective as
other fast growing species.
An active microbial community is increasingly
being recognized as an important component of
a successful reclamation programme (Frouz et al.
2001). For a stable plant community to develop
on a mined site, there must be a functional soil
microbe community (Corbett et al. 1996). Micro-
bial processes are highly sensitive to the same envi-
ronmental factors that affect plant growth (Sutton
and Dick 1987). Therefore, treatments applied to
barren mine spoil to improve plant growth should
also stimulate microbial activity. Vegetation has
an effect on microbial population and activity.
Sutton and Dick (1987) reported that the number
of microorganisms are higher in areas vegetated
by forage species than in areas with trees. In the
present study plantations of different species had
different levels of microbial biomass, the high-
est values were found for plantations of N-fixer
A. lebbeck and A. procera. These values were con-
siderably lower compared to the nearby adjacent
natural forest (373727, 2070 and 2031 g g1
soil, respectively) (Srivastava et al. 1989). Further-
more, Srivastava et al. (1989) reported the values of
microbial biomass C, N and P for 5 yr old naturally
re-vegetated mine spoil as 209, 20 and 7 g g1,
respectively. Dutta and Agrawal (2002) reported
125.0141.6 g g1 microbial biomass C, 10.319.4
g g1 biomass N and 3.166.49 g g1 biomass P
in 4 yr old plantation plots of certain exotic spe-
cies (Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina equisetifolia,
Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus hybrid and Grevillea
660
8/27/2014 6:04:49 PM
 pteridifolia) at the same site. The results indicated
that plantations of exotic species, either legume or
non-leguminous, are not as effective in mine spoil
rehabilitation as those of native species.
Biomass C in the present plantation soils
accounted for 2.538.67% of the total organic C,
biomass N 3.4311.08% of the total soil N and
microbial biomass P 5.4112.13% of the total P
in these plantation plots (Singh and Singh 1999;
Singh et al. 2004a, b). The corresponding values for
adjacent forest ecosystem are 1.63.6 for biomass
C and 1.74.4% for biomass N (Srivastava and
Singh 1989). Thus, levels of carbon and nitrogen
immobilization by microbial biomass were greater
in the mine spoils compared to natural forest or
agricultural soils. Soil microbial activity and lev-
els of soil microbial biomass play an important
role in nutrient cycling; and for monitoring the
restoration of soil microbial population, estima-
tion of microbial biomass gives most satisfactory
results. Substrate supply and microbial population
regulate organic matter mineralization rate in early
phase of soil redevelopment (Singh et al. 1995).
The levels of microbial biomass C, N and P can
be taken as functional indices of soil redevelop-
ment; and soil biomass is a critical factor in the
recovery of drastically disturbed sites as it aids in
the re-establishment of nutrient cycle (Srivastava
et al. 1989, Rath et al. 2010, Chodak and Niklin-
ska, 2012 ).
4.3 Interrelationship in soil-vegetation
redevelopment
In order to search for relationships among various
parameters related with structure and functioning
of developing plantations on mine spoil, data for
different plantations were pooled assuming that
the plantations of four species which varied mark-
edly in growth parameters as well as in their impact
on soil redevelopment are part of the same newly
developed ecosystem. A significant relationship
between foliage biomass (X) and tree layer NPP
(Y) was found (Y 7.071 14.184 l X , r2 = 0.83,
P < 0.0001, n = 11). It may be argued that both
NPP and foliage biomass increased with age; there-
fore this relationship may be an artifact. To counter
this argument, relationship for a single year (5-yr
old) was calculated when replicate data for each
species was available. This analysis also showed a
significant linear relationship (Y 1.966 3.262X ,
r2 = 0.91, P < 0.0001, n = 12) between foliage bio-
mass and tree layer net production. Therefore NPP
is a direct function of the amount of foliage at least
in the young plantations. It can still be argued that
since foliage biomass is also a component of total
NPP, the above mentioned relationships may still
be questionable. A further analysis relating leaf
661
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 661
biomass with stem NPP also revealed a significant
relationship between the two components of all
species all age (Y 3.698 6.229 l X , r2 = 0.70,
P < 0.001, n = 11) as well as for all species, sin-
gle age ( 1.299 1.467 , r2 = 0.83, P < 0.001,
n = 12) showing the importance of leaf compart-
ment in the primary productivity of young planta-
tions. Similar to this study, Webb et al. (1983) found
a positive relationship between aboveground NPP
and foliar standing mass of forests, grasslands and
desert sites.
Rates of nutrient uptake depend on the quan-
tity of the root surface area and uptake proper-
ties of this surface (Lambers et al. 1998). Root
biomass is the major factor governing stand-level
nutrient uptake because a large root biomass is
a major characteristic by which plants minimize
diffusional limitations of nutrient delivery to the
root surface (Lambers et al. 1998). In the present
study root foraging efficiencies varied substan-
tially among the planted species. Notwithstanding
this, there was a positive nonlinear relationship
between N uptake and the biomass of small root
for all species all age (Y 813.128 147.793X ,
r2 = 0.61, P < 0.01, n = 11) and significant relation-
ship ( 528.545 106.264 l , r2 = 0.42, P <
0.05, n = 12) for all species single age. A positive
linear relationship also existed between P uptake
and small root biomass (Y 2.355 0.017X , r2
= 0.85, P < 0.001, n = 11 for all species all age and
Y 1.757 0.013X , r2 = 0.60, P < 0.01, n = 12 for all
species single age). These relationships indicated
that nutrient uptake is indeed a function of small
root biomass present in the system. According
to Lambers et al. (1998), increased allocation of
resources to root growth with acclimation or adap-
tation to infertile soil is important for those ions
that diffuse slowly in soils (e.g., phosphate).
Singh (1999) reported values for litter fall and N
deposition through litter fall for these plantations.
The highest litter fall values were recorded for D.
strictus plantation at 3 to 5 yr age (6.4011.00 t ha1
yr1), followed by A. lebbeck (3.5610.42 t ha1 yr1),
and A. procera plantation (3.528.79 t ha1 yr1) at
3 to 6 yr age. The lowest litter fall was recorded
in T. grandis plantation where values ranged from
1.082.80 t ha1 yr1. The corresponding values for
N deposition were 48.0140.65, 42.62105.42, 7.36
19.15 and 45.5179.03 kg ha1 yr1, respectively. A
direct evidence of the effect of vegetation on soil
redevelopment was observed in the present study.
A positive relationship (Y 0.058 0.267 l X ,
r2 = 0.56, P< 0.01, n = 11 for all species all age and
Y 0.03 031 0.274 l X , r2 = 0.61, P < 0.01, n = 12 for
all species single age) existed between soil organic
carbon and litter fall indicating that the soil organic
carbon is a function of the quantity of dry matter
deposition as litter fall. The curvilinear nature of
8/27/2014 6:04:49 PM
 relationship indicates that after a few years soil
organic carbon may attain equilibrium and with
further increase in litter fall it may not show a net
change. A similar relationship existed between the
soil N and the quantity of N deposited by litter fall
(Y 0.032 0.021l X , r2 = 0.89, P < 0.001, n = 11
for all species all age and 0.036 0.022 l , Therefore, a system having high microbial biomass
r2 = 0.85, P < 0.001, n = 12 for all species single age)
further indicating the importance of leaf litter fall
in the redeveloping soil of mine spoil.
Soil nutrient status is expected to directly affect
microbial dynamics and growth of specific micro-
bial populations (Merckx and Martin 1987). Ruess
and McNaughton (1987) showed a direct relation-
ship between microbial biomass C and soil organic
C. Diaz-Ravina et al. (1988) were also able to explain
variations in biomass C levels on the basis of vari-
ations in total soil C and N. A positive nonlinear
relationship between soil organic
g C and microbial
biomass C (Y 105.797e1.586 x , r2 = 0.63, P < 0.01,
n = 11 for all species all age and Y 155.029e 0.911x ,
r2 = 0.73, P < 0.001, n = 12 for all species single age)
indicating that the two parameters mirror each
other. Further analysis also indicated a significant
relationship between microbial biomass C and litter
fall (Y 89.098X 0.586 , r2 = 0.49, P < 0.05, n = 11 for
all species all age and 126.701 0.376, r2 = 0.84,
P < 0.001, n = 12 for all species single age) indi-
cating that substantial amount of dry matter of
litter fall in young plantations is used to generate
microbial biomass C. Similar relationship between
microbial biomass N and soil N (Y 14.161e14.488x ,
r2 = 0.52, P < 0.01, n = 11 for all species all age and
Y 21.919e 6.960 x , r2 = 0.39, P < 0.05, n = 12 for all
species single age) and microbial biomass N and
litter fall N ( 18.107 0.007 x, r2 = 0.65, P < 0.01,
n = 11 for all species all age and Y 25.33e 0.003x ,
r2 = 0.33, P < 0.05, n = 12 for all species single age)
were observed.
Microbial nutrients are frequently taken as
a source of readily available nutrients for plant
uptake. The positive relationship between N uptake
and microbial biomass N (Y 44.294 6.116X ,
r2 = 0.49, P < 0.05, n = 11 for all species all age and
Y 38 8.129X , r2 = 0.30, P < 0.05, n = 12
19.138
for all species single age), and P uptake and
microbial biomass P ( 36.153
53 188.07 l ,
r2 = 0.71, P < 0.001, n = 11 for all species all age
and 33.856 17.465 l , r2 = 0.34, P < 0.05,
n = 12 for all species single age) strengthen the
argument that a high level of microbial biomass in
soil would act as a readily available source of nutri-
ent for plant uptake. A large amount of N, P and
S is stored in the relatively labile microbial biomass
(Jenkinson and Ladd 1981). The turnover rate
of microbial biomass has been estimated 13 yr
(Jenkinson and Ladd 1981, Schnurer et al. 1985).
A part of microbial population dies regularly
662
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 662
due to changes of the environmental conditions
(Marumoto et al. 1982). These dead cells are easily
decomposed and mineralized by the microorgan-
isms that survive (Nelson et al. 1979), and they
contribute a substantial amount of nutrients for
the growing plants (Anderson and Domsch 1980).
will have high availability of nutrients.
The rate of N mineralization has been consid-
ered as the rate of nutrient availability or nutri-
ent supply as shown earlier in many studies in
agro-ecosystem (e.g., Singh and Singh 1994). The
relationships between tree layer NPP and the
rate of N mineralization ( 1.188 16.402 l ,
r2 = 0.56, P < 0.001, n = 11 for all species all age
and 21.956 25.209 l , r2 = 0.42, P < 0.05,
n = 12 for all species single age) and between
stem net production and N mineralization
( 9.77499 9.28 l , r2 = 0.60, P < 0.01, n = 11
for all species all age and 10.659 100.831l ,
r2 = 0.66, P < 0.01, n = 12 for all species single age)
indicate that NPP is a function of nutrient availabil-
ity and is limited by it. As more and more N becomes
available, the plant will be able to withdraw more
and more N from the soil. A significant linear rela-
tionship between N uptake and N-mineralization
(Y 104.069 41.331X , r2 = 0.87, P < 0.001, n = 11
for all species all age and 94.55199 42.639 ,
r2 = 0.78, P < 0.001, n = 12 for all species single
age) evidently indicated importance of minerali-
zation process during redeveloping soils of coal-
mine spoil. Moreover, N-mineralization, when
used as a surrogate index of nutrient availabil-
ity, shows a positive relationship with P uptake
(Y 14.167 13.948 l X , r2 = 0.69, P < 0.001, n = 11
for all species all age and 14.335 155.047 l ,
r2 = 0.64, P < 0.01, n = 12 for all species single age).
A positive correlation between net above ground
production and N availability has been shown for
a variety of ecosystems (Nadelhoffer et al. 1983,
Pastor et al. 1984, Birk and Vitousek 1986, Reich
et al. 1997).
Having established the relationships between
foliage biomass and NPP, and between small root
biomass and nutrient uptake an analysis of the rela-
tionship was done to see whether the two major effi-
ciencies, viz. production efficiency (t NPP t1 foliage
biomass) and root foraging efficiency (kg nutrient
uptake g1 small root biomass), are related with each
other. Relationship between N foraging efficiency
of small root with tree layer production efficiency
( 0.068 0.278 l , r2 = 0.66, P < 0.01) and P
foraging efficiency with tree layer production effi-
ciency (Y 002 0.016 l X , r2 = 0.83, P < 0.001)
0.00
indicates that two efficiencies indeed are related
to each other and show a high level of integration
between nutrient absorption capacity of roots and
net photosynthetic capacity of foliage.
8/27/2014 6:04:54 PM
 Although a limited data set for only 4 spe-
cies was available, an attempt was made to see
whether there is some simple indicator, which
can account for the two efficiencies. Relation-
ships between tree layer production efficiency
with leaf N (Y 1.524 1.648 l X , r2 = 0.56,
p < 0.01), stem production efficiency and leaf
N (Y 0.292 1.109 l X , r2 = 0.52, p < 0.01),
N foraging efficiency of small root and leaf N
(Y 0.0022 0.313 l X , r2 = 0.98, p < 0.0001)
and P foraging efficiency of small root and leaf
N (Y 004 0.014 l X , r2 = 0.83, p < 0.001)
0.00
showed that the production efficiencies of leaves
and the foraging efficiencies of small root are keyed
to the N concentration of foliage. This makes the
leaf N content as one of the most important fac-
tors in modulating the production and nutrient
absorption processes at the ecosystem level. At
steady state nutrition, the plant growth rate is pro-
portional to the amount of foliar N (Yarie 1997).
In conformity with this, Singh and Singh (2001)
reported a positive relationship between growth
rates (height, diameter and volume increments)
and foliar N and P concentrations at the same site
area. A general global pattern is that leaves with a
larger amount of N per unit mass have high pho-
tosynthetic ability (Reich et al. 1997). In a study
done by DeLucia and Schlesinger (1995) maxi-
mum photosynthetic rate measured on dry mass
basis was correlated with leaf N and P. Nitrogen
in chlorophylls, thylakoid proteins, and associated
cofactors and enzymes comprises about 75% of
the leafs organic N (Loomis 1997). A high propor-
tion of leaf N is invested in ribulose biphosphate
carboxylase (Evans 1989), and the correlation
between leaf N and maximum photosynthetic
rate is likely to represent a functional relationship
(Field and Mooney 1986). Reich et al. (1992) have
suggested that the photosynthesis-leaf N relation-
ship among species should be considered univer-
sal when expressed on a mass, but not on a leaf
area basis. Therefore, leaf N concentration is an
important easily measurable leaf trait which can
be used in developing plantations on mine spoils
for prediction of many ecosystem functions and its
success potential in rehabilitation efforts.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The results of the present study indicate that a
significant change in physico-chemical and micro-
bial properties of mine spoil after 6 yrs age of
plantations. There is an increasing level of soil
organic carbon, total kjeldahl nitrogen and total
phosphorus across all planted species. In the
assessment of soil redevelopment process, micro-
bial biomass, which acts as an important driver of
663
Wang_Fullpaper-Book .indb 663
rehabilitation of mine spoils, resulted in progres-
sively increasing amount of microbial biomass C,
N and P and greater proportions of soil C and
nutrients and a widening of soil C: N and biomass
C: N ratios across plantation age. Notwithstanding
these, increasing rate of N-mineralization and
abundance of less mobile forms of plant available N
indicated a progressive tightening nutrient cycling.
Therefore, a continuous increase in microbial bio-
mass and rate of N-mineralization indicates a con-
tinuous soil redevelopment. It means equilibrium
state and sustainable condition yet to be achieved.
In this study, however the greatest effect of species
on soil redevelopment was exhibited by A. lebbeck
followed by D. strictus, A. procera and T. grandis. In
conclusion, biomass accretion and NPP increased
with age of plantations but varied between species.
Root foraging efficiencies were interdependent but
varied among species, NPP and nutrient uptake
were limited by nutrient supply rate, and leaf N was
a possible modulator of production and root for-
aging efficiencies. Redevelopment of soil biological
fertility on mine spoil was strongly integrated with
vegetation growth and nutrient cycling tended to
become tighter with age of plantation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to University Grants Commission,
Govt. of India for financial assistance in form of a
Major Research Project.
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 Editor
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of Mine Land Reclamation

Legislation, Technology and Practice
Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation contains
the proceedings of the Beijing International Symposium on Land Reclamation
and Ecological Restoration (LRER 2014, Beijing, China, 16-19 October 2014).
The contributions cover a wide range of topics:
- Monitoring, prediction and assessment of environmental damage in
mining areas
- Subsidence land reclamation and ecological restoration
- Soil, vegetation and biological diversity
- Mining methods and measures for minimization of land and
environmental damage
- Solid wastes and AMD treatment
- Contaminated land remediation
- Land reclamation and ecological restoration policies and management
- Surface mined land reclamation and ecological restoration
- Case study on mining reclamation and ecological restoration

Legislation, Technology and Practice

Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation will be of
interest to engineers, scientists, consultants, government officials and students
involved in environmental engineering, soil science, ecology, forestry, mining,
and land reclamation and ecological restoration in mining areas. of Mine Land Reclamation

Editor: Zhenqi Hu

an informa business

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