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SYLLABUS
CHAPTER 1: Resistors
CHAPTER 2: Capacitors
CHAPTER 3: Transformer and relays
CHAPTER 4: Diodes
CHAPTER 5: Transistors
CHAPTER 6: Thyristors and triac
CHAPTER 7: Regulated power supply
CHAPTER 8: Thermal analysis
CHAPTER 9: Technology of digital integrated circuits
CHAPTER 10: Study of some digital ICs
CHAPTER 11: Multivibrators
CHAPTER 12: Schmitt trigger
CHAPTER 13: NE555
SYMBOLE :
OHMS Law :
Power Ratings :
Its the amount of heat that can be dissipated for an indefinite period of time without degrading
the performance of the resistor
Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey white Gold Silver
1rst digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2nd digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
multiplier 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10-1 10-2
Tolrance 5 10
1 2 0.25 0.2 0.1
(%)
Example:
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands so its value is 270000
= 270k (usually shown as 270K on circuit diagrams).
silver 10%
gold 5%
red 2%
brown 1%
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because a precise resistor value is rarely
required and where it is a variable resistor will usually be used.
5. Association of resistors
Resistors can be associated in series or in parallel to have a particular value.
1.5.1. Series association
1.5.2. Parallel association
6. Real resistor values
Resistors are not available with every possible value. The standard resistor values are based on
this idea and they form a series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.
E6 series
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68,
Valeur de la srie E12 :
10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39 47 56 68 82
Valeur de la srie E24 :
10 11 12 13 15 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 43 47 51
56 62 68 75 82 91
7. Selection criteria
- The nominal value
- The maximum power
- The tolerance
- The construction
2.2.Rheostat
A rheostat is a 2-terminal variable resistor. Rheostats are often used to vary current, for
example to control the brightness of a lamp or the rate of charging a capacitor.
symbol
3. other resistors
Power wirewound resistors
there are resistors that can handle a large amount of power, usually up to 50 watts.
Thermistors
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance value changes with changes in
operating temperature. There are either a negative or positive temperature coefficient.
Varistor
A varistor is a voltage dependent resistor (VDR). The resistance of a varistor is variable and depends
on the voltage applied.
3. Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called
'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and
500pF.
Trimmer capacitors
4. Capacitance
Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F, but 1F is very large so these prefixes (multipliers)
are used to show smaller values:
(micro) means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F
n (nano) means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F
p (pico) means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
4.2.Capacitive reactance
Capacitive reactance (Xc) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition to AC (alternating current).
1
Capacitive reactance, Xc =
2fC
Xc = reactance in ohms ()
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
4.3.Capacitors in Series and Parallel
The combined capacitance (C) of capacitors connected in series is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
C C1 C2 C3
The combined capacitance (C) of capacitors connected in parallel is:
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
TP1:
- Presentations of tools material and equipment
- Test and measure the value of resistor and capacitor
- Wiring a circuit on breadboard and measure current and voltage
2. Transformers
2.1.Definition
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another
without changing frequency.
2.2.Types of transformer
- Power transformer : use to step up or step down the voltage
- Pulse transformer : Specialized small-signal transformer used to transmit digital signaling
while providing electrical isolation
- Auto transformer: has one winding that is tapped at some point along the winding.
- Audio transformer: Audio transformers are those specifically designed for use in audio
circuits to carry audio signal
Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and
changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch
positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram.
3.3.Symbol
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
3.4.Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the
supplier's catalogue or on their website.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay
coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also
readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a
little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use
Ohm's law to calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance
Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil
is switched off.
1. Definition
The diode is a semiconductor device which permits electrical charge (current) to flow in
only one direction.
2. Constitution
A diode is made from semiconducting materials. It has two terminals, called the anode and the
cathode.
3. Symbol
4. Operation principle
To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it.
Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn junction.
Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode.
0.7 is the point at which the barrier potential is overcome and current increases drastically
1N4001 1A 50V
1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
1N5401 3A 100V
1N5408 3A 1000V
6.2.ZENER diode
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a
reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed
voltage across their terminals.
a. Zener Diode I-V Characteristics
The resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode with the voltage source, Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing
in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit
current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a
small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load
resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of
the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that
the zeners maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance
condition.
Application Example
A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply input
source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using the zener regulator
circuit above calculate:
a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.
c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1k is connected across the zener diode.
Schottky diodes are high-current diodes used primarily in high-frequency and fast-switching
applications. They are also known as hot-carrier diodes.
7.2.Photodiode
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current. The current is
generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.
TP:
- Test a diode
- Single phase rectifier
- Measure current and voltage true a diode
- stabilizer
1.1.Definition
A transistor is a semiconductor device that controls current between two terminals based
on the current or voltage at a third terminal. It is used for amplification or switching of electrical
signals.
b) Symbol
a) Basic structure
1.3.BJT biasing
For normal operation as amplifier, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base
collector junction is reverse-biased.
1.6.BJT as an amplifier
Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal
and is one of the major properties of a transistor.
Formular:
Vout= Ic.R
Ai= 1
Ap=Av
1.7.As witch
BJTs are used in switching applications when it is necessary to provide current drive to a load.
In switching applications, the transistor is either in cutoff or in saturation
In cutoff, the input voltage is too small to forward-bias the transistor. The output (collector)
voltage will be equal to VCC. In switching applications, the transistor
is either in cutoff or in saturation
Conditions in Saturation
when the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base current to produce a
maximum collector current, the transistor is saturated. The formula for collector saturation
current is
Since V CE(sat) is very small compared to VCC, it can usually be neglected. The minimum
value of base current needed to produce saturation is
2. FET
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a voltage controlled device where gate voltage controls drain
current. There are two types of FETs: the JFET and the MOSFET.
2.1.JFET
2.1.1. Constitution and symbol
JFETs (junction FET) have a conductive channel with a source and drain connection on
the ends. Channel current is controlled by the gate voltage.
The forward transconductance (transfer conductance), gm, is the change in drain current
(dID) for a given change in gate-to-source voltage (dVGS) with the drain-to-source voltage
constant.
The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) differs from the JFET in that it has an
insulated gate instead ( la place de) of a pn junction between the gate and channel.
The term unijunction refers to the fact that the UJT has a single pn junction
3.1.Structure and symbol
3.3.Standoff Ratio
The ratio rB1/rBB is a UJT characteristic called the intrinsic standoff ratio and is
designated by (Greek eta).
The value of emitter voltage that causes the pn junction to become forward biased is called
Vp (peak-point voltage) and is expressed as VP = VBB + Vpn
a- Revision
1. Name the two types of BJTs according to their structure.
2. The BJT is a three-terminal device. Name the three terminals.
3. What separates the three regions in a BJT?
4. What are the bias conditions of the base-emitter and base-collector junctions for a
transistor to operate as an amplifier?
5. Which is the largest of the three transistor currents?
6. Is the base current smaller or larger than the emitter current?
7. Is the base region much thinner or much wider than the collector and emitter regions?
8. If the collector current is 1 mA and the base current is 10 A, what is the emitter current?
9. What is amplification?
10. How is voltage gain defined?
11. Name two factors that determine the voltage gain of an amplifier.
12. What is the voltage gain of a transistor amplifier that has an output of 5 V rms and an input
of 250 mV rms?
b- Quiz : T / F
Exercises
a). If the switch is at position A, what will the drain current be, and
why?
b). If the switch is at position B, and the gate supply voltage is of
sufficient value to cause cutoff, what will the drain current be, and
why?
c). What is the voltage from the drain to the source for the two switch
positions?
JFET Biasing
4. An n-channel self-biased JFET has a drain current of 12 mA and a source resistor. What is
the value of VGS?
5. Determine the value of RS required for a self-biased JFET to produce a VGS of when ID=5
mA.
6. Determine the value of RS required for a self-biased JFET to produce ID =2.5 mA when
VGS=-3V
7. IDSS =20 mA and VGS(off)=-6V for a particular JFET.
(a) What is ID when VGS =0 V?
(b) What is ID when VGS= VGS(off)?
(c) If VGS is increased from -4V to -1V does ID increase or decrease?
8. For each circuit in Figure 4, determine VDS and VGS.
Figure 3
Figure 1
CMOS Nand gate
Figure 2
Figure 4