write down the similarity and difference between crosssection class?

the differene and similarity between uc and bc?

difference

Braced column: -

1. A column may be considered braced in a given plan if lateral stability of the

structure as a whole is provided by walls or bracing.

2.These coulmn are not designed to resist lateral load

3.These coulmn have zero value of sway force

4.structural system having bracing is most used for the important structure.

Unbraced column: -

1. A column may be considered unbraced in a given plan if lateral stability of the

structure as a whole is provided by columns only.

2. In unbraced coulmn the lateral load like wind load earthquake load are resist by
itself coulmn

3.these coulmn are subjected to sway

4.Most of thd Rcc member are designed for unbraced coulmn.

types of residual stress and their effect?

Residual stresses are spontaneously in equilibrium as tensile residual

stresses which are known as detrimental and compressive residual
stresses which are known as beneficial. For example, a surface formed in
tensile stresses will comprise compressive residual stresses, and a
surface formed in compressive stresses will contain tensile residual
stresses.

Tensile residual stresses decrease the fatigue strength and cause fatigue
failure. Tensile residual stresses are usually the side effects of
production such as in aggressive grinding which causes crack growth.
They can also be introduced with shrinking, fitting, bending, or torsion.
As an example, cast components usually have remaining tensions as
residual stresses which may cause cracking on the component surface. In
addition, stress corrosion cracking is a phenomenon which occurs in the
presence of tensile residual stresses.

Compressive residual stresses increase both the fatigue strength and

resistance to stress corrosion cracking. They are intentionally formed by
various processes such as shot peening, laser peening, low plasticity
burnishing and autofrettage. These processes cold work or strain harden
the material. Many times, the real aim of inducing compressive residual
stresses is to balance the detrimental effects of tensile stresses. One of
the heat treatment processes, stress-relief annealing, can also be used to
reduce the residual tensile stresses.

The total stress of a component is the sum of the all applied service
stresses and residual stresses.

There are three different known residual stresses.

Type-1 Residual Stress

Macro-residual stresses are developed in several grains. Any change in
the equilibrium of Type-1 RS will result in a change in macroscopic
dimensions. Any treatment or process which causes inhomogeneous
distribution of strains produces Type-1 residual stresses.

Type-2 Residual Stress

Micro-residual stresses are developed in one grain. They can be in

different sizes in different grains. Especially martensitic
transformation produces Type-2 RS. During the transformation,
incomplete transformation of austenite is observed. The volume
ofmartensite is larger than that of austenite and this difference forms
residual stresses.

Type-3 Residual Stress

Sub-micro residual stresses are developed within several atomic

distances of the grain. Formation is caused by crystalline defects such
as vacancies, dislocations, etc.

In real life, components have all the residual stress types.

All manufacturing processes create some degree of residual stresses. The

effect of these stresses could be imperceptible or they could
create cracks. Especially cast and welded components under no external
loading at room temperature may catastrophically fail because of
residual stresses as we have seen in the above video.
Residual stresses directly affect the lifetime of the
components. Failures and other problems caused by residual stresses
made industries to focus on investigation, controlling, measuring and
reliving of residual stresses thus residual stresses became an important
research subject of todays engineering world.

Stresstech Group is a research oriented company with 34 years

experience in residual stress engineering. Feel free to contact us to learn
more about residual stresses and their measurements.

the difference between cold and hot rolled section?

Customers often ask us about the differences between hot rolled steeland cold rolled steel. There are some
fundamental differences between these two types of metal. These differences relate to the ways these metals
are processed at the mill, and not the product specification or grade.

Hot Rolled
Hot rolling is a mill process which involves rolling the steel at a high temperature (typically at a temperature
over 1700 F), which is above the steels recrystallization temperature. When steel is above the
recrystallization temperature, it can be shaped and formed easily, and the steel can be made in much larger
sizes. Hot rolled steel is typically cheaper than cold rolled steel due to the fact that it is often manufactured
without any delays in the process, and therefore the reheating of the steel is not required (as it is with cold
rolled). When the steel cools off it will shrink slightly thus giving less control on the size and shape of the
finished product when compared to cold rolled.

Uses: Hot rolled products like hot rolled steel bars are used in the welding and construction trades to make
railroad tracks and I-beams, for example. Hot rolled steel is used in situations where precise shapes and
tolerances are not required.

Cold Rolled
Cold rolled steel is essentially hot rolled steel that has had further processing. The steel is processed further in
cold reduction mills, where the material is cooled (at room temperature) followed by annealing and/or tempers
rolling. This process will produce steel with closer dimensional tolerances and a wider range of surface
finishes. The term Cold Rolled is mistakenly used on all products, when actually the product name refers to the
rolling of flat rolled sheet and coil products.

When referring to bar products, the term used is cold finishing, which usually consists of cold drawing
and/or turning, grinding and polishing. This process results in higher yield points and has four main
advantages:

Cold drawing increases the yield and tensile strengths, often eliminating further costly thermal
treatments.
Turning gets rid of surface imperfections.
Grinding narrows the original size tolerance range.
Polishing improves surface finish.

All cold products provide a superior surface finish, and are superior in tolerance, concentricity, and
straightness when compared to hot rolled.

Cold finished bars are typically harder to work with than hot rolled due to the increased carbon content.
However, this cannot be said about cold rolled sheet and hot rolled sheet. With these two products, the cold
rolled product has low carbon content and it is typically annealed, making it softer than hot rolled sheet.

Uses: Any project where tolerances, surface condition, concentricity, and straightness are the major factors.

For those with a growing interest in the steel industry, there can be a lot to learn. As
you might expect, there are a lot of differences between two popular forms of steel;
hot rolled steel and its counterpart, cold rolled steel. Whether you are a contractor in
need of knowledge for a job or simply an interested individual, here is what you need
to know about hot and cold rolled steel.

The Difference
The difference begins with their names, which references how each type of steel is
formed. As you might imagine, it directly relates to the temperatures that the steel
was rolled in.
For hot rolled steel, it is rolled at temperatures of 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit and
higher. Cold steel is rolled at much more comfortable temperatures, usually around
room temperature. There must be a reason for these differences, though, so why the
two separate processes?

Hot Rolled Steel

It is easy to identify hot rolled steel by the bluish tint that it often has to it from the
rolling process. By being rolled in the extremely high temperatures, hot rolled steel
loses many of the properties of cold rolled steel. This makes it a lower tolerance to
outside pressures and makes it more malleable. Because of this increased flexibility,
is far easier for hot rolled steel to take on a variety of shapes.
Due to its flexibility, hot rolled steel is highly sought out after as a structural
component. This includes things like I beams and railroad tracks. Another popular
use, due to its flexibility, is to craft it into sheet metal. While it is not as strong as the
other, hot rolled steel is extremely useful for its ability to bend.

Cold Rolled Steel

While hot rolled steel is prized for being flexible and easy to work with, cold rolled
steel does not undergo the same process that allows this particular feature. As a
result, it is much stronger than the other and comes out of the rolling process about
20% harder.
Cold rolled steel also has the advantage of being used in jobs that require exact
measurements, because it is far easier to craft this steel to exact specifications.
These benefits do come with certain drawbacks, however.

Because it is so hard to move, cold steel is limited to only a few shapes: flat, round,
etc. Still, they are just as popular as the hot rolled alternative. Cold rolled steel is
typically used in bars and strips, virtually any basic shape that requires more
strength than flexibility. While they are usually sold in smaller forms, they prove far
more tolerant to outside factors than hot rolled steel.

Conclusion
These are the fundamental differences between hot and cold rolled steel. Each type
of steel is better suited to some jobs than others, so it is important to know the
advantages and weaknesses of each variation. By staying knowledgeable, any
contractor will have the ability to ensure that the job is completed as efficiently and
safely as possible.

the difference between plate and thin walled section?

the difference between yield stress and ultimate stress?

Yield Strength vs Tensile Strength

Tensile strength quantifies the force needed to pull a rope, wire, or a

structural beam to the stage where it breaks. Specifically, the tensile
strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that
it can withhold before failure occurs. Yield strength, or the yield
point, is described in engineering science as the point of stress at
which any material starts to deform plastically.

Yield strength is one of the types of tensile strength. Yield strength

is defined as the yield stress, which is actually the stress level at
which a permanent deformation of 0.2% of the original dimension
of the material happens, and is defined as the stress level at which a
material can withstand the stress before it is deformed permanently.

Before reaching the yield point, the material will distort elastically,
and returns to its original shape when there is a repression and the
stress is removed. Beyond the yield point, there would definitely be
some sort of permanent deformation in the material which cannot
be reversed.

In structural engineering, yield is defined as the everlasting plastic

deformation of a structural member when stress is applied. Tensile
strength is based around a lot of factors, which includes Elastic
Limit which is defined as the lowest stress at which permanent
deformation is able to be measured. This needs a complex iterative
load-unload procedure, and is gravely dependent on the precision of
the apparatus and the ability of the machinist. It is also based
around Proportional Limit, the point at which the stress-strain
curve becomes non-linear. In most metallic materials, the elastic
limit and proportional limit are fundamentally identical.

Summary:

Tensile strength is the degree used to measure the force which is

required to pull something, for instance, a wire, a structural beam or
maybe a rope to the stage where it breaks. On the other hand, yield
strength, or the yield point, is the point of stress at which any
material will deform plastically.

Yield stress is point which separates elastic and plastic behaviour of

material.
Say that material has yield stress of 500 MPa. It means that it is the
maximum value of stress after which material will go under plastic strain.
That is no longer it will be able to restore it's original size and shape.
 Ultimate stress is the maximum value of stress that a material can resist.
After ultimate stress is reached material starts losing its strength and offers
less resistance and eventually breaks or fails.