Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxxxxx

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Egyptian Journal of Petroleum

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FULL LENGTH ARTICLE

Performance and emissions characteristics of C.I. engine fueled with

palm oil/palm oil methyl ester blended with diesel fuel q
M.S. Gad a, R. El-Araby b, K.A. Abed a, N.N. El-Ibiari b, A.K. El Morsi c,, G.I. El-Diwani b
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
b
Chemical Engineering and Pilot Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
c
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute EPRI, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The rapid increasing worldwide demand for energy, continuous increasing of fuel consumption and the
Received 27 March 2017 progressive depletion of fossil fuels led to an intensive search for biodiesel as alternative fuel for diesel
Revised 17 May 2017 engine. Performance and emissions characteristics of C.I. engine fueled with palm oil/palm oil methyl
Accepted 25 May 2017
ester blended with diesel fuel is investigated experimentally. Biodiesel was prepared from palm oil by
Available online xxxx
transesterification process. Diesel, biodiesel and palm oil blends were prepared in volume percentages
of 20 and 100% as B20, B100 and PO20. Physical and chemical properties of biodiesel blends were near
Keywords:
to diesel fuel. The experimental study is conducted on a diesel engine at different engine loading from
Palm oil
Biodiesel
zero to full loads using palm oil and palm biodiesel and its blends with diesel fuel. Thermal efficiency
Transesterification of biodiesel and oil blends with diesel fuel was lower than diesel fuel. Specific fuel consumptions for bio-
Diesel diesel and oil blends were found to be higher than diesel oil. Unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monox-
Performance ide emissions have been decreased for biodiesel blends but it increased for oil blends compared to diesel
Emissions fuel. Nitrogen oxide emissions have slightly been increased for biodiesel and oil blends compared to die-
sel fuel. Blends of diesel biodiesel up to 20% biodiesel percentage by volume are recommended because
of the improvement in performance and emissions as compared to diesel fuel.
2017 Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Palm methyl ester was produced using an alkali catalyzed

Petroleum fossil fuels are becoming less suitable because of
depleting supplies and carbon dioxide emissions [1]. Energy con-
sumption increases rapidly with economic, population growth
and fast rising vehicle sales. In Egypt, domestic oil consumption
has grown by 30% over the last decade (from 540 bbl/d in 2003
to 757,000 bbl/d in 2013) [2] .Vegetable oils have received a great
attention To reduce depending on fossil fuels. It is obtained from
renewable sources, biodegradable, not toxic, produces less emis-
sions and can be used alone or blends with petroleum diesel fuels
[3]. Operation of diesel engines with vegetable oils produces sev-
eral problems in atomization and injection of fuel nozzles due to
their lower volatility and higher viscosity, molecular weight and
density [4]. Vegetable oil was modified through transesterification
process to produce biodiesel fuel to improve these properties. Bio-
diesel is a suitable alternative fuel in diesel engines with minor
modifications and thus meet the needs of biodiesel engine [5,6].
Peer review under responsibility of Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: drakilakamel158@yahoo.co.uk (A.K. El Morsi).
transesterification process. Methanol (25% v/v oil) and 1% (w/w
oil) potassium hydroxide (KOH) were reacted with palm oil and
maintained at 60 C for 2 h with a stirring speed of 1000 rpm. Bio-
diesel was separated from glycerin after 12 h. Distilled water was
used to remove the entrained impurities and glycerin from biodie-
sel. A distilled water of 50% (v/v) at 60 C was sprayed over the
esters and shaken gently several times until biodiesel had a neutral
pH of 7. A rotary evaporator was used to remove water and
methanol from biodiesel under vacuum distillation at 65 C for
1 h. Biodiesel was dried using anhydrous Na2SO4 for 3 h and
filtered using filter papers. The fuel properties such as density,
viscosity, calorific value and flash point were compared with
diesel fuel. Flash point was higher than diesel fuel, so biodiesel is
safer than diesel fuel. Density and viscosity of biodiesel were
higher than diesel fuel and may result in improper spray character-
istics [712].
Many researchers investigated that biodiesel provide exhaust
emission reductions in carbon dioxide CO, unburned hydrocarbons
HC and some increases for nitrogen oxides NOx [13,14]. It is also
observed that engine output power and mechanical efficiency were
decreased and fuel consumption was increased while using

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.05.009
1110-0621/ 2017 Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: M.S. Gad et al., Performance and emissions characteristics of C.I. engine fueled with palm oil/palm oil methyl ester
blended with diesel fuel, Egypt. J. Petrol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.05.009
2 M.S. Gad et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxxxxx
biodiesel [15]. Several studies worked in blending either oil feed-
stock or use of mixture of diesel fuel with different kinds of biodie-
sel to improve biodiesel properties [1620]. Using palm biodiesel
and its blends (B5, B10 and B15) leads to lower the fuel consump-
tion, CO, CO2 and HC emission compared with diesel fuel. While
smoke opacity was higher at lower loads and lower at higher
engine loads compared to diesel oil. Experimental tests were stud-
ied on a four stroke diesel engine with diesel and palm biodiesel
blend percentages of 20, 40, 45 and 50%. The results show that
73% reduction in unburned hydrocarbon emissions and 46% reduc-
tion in carbon monoxide emission [21,22]. Palm biodiesel of B20
achieved the optimum performance and reduction in exhaust
emissions compared to diesel fuel [23]. Several studies illustrated
that increasing palm biodiesel-diesel blends percentage leads to
specific fuel consumption and NOx emissions increase and CO
and HC emissions decrease [24,25].
This study is targeted to explore technical operation of palm oil
and palm oil methyl ester blends with diesel fuel in diesel engine
without any hardware modifications. The transesterification pro-
cess was used to obtain biodiesel from crude palm oil. Physical
and chemical properties of biodiesel blends were analyzed and
near to diesel fuel. The study aims to investigate the effect of palm
oil (PO20) and palm oil methyl ester (B100 and B20) blends with
diesel fuel on performance and exhaust emissions in a diesel
engine at different engine loads. Specific fuel consumption, ther-
mal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature and air fuel ratio were
studied. Exhaust emissions such as CO, NOx and HC were recorded
and compared with diesel fuel.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Fuel characterization
Diesel and palm oils were obtained from local market in Egypt.
Anhydrous methanol (99.8%), acidic acid and potassium hydroxide
(97%) purity were purchased from a chemical supplier. All chemi-
cals used are analytical grade.
Transesterification was carried out in conical flask equipped
with reflux condenser, thermometer and magnetic stirrer. The flask
was initially charged with palm oil and preheated to 65 C. Potas-
sium hydroxide (KOH) as a catalyst was dissolved in methanol. The
resulted solution was added to the agitated flask and the reaction
was timed (2 h). Then the mixture was left in a separating funnel to
separate glycerol layer. Methyl esters were washed twice using
warm water with 5% acidic acid then with water. The residual
methanol and water were separated from biodiesel via rotary
evaporator under vacuum at 80 C. Then palm oil methyl ester
was dried at 100 C.
Blending was done by adding either palm oil or palm oil methyl
ester to diesel fuel at lower stirring rate for 20 min and left to reach
equilibrium before use. Palm oil or palm oil methyl ester was
added at different proportions of 20% by volume to diesel fuel.
Density, kinematic viscosity, flash point and heating value were
measured as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
properties of diesel fuel, B100, B20, palm oil and 20% palm oil (PO20).
Properties Density at 15 C gm/ml Kinematic viscosity at 40 C mm2/s
Method ASTM D1298 ASTM D445
Diesel 0.827 2.28
B100 0.877 4.56
B20 0.835 2.82
Palm oil 0.925 41
PO20 0.845 3.4
Please cite this article in press as: M.S. Gad et al., Performance and emissions characteristics of C.I. engine fueled with palm oil/palm oil methyl ester
blended with diesel fuel, Egypt. J. Petrol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.05.009
2.2. Experimental set up and methodology
The experimental program was carried out using a single cylin-
der, four stroke, air cooled, direct injection, naturally aspirated,
constant compression ratio, diesel engine with a developing power
of 5.775 kW at 1500 rpm at National Research Centre, Engine
Research lab., Egypt. The technical specifications of the engine
are given in Table 2, and the schematic diagram of the experimen-
tal arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. AC generator of maximum elec-
tric power output of 10.5 kW equipped with a load controller and
other auxiliary items have been coupled directly to the test engine
to determine the engine output brake power. The intake airflow
was measured by a sharp edged orifice mounted in the side of an
air box, coupled to the engine inlet to dampen the pulsating airflow
into the engine. A U-tube manometer was used to measure the
pressure drop across the orifice. Calibrated thermocouple probes
of type (K) were used for temperature measurements at different
locations in the experimental set up; including: intake air manifold
and exhaust gas. The crankshaft rotational speed was measured
using speed tachometer. Two fuel tanks of 10 Liters capacity were
mounted for storing the fuels on the rear side of the panel at high-
est position. One burette with stopcock and two way valves was
mounted on the front side of the panel for fuel flow measurements
and selecting between both diesel and biodiesel fuels. MRU DELTA
1600-V Gas Analyzer were used for the measurements of various
exhaust gas emissions such as CO, HC and NOx. The experiment
was carried out by varying engine load from zero to full load by
maintaining constant rated speed of 1500 rpm throughout the
experiment. All the equipments were calibrated in accordance to
the respective manufacturers specifications, prior to conducting
the tests.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Effect of biodiesel blends on specific fuel consumption
Variation of specific fuel consumption with engine load for die-
sel, biodiesel (B100), diesel-palm biodiesel blend (B20) and diesel
palm oil blends (PO20) was shown in Fig. 2. Specific fuel consump-
tions for biodiesel and oil blends are higher than diesel fuel due to
the lower calorific values of palm biodiesel and palm oil compared
to diesel fuel. There are increases in fuel consumption of biodiesel
and oil blends proportional to the amount of biodiesel or oil
blended to the diesel fuel [8,9,12].
This was due to lower calorific values of palm biodiesel and oil
blends than that of diesel fuel. In case of biodiesel, palm oil and its
blends with diesel fuel, diesel engine consumes more fuel than die-
sel fuel to develop the same power. Specific fuel consumption val-
ues for diesel, B20, B100 and PO20 are 0.28, 0.316, 0.346 and
0.325 kg/kW.hr, respectively at full load.
3.2. Effect of biodiesel blends on thermal efficiency
Fig. 3 showed the thermal efficiency for the biodiesel blends
(B20, B100) and oil blends (PO20) as compared to the neat diesel
Flash point, C Heating value MJ/kg
ASTM D92 ASTM D270
64 44.852
196 40.560
71.5 41.206
260 39.849
72 41.306
 M.S. Gad et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxxxxx 3

Table 2 0.35
Engine specification.
0.3
Engine parameters Specifications

Thermal eciency, %
0.25
Type DEUTZ F1L511
Number of cylinders 1 0.2 D100
Number of Cycles Four stroke
Cooling type Air cooled 0.15 B20
Bore (mm) 100 B100
0.1
Stroke (mm) 105
PO20
Compression ratio 17.5:1 0.05
Fuel injection advance angle 24 BTDC
Rated brake power (kW) 5.775 at 1500 rpm 0
Number of nozzle holes 1 0 1 2 3 4
Injector opening pressure (bar) 175 Engine load, kW

Fig. 3. Variation of thermal efficiency with engine load for palm oil and biodiesel
blends.

fuel. Thermal efficiency is slightly lower for biodiesel blends B20

and B100 compared to diesel fuel at all engine loads. Thermal effi-
ciency is slightly lower for palm oil blends PO20, B20 and B100
compared to diesel fuel at all engine loads [12,13,21]. This drop
in thermal efficiency for biodiesel blends and oil blends was due
to the poor combustion characteristics of biodiesel due to lower
calorific value, higher density, higher viscosity and poor volatility
of biodiesel and its blends as compared to diesel fuel. Thermal effi-
ciencies for diesel, biodiesel blend B20, B100 and PO20 fuels are
28.7, 27.7and 24.7 and 26.8%, respectively at full load.

3.3. Effect of biodiesel blends on exhaust gas temperature

Fig. 4 showed the influence of engine load on exhaust gas tem-

perature for biodiesel B100, biodiesel blend B20 and oil blend
PO20. There is an increase in exhaust gas temperature with
1. Diesel engine 10- Piezo pressure transducer increase of engine load for all fuels. Decrease of thermal efficiency
2. AC generator 11- Charge amplifier of biodiesel blends and oil blends about diesel fuel led to increase
3. Diesel tank 12- Data acquisition card of heat loss in exhaust gases. This may be due to higher tempera-
4. Biodiesel tank 13- Personal computer ture inside the engine cylinder as more fuel is burnt to meet the
5. Burette 14- Exhaust gas analyzer higher load demand. The heat loss in exhaust gases increased with
6. Air surge tank 15- Smoke meter the increase in engine load. As a result of the poor combustion
7. Orifice 16- Exhaust gas temperature characteristics, a higher exhaust gas temperature is recorded for
thermocouple biodiesel and oil blends compared to fossil diesel for the entire
8. Pressure differential meter 17- Proximity switch engine load [8,9,12,21]. Exhaust gas temperature values for diesel,
9. Intake air temperature 18- Cardan shaft B20, B100 and PO20 are 302, 312, 371 and 322 C, respectively at
thermocouple full load.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup. 3.4. Effect of biodiesel blends on air-fuel ratio

Effect of engine load variation on air-fuel ratios for diesel, B20,

B100 and PO20 was shown in Fig. 5.With increase in engine load,
0.8 air-fuel ratio decreased for all tested fuels due to the increase in
Specic fuel consumpon, kg/kW.hr

0.7
400
0.6 350
Exhaust gas temperature, C

0.5 300
D100
0.4 250
B20 D100
200
0.3 B100 B20
150
0.2 B100
PO20
100 PO20
0.1
50
0 0
1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Engine load, kW Engine load, kW

Fig. 2. Variation of specific fuel consumption with engine load for palm oil and Fig. 4. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with engine load for palm oil and
biodiesel blends. biodiesel blends.

Please cite this article in press as: M.S. Gad et al., Performance and emissions characteristics of C.I. engine fueled with palm oil/palm oil methyl ester
blended with diesel fuel, Egypt. J. Petrol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.05.009
4 M.S. Gad et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxxxxx

80 350
70 300
60
250

Nox emission, ppm

Air-fuel rao

50
D100 200
40 D100
B20
30 150 B20
B100
20 B100
PO20 100
10 PO20
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 0
Engine load, kW 0 1 2 3 4
Engine load, kW
Fig. 5. Variation of air- fuel ratio with engine load for palm oil and biodiesel blends.
Fig. 7. Variation of NOx emission with engine load for palm oil and biodiesel blends.

fuel consumption. Air-fuel ratios for B20, B100 and PO20 were
lower than diesel fuel due to increase in fuel consumption with 60
increase percentage of biodiesel. Air-fuel ratios for diesel-palm
oil blends PO20 was lower than diesel fuel However, the oxygen 50
content of palm biodiesel, palm oil and its blends led to a slight

HC emissions, ppm
40
reduction of air- fuel ratios from zero to full load compared to die-
sel fuel. Air- fuel ratios for diesel fuel, B20, B100 and PO20 are 24.3, D100
30
21.5, 19 and 21, respectively at full load. B20
20 B100
3.5. Effect of biodiesel blends on CO emissions PO20
10

CO emissions decreased with increasing engine brake power as 0

shown in Fig. 6. The decrease in carbon monoxide emission for bio- 0 1 2 3 4
diesel blends was due to more oxygen molecules and lower carbon Engine load, kW
content in biodiesel blends as compared to that of diesel fuel which
lead to better combustion. The decreases in CO emission for B20, Fig. 8. Variation of HC emission with engine load for palm oil and biodiesel blends.

B100 and PO20 were due to the presence of oxygen in the molec-
ular structure of biodiesel blend fuels that is helpful for better
combustion, thus reducing the CO emissions [13,21,23]. The values
of CO emission for diesel, B20, B100 and PO20 are 0.1, 0.062, 0.054
and 0.075% respectively, at full load operation.
3.6. Effect of biodiesel blends on NOx emissions
NOx emissions for biodiesel and its blends with respect to diesel
fuel are shown in Fig. 7. NOx emissions increased with the increase
in engine load for all the test fuels due to increase in the amount of
fuel burned and the cylinder temperature which is responsible for
thermal (Zeldovich) NOx formation. The adiabatic flame tempera-
ture is slightly higher for biodiesel because of its oxygen content
and higher NOx emissions. Formation rate of NOx emissions in die-
sel engines depends on flame temperature, which is closely related
0.12
0.1
0.08
CO emission, %
to the peak cylinder pressure. The increase in NOx emission for
B20, B100 and PO20 was due to increase in oxygen content com-
pared to diesel fuel. Nitrogen oxides emissions increase with
increase in percentage of biodiesel and oil in biodiesel and oil
blends [12,13,21,23].The values of NOx emission for diesel, B20,
B100 and PO20 are 174, 190, 285 and 301 ppm respectively, at full
load operation.
3.7. Effect of biodiesel blends on HC emissions
Fig. 8 showed HC emission variation with respect to engine
brake power for various biodiesel and palm oil blends. HC emission
is lower at engine part load and increase as higher loads. This is
due to the presence of fuel rich mixture due to lack of oxygen
resulting from engine operation. High percentage of oxygen leads
to lower HC emissions at higher engine loads. There is slightly
reduction in HC emissions for palm biodiesel blends B20 and
B100 with diesel fuel at all engine loads with respect to diesel fuel.
HC emissions increased for PO20 at all engine loads compared to
diesel fuel due to higher viscosity of palm oil. Increasing the per-
centage of biodiesel in biodiesel blends reduces HC emissions are
attributed to the higher cetane. Adding biodiesel to diesel fuel

D100 increases oxygen content resulting in better combustion, and this

0.06 results lower HC emissions [8,12,21,23]. The values of HC emission
B20
for, B20, B100, PO20 and diesel fuel are 39, 30, 48 and 45 ppm,
0.04 B100
respectively at full load operation.
PO20
0.02
4. Conclusion

0
A single cylinder diesel engine was run using palm oil and palm
0 1 2 3 4
oil methyl ester blends B20, B100 and PO20. Performance and
Engine load, kW
exhaust emissions were measured at engine loads of 1, 2, 3 and
Fig. 6. Variation of CO emission with engine load for palm oil and biodiesel blends. 4 kW and a constant engine speed of 1500 rpm. Specific fuel

Please cite this article in press as: M.S. Gad et al., Performance and emissions characteristics of C.I. engine fueled with palm oil/palm oil methyl ester
blended with diesel fuel, Egypt. J. Petrol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.05.009
 M.S. Gad et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxxxxx
consumption, thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature and air-
fuel ratio were measured. CO, NOx and HC emissions were recorded
and compared with neat diesel fuel. The following conclusions can
be remarked.
1. Thermal efficiency of palm biodiesel and oil blends with diesel
fuel was lower compared to diesel fuel and specific fuel con-
sumptions were found to be higher.
2. Higher exhaust gas temperatures are recorded for biodiesel and
oil blends compared to diesel fuel for the entire engine load.
Exhaust gas temperature values for diesel, B20, B100 and
PO20 are 302, 312, 371 and 322 C, respectively at full load.
3. Air- fuel ratios for diesel-palm biodiesel blends (B20, B100) and
palm oil blend (PO20) were lower than diesel fuel.
4. Exhaust emissions of CO and HC were reduced relative to con-
ventional diesel fuel.
5. NOX emissions increased relative to conventional diesel. The
NOx emission for diesel, B20, B100 and PO20 are 174, 190,
285 and 301 ppm respectively, at full load operation.
6. The results of this study proved that performance and exhaust
emissions of a diesel engine using palm oil methyl ester blends
up to 20% with diesel fuel are reasonable.
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