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As a column experiences earthquake-induced lateral displacements concrete column. The length of a plastic hinge depends on many
while supporting gravity loads, severe damage is observed in factors. The following is a list of important factors that influence
regions subjected to large moments. These regions are commonly the length of a plastic hinge: l) level of axial load; 2) moment
referred to as plastic hinges and they experience large inelastic gradient; 3) level of shear stress in the plastic hinge region; 4)
curvatures. The inelastic curvatures in plastic hinges are typically
mechanical properties of longitudinal and transverse reinforce-
assumed to be constant over the plastic hinge length, 'p' to simplify
the estimation of the tip displacement of a column. Therefore, if the
ment; 5) concrete strength; and 6) level of confinement and its
plastic hinge length is known, the tip displacement of a column can effectiveness in the potential hinge region.
easily be obtained by integrating curvatures, and vice versa. As In the 1950s and 1960s, researchersl-5 studied lp to estimate
part of the research reported in this paper, the effects of axial load the flexural deformation capacity of reinforced concrete
and shear span-depth ratio (Uh) on 'pare evaluated experimen- beams. To estimate the flexural deformation capacity, the
tally. Based on the experimental observations, a new analytical plastic rotation capacity and the lp are used
approach that can be used to estimate 'pis presented. Finally, the
research findings are synthesized into a simple expression that can
be used to estimate lp'
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Research conducted over the past three decades has Equations (2) .and (3) have been commonly used to estimate
resulted in various constitutive relationships for concrete and the lp of concrete columns.6-9,12,13 It is interesting to note
reinforcing bars. As a result, the sectional behavior of that the curvature profile along the column is often related to
reinforced concrete columns can be reliably estimated. For a the tip displacement rather than flexural displacement. 6-9,12,13
given sectional performance, the member behavior of a
column can be estimated if lp is known. As such, estimating
the length of a plastic hinge establishes a key step in
predicting the lateral load-drift response of a column. In this
context, the work presented herein advances the state of
knowledge: 1) by providing experimental evidence on the
effects of axial load and Llh on lp; 2) by introducing a new
concrete compression strain-based method to estimate lp;
and 3) by synthesizing the research findings into a simple
expression that can be use to estimate lp'
Park et al.6
Park et al.6 tested four full-scale concrete columns with
where z is the distance between the critical section and the
square sections of 22 x 22 in.2 (550 x 550 mm2) and an Uh
point of contraflexure and d is effective depth of a beam.
of 2. The axial loads applied to the column s~eciI?ens were
Baker1 reported that the lp ranged from OAd to 2Ad for in the range of 0.2f; Ag to 0.6f; Ag. Park et al. estimated the
practical values of zJd. The zJd ratio is a similar parameter l of the test specimens using Eq. (2), They concluded that
to Uh and was used to re~resent the effect of moment gradient. fue experimentally obtained lp were comparatively insensitive to
Baker and Amarakone simplified Eq. (4) to obtam the the axial load level and had an average value of OA2h, where
following h is the overall depth of the column. They suggested using a
simple lp of OAh for concrete columns.
U sing a similar approach, Priestley and Park 7 proposed the
following equation for the calculation of lp in reinforced
concrete columns
Mattock3
The su gested'lp (Eq. (9 has two components. Priestley
Mattock3 conducted 37 beam tests and investigated the 9
and Park stated that the first term mainly accounted for
effect of various parameters on the behavior of reinforced column bending, while the second accounted for bar slip due
concrete beams. The parameters studied by Mattock3 were to the elongation of longitudinal bars beyond the theoretical
concrete strength (f; = 4000 to 6000 psi [28 to 41 MPa]), base (tensile strain penetration into the joint or foundation).
effective depth of beam (d = 10 to 20 in. [254 to 508 mm]), Paulay and Priestley8 revised Eq. (9) to account for
moment gradient (zld = 2,75 to ll), amount (PI = 1 to 3%), different grades of flexural reinforcement. The revised
and yield strength (fy = 47 to 60 ksi [324 to 414 MPa]) of expression is given in Eq. (10)
tension reinforcement. Based on the test results, Mattock3
concluded that the spread of plasticity along a beam length
increased as zJd increased, and as the net tension reinforcement lp = 0.08L + 0.15dbfy (fy in ksi)
(q - q')/% decreased. Mattock3 proposed the following lp = 0.08L + 0.022dbfy (fy in MPa)
empirical relationship to calculate lp'
Paulay and Priestley8 reported that Eq. (10) resulted in
lp "" 0.5h for typical columns.
.. '
---. +(O.3P.)
. +-(O.OP.)
Baker I displacements. By relating the curvature distribution along
the column shown in Fig. 1 to the tip displacement rather
Q)
than flexural deformations, the lp in Eq. (2) and (3) includes
g 0.6
I the effects of bar slip and shear displacements. Conversely,
~ 0.4 the displacements calculated through the use of the lp expression
0:'" derived in this manner implicitly account for dIsplacement
components other.than the flexural displacements.
As flexural displacements are directly related to curvatures,
it is more appropriate to relate the lp to the flexural displacement
component only. Bar slip and shear displacements have to be
estimated independently. Subsequently, the tip displacement
can be estimated by summing these displacement compo-
nents. Following this logic, a new lp expression is proposed
in this study.
t Po = 0.85f: Ac + f,'IAr
rotations. The shear forces at hinges are shown with black (438.15 in.) square section (Uh = 7). Figure 4 shows that the
arrows. Table 1 shows the details of the specimens tested in severely damaged regions of Specimens S24-2UT and
this research program and the magnitude of the axial load S l7-3UT are longer than those of Specimens S24-4UT and
that was applied to each specimen during testing. A S24-5UT. The tie strains measured along the column specimens
detailed discussion of this experimental research can be at the 20th loading cycle in Fig. 4 also illustrate that
found elsewhere 19 and is considered to be beyond the scope Specimens S24-2UT and S17-3UT experienced inelastic tie
of this paper. strains over a longer length than Specimens S24-4UT and
The damage observed within the plastic hinge region of S24-5UT. Many ties in Specimens S24-2UT and S 17-3UT
each test specimen and the corresponding tie strains along experienced larger inelastic strains after the 20th loading
the columns are shown in Fig. 4. Specimens S24-2UT and cycle than the measurement limits of strain gauges. Therefore, it
S24-3UT were tested under an axial load level of 0.5P 0' can be concluded that, for the specimens tested in this study,
while Specimens S24-4UT and S24-5UT were tested under lp increased as the level of axial load increased.
a lower axial load level of 0.2P O' Specimens S24-2UT, Figure 5 illustrates the sectional and member performances of
S24-4UT, and S24-5UT had 24 in. (609.6 mm) square Specimens S24-2UT and S24-4UT. Specimen S24-2UT and
sections (Uh = 5), whereas Specimen S17-3UT had a 17.25 in. S24-4UT have the same section size (h = 24 in. [610 mm)) and
Uh = 5. These specimens were tested under different axial load gravity loads, plastic hinges form within the core concrete.
levels (P/Po = 0.5 for Specimen S24-2UT and P/Po = 0.2 for The magnitude of damage in concrete members is closely
Specimen S24-4UT). Figure 5(a) illustrates that the sectional related to the intensity of concrete compressive strains
performance of Specimen S24-4UT is somewhat better than measured at critical sections. Under increasing curvatures,
that of Specimen S24-2UT with respect to deformation concrete strains on the compression side of the member
capacity. The opposite trend can be observed from the member increase. As the concrete compressive strains increase and
performances, however, as shown in Fig. 5(b). The reversal in reach a critical value, the cover concrete spalls off. Subse-
the trends is attributed to the difference observed in the lp of quently, yielding of longitudinal bars on the compression
Specimens S24-2UT and S24-4UT. side occurs. This is followed by crushing of the core
concrete. With accumulation of damage under increasing
PLASTIC HINGE LENGTH: CONCRETE compressive strains, plastic hinges form. Experimental
COMPRESSION STRAIN METHOD observations6,19 indicate that the plastic hinges start to form
Estimating the length of a plastic hinge that forms in a after the maximum moment capacity is reached. Therefore,
reinforced concrete column through the use of a sophisti- the magnitude of concrete compressive strains experienced
cated computer program is complicated. Because of this by the core concrete when the maximum moment capacity is
difficulty, the estimation of lp has typically been based on reached at the critical section of a column can give a good
experimental data. A plastic hinge is defined as the zone indication on the formation of a plastic hinge. To estimate the
where severe damage of concrete sections occurs. By length of a plastic hinge that may form at the base of a reinforced
observing that large cracks typically occur at curvatures concrete column, the following procedure is proposed:
greater than the yield curvature, some researchers20,21 1. The moment-curvature response of a typical column
attempted to relate the yield moment to the lpo This approach section within the potential plastic hinge region is obtained
is practical when the curvature increases With moment (that from a sectional analysis (Fig. 6(a)). In the sectional analysis,
is, in the ascending branch of the response), but the application core concrete is modeled as confined concrete, while cover
of this approach to members that experience post-peak concrete is modeled as unconfmed concrete. Bar buckling
strength degradation is questionable. behavior in compression reinforcement is not considered
In this section, a concrete compression strain method that because the ascending branch of the moment-curvature
can be used to estimate the lp of concrete columns is introduced. relationship is of concern. Reinforcing bar buckling is not
Following the description of this concrete compression strain experienced within the ascending branch of the response;
method, the key factors that influence the length of plastic 2. Neglecting the second order effects, the bending moment
hinges are identified by conducting sensitivity analyses. diagram is drawn along the column height (Fig. 7(c)). The
Based on the results of the sensitivity analyses, a simple moment value at the center of the potential plastic hinge
expression that can be used to estimate the length of the (-0.5h away from the base) is assumed to be equal to the
plastic hinges is proposed. Finally, the influence of the lp maximum moment capacity of the section obtained from the
estimations on the lateral load-displacement response sectional analysis in Step 1. This assumption would imply that
predictions is discussed. the sections between the center of the plastic hinge and the
base of the column have a larger flexural capacity than
Compressive strain profile of core concrete predicted using the sectional analysis. The shift in the location
As reinforced concrete columns are subjected to earth- of the critical section (Fig. 7(d)) is due to the confinement
quake-induced lateral displacements while supporting provided by the concrete stub to the neighboring sections. This
effect, commonly referred to as the stub confinement effect,
(a)
1.2
has been observed in previous experimental research6,9,13,18,22;
0.8
3. Using the bending moment diagram from Step 2 and the
sectional analysis' results (Fig. 6(b)) from Step 1, the
i !
~ 0 ::: 0 compressive strain experienced by the outer fiber of core
>
" concrete can be determined for a sufficient number of
sections along the length of a column. If these compressive
strains are plotted along the length of a column, the compressive
concrete strain profile along the length of a column can be
"" obtained (Fig. 7(d));
Normalized lateral Load-Displacement
Backbone Curves 4. The compressive strains at the outer fiber of the core
concrete are equal to the reinforcing bar strains. In effect, the
compressive strain profile obtained in Step 3 represents the
Curvature ()(10~ Imm) variation of compressive longitudinal bar strain along the
20 40 60 length of a column. By examining the compressive strain
profile, such as the one shown in Fig. 7(d), the length of the
1200 _ 1200
0: 1500 E 0.
Layer of concrete used
1500 E region in which longitudinal bars are yielding in compression
~
'" 900 ~ ':"E 900 ~ can be estimated. The identification of this length establishes a
! 5l
Iii
c 1000 1000 ~
0
~ 600
0
~ 600
~ key step in estimating the lp of a column; and
" 300
500
" " 500 " 5. As indicated in Step 2, the critical section shifts away
o 0 o 0 from the face of the stub due to additional confinement
o 500 1000 1500 2000 o 0.005 0.Q1 0.015 0.02
effects provided by the stub. Because of the additional
Curvature ()(10~fin.) Strain at Outer Layer of Core Concrete
confinement provided by the stub to adjacent sections,
sections within a distance of approximately 0.25h from the
stub remain nearly undamaged. Therefore, to estimate the
M""" from sectional
analysis (Fig. 6)
\
center of plastic hinge
__
i +
"O.25h "O.5h
o o 500 1000 1500 o 400 800
)
M (Itkip) $ (x10"/in.)
,
! I , ,
o 1000 2000 o 20 40
M (kNm) $ (x10"/mm)
Damage on Moment Diagram Compressive Curvature Profile
Column Strain Profile
~ 4 0.5P. e;,
C
~ OAPo OJ
aJ
g
3 0.3P.
02P.
-'
OJ
0.75
OJ
.:= 2 c
0.5
g i'
u
'" 1
u; t; 0.25
<5 ro
o 0::
o 100 200 300 400 500 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0
Fig. 9-Effect of axial load on curvature and compressive Fig. ii-Relationship between plastic hinge length and
strain profiles. shear span-depth ratio.
observation, a linear relationship between these parameters Curvature Profile Compressive Strain
(PIP0' Uh, andA/Ag) is assumed in developing the Ipexpression Profile
Specimen Baker! Codey5 Mattock4 Park et al.6 Paulay and Priestley8 Sheikh and Khoury9 Measured Eq. (II)
S24-2UT O.60h O.49h O.70h OAOh O.80h l.OOh O.66h O.69h
SI7-3UT O.65h O.52h O.80h OAOh O.96h I.OOh O.91h O.86h
S24-4UT O.62h OA9h O.70h O.40h O.12h l.OOk OA9h O.25h
S24-5UT O.56h OA9h O.70h OAOh O.12h I.OOh OA7h O.25h
1500 400
1000 80
300
'ii: 1000 'ii: Z
:i 500 ~ ;g. 40 200 :!!.
500 Z 'tl 100 'tl
~ :!!. III III
C 0 0 C ...J0 0 0 ...J0
Ql Ql
E -500 E ~ -100 ~
0
::E
500 0
::E
$ -40 -200 ~
-1000 ...J
III
...JIII
-300
1000 -1500 -80
-400
(a) S242UT
Curvature (x10-6/mm)
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
500 40
400
30 1: Parl<elal.
2: Paulay & Priestley
I
.: MatChingpoint from les 150
C 0 0 c ...J0 ...J0
Ql Ql
E -100
200 E ~ -50
~
0
::E -200
0
::E ~ $
...JIII -20 ...JIII
-300 -400 -100
-400 -30
-600 -150
-500 -40
2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 -4 -2 0 2 4
Curvature (x106/in) Drift (%)
Curvature (x10-ll/mm)
-200 -100 0 100 200
1000 100
1200 400
800 80
300
600 800 60
c: c:
;g, 200 Z
:i:
400
400
E 40
~
200 Z "tl 20 100 "tl
~ ~ III
0
III
0
C
G>
0 0 c
G>
...J 0 0 ...J
E -200
-400 E ~ -20 -100 ~
0
-400
0 2 -40 2
:! :! III
...J -200 III
...J
-600 -800 -60
-300
-800 -80
-1200 -400
-1000 -100
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 -8 -2 0 4 8
Curvature (x10-6/in) Drift (%)
(a) S24-4UT
Curvature (x10-ll/mm)
200 -100 0 100 200
1000 100
.: Matching point from test
800
1200
80 1: Park etal.
2: Paulay & Priestley
I 400
300
600 800 60
c: c: 3: Sheikh & KhOUry
200 Z
:i:
400
400
E ~ 40 4: Measuredplastic hi
5: Eq. (11) ~
200 Z "tl 20 100 "tl
~ ~ III
0
III
0
...J
C
G>
0 0 c
G>
...J 0 0
E -200
-400 E ~ -20 -100 ~
0
-400 0 2 -40 2
:! ~ III
...J 200 III
...J
-600 -800 -60
-300
-800 -80
-1200 -400
-1000 -100
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 -8 -2 0 4 8
Curvature (x10-ll/in) Drift (%)
(b) S245UT
Fig. IS, the use of the lp expression proposed by Park et a1.6 1. In light of the experimental data on four full-scale
(lp = OAh) results in considerable underestimation of the drift concrete column tests, ACI 318-0S23 provisions for the
capacity. In contrast, the expressions proposed by Paulay length of the potential plastic hinge regions were found to be
and PriestleyS (lp = 0.8h) and Sheikh and Khoury9 (lp = 1.0h) slightly unconservative for columns supporting high axial
result in satisfactory predictions. The same trends can be loads. Although the experimental evidence is not exhaustive,
observed for Specimen S17-3UT, as shown in Fig. IS. it may be prudent to increase the length of the region in
Results of the analyses conducted on Specimens S24-4UT which closely-spaced ties are used from 1.0h to l.Sh from
and S24-SUT are included in Fig. 16. These specimens were the joint face until further experimental evidence is gathered;
tested under low axial load levels. Figure 16 shows that the 2. The level of axial load influenced the length of the
use of the lp expression proposed by Park et a1.6 (lp = OAh) plastic hinges that formed in the full-scale column specimens
results in a reasonably good estimation for the drift cajacity. tested in this research. Specimens tested under high axial
The expressions proposed by Paulay and Priestley (lp = loads developed longer plastic hinges than those tested under
O.12h) and Sheikh and Khoury9 (lp = 1.0h), however, result low axial loads; and
in overestimated predictions of the drift capacity. Therefore, 3. The following equation, developed in this research, can
it can be concluded that the use of some lp expressions work be used to estimate the length of the plastic hinges forming
for high axial loads, whereas they fail to provide satisfactory in columns supporting a wide range of axial loads.
estimates for low axialloads and vice versa. The use ofEg. (11),
however, results in satisfactory predictions both for high and
low axial load levels. In performance-based design, prediction
of the deformation capacity of reinforced concrete columns
~ [0.3(:) + 3(~) - 0.1 J(~ + 0.2S ~ 0.2S
is important. An analysis of Fig. IS and 16 clearly shows the
influence of the lp estimations on the drift capacity predictions. NOTATION
This analysis indicates the value of an expression that can Ab area of balanced reinforcement
provide reasonable estimations for lp forming in columns Ag gross area of concrete section
supporting high or low axial loads. As area of tension reinforcement
A; area of compression reinforcement
b width of compression face of member
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS c distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis
Based on the experimental and analytical research into the d effective depth of beam
seismic behavior of concrete columns reported in this study, db diameter of longitudinal reinforcement
the following conclusions can be drawn: f~ compressive strength of concrete
yield stress of reinforcement II. Park, R., and Paulay, T, Reinforced Concrete Structures, John Wiley
overall depth of column and Sons, New York, 1975,769 pp.
0.7 for mild steel
0.9 for cold worked steel 12. Sheikh, S. A.; Shah, D. v.; and Khoury, S. S., "Confinement of High-
I + 0.5(P!Pu) Strength Concrete Columns," ACI Structural Journal, V. 91, No. I,
0.9 - (0.3123.5)(f~ - 11.7) (f~ in MPa) Jan.-Feb. 1994, pp. 100-111.
distance from critical section to point of contraflexure 13. Bayrak, 0., and Sheikh, S. A., "Confinement Reinforcement Design
plastic hinge length Considerations for Ductile HSC Colunms," Journal of SlnlclUral Engineering,
applied axial force ASCE, V. 124, No.9, Sept. 1998, pp. 999-1010.
0.85f~ (Ag -As) + fyAs
14. Sakai, K., and Sheikh, S. A., "What Do We Know about Confinement in
nominal axjalload capacity as per ACI 318-0523
tension reinforcement index (= A/bd xfylf~) Reinforced Concrete Columns? (A Critical Review of Previous Work and
compressive reinforcement index (= A; !bd xf/f~) Code Provisions)," ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No.2, Mar.-Apr. 1989,
balanced tension reinforcement index (= AtJbd xf!f~) pp. 192-207.
distance of critical section to point of contraflexure 15. Atalay, M. B., and Penzien, J., "The Seismic Behavior of Critical
plastic djsplacement Regions of Reinforced Concrete Components as Influenced by Moment,
yield displacement
Shear and Axial Force," Report No. EERC 75-19, University of Cabfornia
elastic concrete compressive strain
at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, Dec. 1975,226 pp.
maximum concrete compressive strain
curvature (Eq. (2)) 16. Tanaka, H., and Rark, R., "Effect of Lateral Confining Reinforcement on
yield curvature the Ductile Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns," Research Report
plastic rotation 90-2, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury,
A/All Christchurch, New Zealand, June 1990,458 pp.
longitudinal reinforcement ratio
17. Thomson, J. H., and Wallace, J. W., "Lateral Load Behavior of
Reinforced Concrete Columns Constructed using High-Strength Materials,"
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