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Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

LiteraryTheoryandSchoolsofCriticism
Introduction

Averybasicwayofthinkingaboutliterarytheoryisthattheseideasactasdifferentlensescritics
usetoviewandtalkaboutart,literature,andevenculture.Thesedifferentlensesallowcriticsto
considerworksofartbasedoncertainassumptionswithinthatschooloftheory.Thedifferent
lensesalsoallowcriticstofocusonparticularaspectsofaworktheyconsiderimportant.

Forexample,ifacriticisworkingwithcertainMarxisttheories,s/hemightfocusonhowthe
charactersinastoryinteractbasedontheireconomicsituation.Ifacriticisworkingwithpost
colonialtheories,s/hemightconsiderthesamestorybutlookathowcharactersfromcolonial
powers(Britain,France,andevenAmerica)treatcharactersfrom,say,AfricaortheCaribbean.
Hopefully,afterreadingthroughandworkingwiththeresourcesinthisareaoftheOWL,literary
theorywillbecomealittleeasiertounderstandanduse.

Disclaimer

Pleasenotethattheschoolsofliterarycriticismandtheirexplanationsincludedherearebyno
meanstheonlywaysofdistinguishingtheseseparateareasoftheory.Indeed,manycriticsuse
toolsfromtwoormoreschoolsintheirwork.Somewoulddefinedifferentlyorgreatlyexpand
the(very)generalstatementsgivenhere.Ourexplanationsaremeantonlyasstartingplacesfor
yourowninvestigationintoliterarytheory.Weencourageyoutousethelistofscholarsand
worksprovidedforeachschooltofurtheryourunderstandingofthesetheories.

Wealsorecommendthefollowingsecondarysourcesforstudyofliterarytheory:

TheCriticalTradition:ClassicalTextsandContemporaryTrends,1998,editedbyDavid
H.Richter
CriticalTheoryToday:AUserFriendlyGuide,1999,byLoisTyson
BeginningTheory,2002,byPeterBarry

Althoughphilosophers,critics,educatorsandauthorshavebeenwritingaboutwritingsince
ancienttimes,contemporaryschoolsofliterarytheoryhavecoheredfromthesediscussionsand
nowinfluencehowscholarslookatandwriteaboutliterature.Thefollowingsectionsoverview

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thesemovementsincriticaltheory.Thoughthetimelinebelowroughlyfollowsachronological
order,wehaveplacedsomeschoolsclosertogetherbecausetheyaresocloselyaligned.

Timeline(mostoftheseoverlap)

MoralCriticism,DramaticConstruction(~360BCpresent)
Formalism,NewCriticism,NeoAristotelianCriticism(1930spresent)
PsychoanalyticCriticism,JungianCriticism(1930spresent)
MarxistCriticism(1930spresent)
ReaderResponseCriticism(1960spresent)
Structuralism/Semiotics(1920spresent)
PostStructuralism/Deconstruction(1966present)
NewHistoricism/CulturalStudies(1980spresent)
PostColonialCriticism(1990spresent)
FeministCriticism(1960spresent)
Gender/QueerStudies(1970spresent)
CriticalRaceTheory(1970spresent)

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

MoralCriticismandDramaticConstruction
(~360BCpresent)
Plato

InBookXofhisRepublic,Platomayhavegivenusthefirstvolleyofdetailedandlengthy
literarycriticism.ThedialogbetweenSocratesandtwoofhisassociatesshowstheparticipants
ofthisdiscussionconcludingthatartmustplayalimitedandverystrictroleintheperfectGreek
Republic.Richterprovidesanicesummaryofthispoint:"...poetsmaystayasservantsofthe
stateiftheyteachpietyandvirtue,butthepleasuresofartarecondemnedasinherently
corruptingtocitizens..."(19).

OnereasonPlatoincludedtheseideasinhisSocraticdialogbecausehebelievedthatartwasa
mediocrereproductionofnature:"...whatartistsdo...isholdthemirroruptonature:Theycopy
theappearancesofmen,animals,andobjectsinthephysicalworld...andtheintelligencethat
wentintoitscreationneedinvolvenothingmorethanconjecture"(Richter19).Soinshort,ifart
doesnotteachmoralityandethics,thenitisdamagingtoitsaudience,andforPlatothis
damagedhisRepublic.

Giventhiscontroversialapproachtoart,it'seasytoseewhyPlato'spositionhasanimpacton
literatureandliterarycriticismeventoday(thoughscholarswhocritiqueworkbasedonwhether
ornotthestoryteachesamoralarefewvirtuemayhaveanimpactonchildren'sliterature,
however).

Aristotle

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InPoetics,Aristotlebreakswithhisteacher(Plato)intheconsiderationofart.Aristotleconsiders
poetry(andrhetoric),aproductivescience,whereashethoughtlogicandphysicstobe
theoreticalsciences,andethicsandpoliticspracticalsciences(Richter38).BecauseAristotlesaw
poetryanddramaasmeanstoanend(forexample,anaudience'senjoyment)heestablished
somebasicguidelinesforauthorstofollowtoachievecertainobjectives.

Tohelpauthorsachievetheirobjectives,Aristotledevelopedelementsoforganizationand
methodsforwritingeffectivepoetryanddramaknownastheprinciplesofdramaticconstruction
(Richter39).Aristotlebelievedthatelementslike"...language,rhythm,andharmony..."aswell
as"...plot,character,thought,diction,song,andspectacle..."influencetheaudience'skatharsis
(pityandfear)orsatisfactionwiththework(Richter39).Andsohereweseeoneoftheearliest
attemptstoexplainwhatmakesaneffectiveorineffectiveworkofliterature.

LikePlato,Aristotle'sviewsonartheavilyinfluenceWesternthought.Thedebatebetween
PlatonistsandAristotelianscontinued"...intheNeoplatonistsofthesecondcenturyAD,the
CambridgePlatonistsofthelatterseventeenthcentury,andtheidealistsoftheromantic
movement"(Richter17).Eventoday,thedebatecontinues,andthisdebateisnomoreevident
thaninsomeofthediscussionsbetweenadherentstotheschoolsofcriticismcontainedinthis
resource.

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

Formalism(1930spresent)
FormFollowsFunction:RussianFormalism,NewCriticism,NeoAristotelianism

Formalistsdisagreedaboutwhatspecificelementsmakealiterarywork"good"or"bad"but
generally,Formalismmaintainsthataliteraryworkcontainscertainintrinsicfeatures,andthe
theory"...definedandaddressedthespecificallyliteraryqualitiesinthetext"(Richter699).
Therefore,it'seasytoseeFormalism'srelationtoAristotle'stheoriesofdramaticconstruction.

Formalismattemptstotreateachworkasitsowndistinctpiece,freefromitsenvironment,era,
andevenauthor.Thispointofviewdevelopedinreactionto"...formsof'extrinsic'criticismthat
viewedthetextaseithertheproductofsocialandhistoricalforcesoradocumentmakingan
ethicalstatement"(699).Formalistsassumethatthekeystounderstandingatextexistwithin
"thetextitself,"(..."thebattlecryoftheNewCriticaleffort..."andthusfocusagreatdealon,you
guessedit,form(Tyson118).

Forthemostpart,Formalismisnolongerusedintheacademy.However,NewCriticaltheories
arestillusedinsecondaryandcollegelevelinstructioninliteratureandevenwriting(Tyson
115).

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheworkuseimagerytodevelopitsownsymbols?(i.e.makingacertainroad
standfordeathbyconstantassociation)
Whatisthequalityofthework'sorganicunity"...theworkingtogetherofallthepartsto
makeaninseparablewhole..."(Tyson121)?Inotherwords,doeshowtheworkisput
togetherreflectwhatitis?
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Howarethevariouspartsoftheworkinterconnected?
Howdoparadox,irony,ambiguity,andtensionworkinthetext?
Howdothesepartsandtheircollectivewholecontributetoornotcontributetothe
aestheticqualityofthework?
Howdoestheauthorresolveapparentcontradictionswithinthework?
Whatdoestheformoftheworksayaboutitscontent?
Isthereacentralorfocalpassagethatcanbesaidtosumuptheentiretyofthework?
Howdotherhythmsand/orrhymeschemesofapoemcontributetothemeaningoreffect
ofthepiece?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

RussianFormalism

VictorShklovsky
RomanJakobson
VictorErlichRussianFormalism:HistoryDoctrine,1955
YuriTynyanov

NewCriticism

JohnCroweRansomTheNewCriticism,1938
I.A.Richards
WilliamEmpson
T.S.Eliot
AllenTate
CleanthBrooks

NeoAristotelianism(ChicagoSchoolofCriticism)

R.S.CraneCriticsandCriticism:AncientandModern,1952
ElderOlson
NormanMaclean
W.R.Keast
WayneC.BoothTheRhetoricofFiction,1961

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

PsychoanalyticCriticism(1930spresent)
SigmundFreud

PsychoanalyticcriticismbuildsonFreudiantheoriesofpsychology.Whilewedon'thavethe
roomheretodiscussallofFreud'swork,ageneraloverviewisnecessarytoexplain
psychoanalyticliterarycriticism.

TheUnconscious,theDesires,andtheDefenses

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Freudbeganhispsychoanalyticworkinthe1880swhileattemptingtotreatbehavioraldisorders
inhisViennesepatients.Hedubbedthedisorders'hysteria'andbegantreatingthembylistening
tohispatientstalkthroughtheirproblems.Basedonthiswork,Freudassertedthatpeople's
behaviorisaffectedbytheirunconscious:"...thenotionthathumanbeingsaremotivated,even
driven,bydesires,fears,needs,andconflictsofwhichtheyareunaware..."(Tyson1415).

Freudbelievedthatourunconsciouswasinfluencedbychildhoodevents.Freudorganizedthese
eventsintodevelopmentalstagesinvolvingrelationshipswithparentsanddrivesofdesireand
pleasurewherechildrenfocus"...ondifferentpartsofthebody...startingwiththemouth...shifting
totheoral,anal,andphallicphases..."(Richter1015).Thesestagesreflectbaselevelsofdesire,
buttheyalsoinvolvefearofloss(lossofgenitals,lossofaffectionfromparents,lossoflife)and
repression:"...theexpungingfromconsciousnessoftheseunhappypsychologicalevents"(Tyson
15).

Tysonremindsus,however,that"...repressiondoesn'teliminateourpainfulexperiencesand
emotions...weunconsciouslybehaveinwaysthatwillallowusto'playout'...ourconflicted
feelingsaboutthepainfulexperiencesandemotionswerepress"(15).Tokeepallofthisconflict
buriedinourunconscious,Freudarguedthatwedevelopdefenses:selectiveperception,selective
memory,denial,displacement,projection,regression,fearofintimacy,andfearofdeath,among
others.

Id,Ego,andSuperego

Freudmaintainedthatourdesiresandourunconsciousconflictsgiverisetothreeareasofthe
mindthatwrestlefordominanceaswegrowfrominfancy,tochildhood,toadulthood:

id"...thelocationofthedrives"orlibido
ego"...oneofthemajordefensesagainstthepowerofthedrives..."andhomeofthe
defenseslistedabove
superegotheareaoftheunconsciousthathousesJudgment(ofselfandothers)and
"...whichbeginstoformduringchildhoodasaresultoftheOedipuscomplex"(Richter
10151016)

OedipusComplex

FreudbelievedthattheOedipuscomplexwas"...oneofthemostpowerfullydeterminative
elementsinthegrowthofthechild"(Richter1016).Essentially,theOedipuscomplexinvolves
children'sneedfortheirparentsandtheconflictthatarisesaschildrenmatureandrealizethey
arenottheabsolutefocusoftheirmother'sattention:"theOedipuscomplexbeginsinalate
phaseofinfantilesexuality,betweenthechild'sthirdandsixthyear,andittakesadifferentform
inmalesthanitdoesinfemales"(Richter1016).

Freudarguedthatbothboysandgirlswishtopossesstheirmothers,butastheygrowolder
"...theybegintosensethattheirclaimtoexclusiveattentionisthwartedbythemother'sattention
tothefather..."(1016).Children,Freudmaintained,connectthisconflictofattentiontothe
intimaterelationsbetweenmotherandfather,relationsfromwhichthechildrenareexcluded.
Freudbelievedthat"theresultisamurderousrageagainstthefather...andadesiretopossessthe
mother"(1016).

Freudpointedout,however,that"...theOedipuscomplexdiffersinboysandgirls...the
functioningoftherelatedcastrationcomplex"(1016).Inshort,Freudthoughtthat"...duringthe
Oedipalrivalry[betweenboysandtheirfathers],boysfantasizedthatpunishmentfortheirrage
willtaketheformof..."castration(1016).Whenboyseffectivelyworkthroughthisanxiety,
Freudargued,"...theboylearnstoidentifywiththefatherinthehopeofsomedaypossessinga
womanlikehismother.Ingirls,thecastrationcomplexdoesnottaketheformofanxiety...the
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resultisafrustratedrageinwhichthegirlshiftshersexualdesirefromthemothertothefather"
(1016).

Freudbelievedthateventually,thegirl'sspurnedadvancedtowardthefathergivewaytoadesire
topossessamanlikeherfatherlaterinlife.Freudbelievedthattheimpactoftheunconscious,
id,ego,superego,thedefenses,andtheOedipuscomplexeswasinescapableandthatthese
elementsofthemindinfluenceallourbehavior(andevenourdreams)asadultsofcoursethis
behaviorinvolveswhatwewrite.

FreudandLiterature

Sowhatdoesallofthispsychologicalbusinesshavetodowithliteratureandthestudyof
literature?Putsimply,somecriticsbelievethatwecan"...readpsychoanalytically...toseewhich
conceptsareoperatinginthetextinsuchawayastoenrichourunderstandingoftheworkand,if
weplantowriteapaperaboutit,toyieldameaningful,coherentpsychoanalyticinterpretation"
(Tyson29).Tysonprovidessomeinsightfulandapplicablequestionstohelpguideour
understandingofpsychoanalyticcriticism.

Typicalquestions:

Howdotheoperationsofrepressionstructureorinformthework?
Arethereanyoedipaldynamicsoranyotherfamilydynamicsareworkhere?
Howcancharacters'behavior,narrativeevents,and/orimagesbeexplainedintermsof
psychoanalyticconceptsofanykind(forexample...fearorfascinationwithdeath,
sexualitywhichincludesloveandromanceaswellassexualbehaviorasaprimary
indicatorofpsychologicalidentityortheoperationsofegoidsuperego)?
Whatdoestheworksuggestaboutthepsychologicalbeingofitsauthor?
Whatmightagiveninterpretationofaliteraryworksuggestaboutthepsychological
motivesofthereader?
Arethereprominentwordsinthepiecethatcouldhavedifferentorhiddenmeanings?
Couldtherebeasubconsciousreasonfortheauthorusingthese"problemwords"?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

HaroldBloomATheoryofPoetry,1973PoetryandRepression:RevisionismfromBlake
toStevens,1976
PeterBrooks
JacqueLacanTheEgoinFreud'sTheoryandintheTechniqueofPsychoanalysis,1988
"TheAgencyoftheLetterintheUnconsciousorReasonSinceFreud"(fromcrits:A
Selection,1957)
JaneGallopReadingLacan,1985
JuliaKristevaRevolutioninPoeticLanguage,1984
MarshallAlcornChangingtheSubjectinEnglishClass:Discourseandthe
ConstructionsofDesire,2002

CarlJung

JungiancriticismattemptstoexploretheconnectionbetweenliteratureandwhatCarlJung(a
studentofFreud)calledthecollectiveunconsciousofthehumanrace:"...racialmemory,
throughwhichthespiritofthewholehumanspeciesmanifestsitself"(Richter504).Jungian
criticism,closelyrelatedtoFreudiantheorybecauseofitsconnectiontopsychoanalysis,assumes
thatallstoriesandsymbolsarebasedonmythicmodelsfrommankindspast.

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Basedonthesecommonalities,Jungdevelopedarchetypalmyths,theSyzygy:"...aquaternion
composingawhole,theunifiedselfofwhichpeopleareinsearch"(Richter505).These
archetypesaretheShadow,theAnima,theAnimus,andtheSpirit:"...beneath...[theShadow]is
theAnima,thefemininesideofthemaleSelf,andtheAnimus,thecorrespondingmasculineside
ofthefemaleSelf"(Richter505).

Inliteraryanalysis,aJungiancriticwouldlookforarchetypes(alsoseethediscussionof
NorthropFryeintheStructuralismsection)increativeworks:"Jungiancriticismisgenerally
involvedwithasearchfortheembodimentofthesesymbolswithinparticularworksofart."
(Richter505).Whendealingwiththissortofcriticism,itisoftenusefultokeepahandbookof
mythologyandadictionaryofsymbolsonhand.

Typicalquestions:

Whatconnectionscanwemakebetweenelementsofthetextandthearchetypes?(Mask,
Shadow,Anima,Animus)
Howdothecharactersinthetextmirrorthearchetypalfigures?(GreatMotherornurturing
Mother,Whore,destroyingCrone,Lover,DestroyingAngel)
Howdoesthetextmirrorthearchetypalnarrativepatterns?(Quest,NightSeaJourney)
Howsymbolicistheimageryinthework?
Howdoestheprotagonistreflecttheheroofmyth?
Doestheheroembarkonajourneyineitheraphysicalorspiritualsense?
Isthereajourneytoanunderworldorlandofthedead?
Whattrialsorordealsdoestheprotagonistface?Whatistherewardforovercomingthem?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

MaudBodkinArchetypalPatternsinPoetry,1934
CarlJungTheArchetypesandtheCollectiveUnconscious.Vol.9,Part1ofCollected
Works.2nded.Trans.R.F.C.Hull,1968
BettinaKnappMusic,ArchetypeandtheWriter:AJungianView,1988
RicahrdSuggJungianLiteraryCriticism,1993

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

MarxistCriticism(1930spresent)
WhomDoesitBenefit?

BasedonthetheoriesofKarlMarx(andsoinfluencedbyphilosopherGeorgWilhelmFriedrich
Hegel),thisschoolconcernsitselfwithclassdifferences,economicandotherwise,aswellasthe
implicationsandcomplicationsofthecapitalistsystem:"Marxismattemptstorevealthewaysin
whichoursocioeconomicsystemistheultimatesourceofourexperience"(Tyson277).

TheoristsworkingintheMarxisttradition,therefore,areinterestedinansweringtheoverarching
question,whomdoesit[thework,theeffort,thepolicy,theroad,etc.]benefit?Theelite?The
middleclass?AndMarxistscriticsarealsointerestedinhowthelowerorworkingclassesare
oppressedineverydaylifeandinliterature.
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TheMaterialDialectic

TheMarxistschoolfollowsaprocessofthinkingcalledthematerialdialectic.Thisbeliefsystem
maintainsthat"...whatdriveshistoricalchangearethematerialrealitiesoftheeconomicbaseof
society,ratherthantheideologicalsuperstructureofpolitics,law,philosophy,religion,andart
thatisbuiltuponthateconomicbase"(Richter1088).

Marxassertsthat"...stablesocietiesdevelopsitesofresistance:contradictionsbuildintothe
socialsystemthatultimatelyleadtosocialrevolutionandthedevelopmentofanewsocietyupon
theold"(1088).Thiscycleofcontradiction,tension,andrevolutionmustcontinue:therewill
alwaysbeconflictbetweentheupper,middle,andlower(working)classesandthisconflictwill
bereflectedinliteratureandotherformsofexpressionart,music,movies,etc.

TheRevolution

Thecontinuingconflictbetweentheclasseswillleadtoupheavalandrevolutionbyoppressed
peoplesandformthegroundworkforaneworderofsocietyandeconomicswherecapitalismis
abolished.AccordingtoMarx,therevolutionwillbeledbytheworkingclass(othersthink
peasantswillleadtheuprising)undertheguidanceofintellectuals.Oncetheeliteandmiddle
classareoverthrown,theintellectualswillcomposeanequalsocietywhereeveryoneowns
everything(socialismnottobeconfusedwithSovietorMaoistCommunism).

Thoughastaggeringnumberofdifferentnuancesexistwithinthisschoolofliterarytheory,
Marxistcriticsgenerallyworkinareascoveredbythefollowingquestions.

Typicalquestions:

Whomdoesitbenefitiftheworkoreffortisaccepted/successful/believed,etc.?
Whatisthesocialclassoftheauthor?
Whichclassdoestheworkclaimtorepresent?
Whatvaluesdoesitreinforce?
Whatvaluesdoesitsubvert?
Whatconflictcanbeseenbetweenthevaluestheworkchampionsandthoseitportrays?
Whatsocialclassesdothecharactersrepresent?
Howdocharactersfromdifferentclassesinteractorconflict?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

KarlMarx(withFriedrichEngels)TheCommunistManifesto,1848DasKapital,1867
"ConsciousnessDerivedfromMaterialConditions"fromTheGermanIdeology,1932
"OnGreekArtinItsTime"fromAContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,
1859
LeonTrotsky"LiteratureandRevolution,"1923
GeorgLukcs"TheIdeologyofModernism,"1956
WalterBenjamin"TheWorkofArtintheAgeofMechanicalReproduction,"1936
TheodorW.Adorno
LouisAlthusserReadingCapital,1965
TerryEagletonMarxismandLiteraryCriticism,CriticismandIdeology,1976
FredericJamesonMarxismandForm,ThePoliticalUnconscious,1971
JrgenHabermasThePhilosophicalDiscourseofModernity,1990

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:
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Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

ReaderResponseCriticism(1960spresent)
WhatDoYouThink?

Atitsmostbasiclevel,readerresponsecriticismconsidersreaders'reactionstoliteratureasvital
tointerpretingthemeaningofthetext.However,readerresponsecriticismcantakeanumberof
differentapproaches.Acriticdeployingreaderresponsetheorycanuseapsychoanalyticlens,a
feministslens,orevenastructuralistlens.Whatthesedifferentlenseshaveincommonwhen
usingareaderresponseapproachistheymaintain"...thatwhatatextiscannotbeseparatedfrom
whatitdoes"(Tyson154).

Tysonexplainsthat"...readerresponsetheoristssharetwobeliefs:1)thattheroleofthereader
cannotbeomittedfromourunderstandingofliteratureand2)thatreadersdonotpassively
consumethemeaningpresentedtothembyanobjectiveliterarytextrathertheyactivelymake
themeaningtheyfindinliterature"(154).Inthisway,readerresponsetheorysharescommon
groundwithsomeofthedeconstructionistsdiscussedinthePoststructuralareawhentheytalk
about"thedeathoftheauthor,"orherdisplacementasthe(author)itarianfigureinthetext.

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheinteractionoftextandreadercreatemeaning?
Whatdoesaphrasebyphraseanalysisofashortliterarytext,orakeyportionofalonger
text,tellusaboutthereadingexperienceprestructuredby(builtinto)thattext?
Dothesounds/shapesofthewordsastheyappearonthepageorhowtheyarespokenby
thereaderenhanceorchangethemeaningoftheword/work?
Howmightweinterpretaliterarytexttoshowthatthereader'sresponseis,orisanalogous
to,thetopicofthestory?
Whatdoesthebodyofcriticismpublishedaboutaliterarytextsuggestaboutthecritics
whointerpretedthattextand/oraboutthereadingexperienceproducedbythattext?
(Tyson191)

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

PeterRabinowitzBeforeReading,1987
StanleyFishIsThereaTextinThisClass?TheAuthorityofInterpretiveCommunities,
1980
ElizabethFreundTheReturnoftheReader:ReaderResponseCriticism,1987
DavidBleich
NormanHollandTheDynamicsofLiteraryResponse,1968
LouiseRosenblatt
WolfgangIserTheImpliedReader:PatternsofCommunicationinProseFictionfrom
BunyantoBeckett,1974
HansRoberJauss

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.
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StructuralismandSemiotics(1920spresent)
Note:Structuralism,semiotics,andpoststructuralismaresomeofthemostcomplexliterary
theoriestounderstand.Pleasebepatient.

LinguisticRoots

Thestructuralistschoolemergesfromtheoriesoflanguageandlinguistics,anditlooksfor
underlyingelementsincultureandliteraturethatcanbeconnectedsothatcriticscandevelop
generalconclusionsabouttheindividualworksandthesystemsfromwhichtheyemerge.Infact,
structuralismmaintainsthat"...practicallyeverythingwedothatisspecificallyhumanis
expressedinlanguage"(Richter809).Structuralistsbelievethattheselanguagesymbolsextend
farbeyondwrittenororalcommunication.

Forexample,codesthatrepresentallsortsofthingspermeateeverythingwedo:"the
performanceofmusicrequirescomplexnotation...oureconomicliferestsupontheexchangeof
laborandgoodsforsymbols,suchascash,checks,stock,andcertificates...sociallifedependson
themeaningfulgesturesandsignalsof'bodylanguage'andrevolvesaroundtheexchangeof
small,symbolicfavors:drinks,parties,dinners"(Richter809).

PatternsandExperience

Structuralistsassertthat,sincelanguageexistsinpatterns,certainunderlyingelementsare
commontoallhumanexperiences.Structuralistsbelievewecanobservetheseexperiences
throughpatterns:"...ifyouexaminethephysicalstructuresofallbuildingsbuiltinurban
Americain1850todiscovertheunderlyingprinciplesthatgoverntheircomposition,for
example,principlesofmechanicalconstructionorofartisticform..."youareusingastructuralist
lens(Tyson197).

Moreover,"youarealsoengagedinstructuralistactivityifyouexaminethestructureofasingle
buildingtodiscoverhowitscompositiondemonstratesunderlyingprinciplesofastructural
system.Inthefirstexample...you'regeneratingastructuralsystemofclassificationinthe
second,you'redemonstratingthatanindividualitembelongstoaparticularstructuralclass"
(Tyson197).

StructuralisminLiteraryTheory

Structuralismisusedinliterarytheory,forexample,"...ifyouexaminethestructureofalarge
numberofshortstoriestodiscovertheunderlyingprinciplesthatgoverntheir
composition...principlesofnarrativeprogression...orofcharacterization...youarealsoengagedin
structuralistactivityifyoudescribethestructureofasingleliteraryworktodiscoverhowits
compositiondemonstratestheunderlyingprinciplesofagivenstructuralsystem"(Tyson197
198).

NorthropFrye,however,takesadifferentapproachtostructuralismbyexploringwaysinwhich
genresofWesternliteraturefallintohisfourmythoi(alsoseeJungiancriticismintheFreudian
LiteraryCriticismresource):

1.theoryofmodes,orhistoricalcriticism(tragic,comic,andthematic)
2.theoryofsymbols,orethicalcriticism(literal/descriptive,formal,mythical,andanagogic)
3.theoryofmyths,orarchetypalcriticism(comedy,romance,tragedy,irony/satire)
4.theoryofgenres,orrhetoricalcriticism(epos,prose,drama,lyric)(Tyson240).
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PeirceandSaussure

Twoimportanttheoristsformtheframework(hah)ofstructuralism:CharlesSandersPeirceand
FerdinanddeSaussure.Peircegavestructuralismthreeimportantideasforanalyzingthesign
systemsthatpermeateanddefineourexperiences:

1."iconicsigns,inwhichthesignifierresemblesthethingsignified(suchasthestickfigures
onwashroomdoorsthatsignify'Men'or'Women'
2.indexes,inwhichthesignifierisareliableindicatorofthepresenceofthesignified(like
fireandsmoke)
3.truesymbols,inwhichthesignifier'srelationtothethingsignifiediscompletelyarbitrary
andconventional[justasthesound/kat/orthewrittenwordcatareconventionalsignsfor
thefamiliarfeline]"(Richter810).

TheseelementsbecomeveryimportantwhenwemoveintodeconstructioninthePostmodernism
resource.Peircealsoinfluencedthesemioticschoolofstructuralisttheorythatusessignsystems.

SignSystems

Thedisciplineofsemioticsplaysanimportantroleinstructuralistliterarytheoryandcultural
studies.Semioticians"...appl[y]structuralistinsightstothestudyof...signsystems...anon
linguisticobjectorbehavior...thatcanbeanalyzedasifitwerealanguage"(Tyson205).
Specifically,"...semioticsexaminesthewaysnonlinguisticobjectsandbehaviors'tell'us
something.

Forexample,thepictureoftherecliningblondbeautyintheskintight,blackvelvetdressonthe
billboard...'tells'usthatthosewhodrinkthiswhiskey(presumablymale)willbeattractive
to...beautifulwomenliketheonedisplayedhere"(Tyson205).Lastly,Richterstates,"semiotics
takesofffromPeirceforwhomlanguageisoneofnumeroussignsystemsandstructuralism
takesofffromSaussure,forwhomlanguagewasthesignsystemparexcellence"(810).

Typicalquestions:

Usingaspecificstructuralistframework(likeFrye'smythoi)...howshouldthetextbe
classifiedintermsofitsgenre?Inotherwords,whatpatternsexistwithinthetextthat
makeitapartofotherworkslikeit?
Usingaspecificstructuralistframework...analyzethetext'snarrativeoperations...canyou
speculateabouttherelationshipbetweenthe...[text]...andtheculturefromwhichthetext
emerged?Inotherwords,whatpatternsexistwithinthetextthatmakeitaproductofa
largerculture?
Whatpatternsexistwithinthetextthatconnectittothelarger"human"experience?In
otherwords,canweconnectpatternsandelementswithinthetexttoothertextsfromother
culturestomapsimilaritiesthattellusmoreaboutthecommonhumanexperience?Thisis
aliberalhumanistmovethatassumesthatsinceweareallhuman,weallsharebasic
humancommonalities
Whatrulesorcodesofinterpretationmustbeinternalizedinorderto'makesense'ofthe
text?
Whatarethesemioticsofagivencategoryofculturalphenomena,or'text,'suchashigh
schoolfootballgames,televisionand/ormagazineadsforaparticularbrandof
perfume...orevenmediacoverageofanhistoricalevent?(Tyson225)

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

CharlesSandersPeirce
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FerdinanddeSaussureCourseinGeneralLinguistics,1923
ClaudeLviStraussTheElementaryStructureofKinship,1949"TheStructuralStudy
ofMyth,"1955
NorthropFryeAnatomyofCriticism:FourEssays,1957
NoamChomskySyntacticStructures,1957AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax,1965
RolandBarthesCriticalEssays,1964Mythologies,1957S/Z,1970Image,Music,Text,
1977
UmbertoEcoTheRoleoftheReader,1979

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

PostStructuralism,Deconstruction,
Postmodernism(1966present)
Note:Structuralism,semiotics,andpoststructuralismaresomeofthemostcomplexliterary
theoriestounderstand.Pleasebepatient.

TheCenterCannotHold

Thisapproachconcernsitselfwiththewaysandplaceswheresystems,frameworks,definitions,
andcertaintiesbreakdown.Poststructuralismmaintainsthatframeworksandsystems,for
examplethestructuralistsystemsexplainedintheStructuralistarea,aremerelyfictitious
constructsandthattheycannotbetrustedtodevelopmeaningortogiveorder.Infact,thevery
actofseekingorderorasingularTruth(withacapitalT)isabsurdbecausethereexistsno
unifiedtruth.

Poststructuralismholdsthattherearemanytruths,thatframeworksmustbleed,andthat
structuresmustbecomeunstableordecentered.Moreover,poststructuralismisalsoconcerned
withthepowerstructuresorhegemoniesandpowerandhowtheseelementscontributetoand/or
maintainstructurestoenforcehierarchy.Therefore,poststructuraltheorycarriesimplicationsfar
beyondliterarycriticism.

WhatDoesYourMeaningMean?

Byquestioningtheprocessofdevelopingmeaning,poststructuraltheorystrikesattheveryheart
ofphilosophyandrealityandthrowsknowledgemakingintowhatJacquesDerridacalled
"freeplay":"Theconceptofcenteredstructure...iscontradictorilycoherent...theconceptof
centeredstructureisinfacttheconceptofafreeplaywhichisconstituteduponafundamental
immobilityandareassuringcertitude,whichisitselfbeyondthereachofthefreeplay"(qtd.in
Richter,878879).

Derridafirstpositedtheseideasin1966atJohnsHopkinsUniversity,whenhedelivered
Structure,Sign,andPlayintheDiscourseoftheHumanSciences:"Perhapssomethinghas
occurredinthehistoryoftheconceptofstructurethatcouldbecalledan'event,'ifthisloaded
worddidnotentailameaningwhichitispreciselythefunctionofstructuralorstructuralist
thoughttoreduceortosuspect.Butletmeusethetermeventanyway,employingitwith
cautionandasifinquotationmarks.Inthissense,thiseventwillhavetheexteriorformofa
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ruptureandaredoubling(qtd.inRichter,878).Inhispresentation,Derridachallenged
structuralism'smostbasicideas.

CanLanguageDoThat?

PoststructuraltheorycanbetiedtoamoveagainstModernist/Enlightenmentideas
(philosophers:ImmanuelKant,RneDescartes,JohnLocke,etc.)andWesternreligiousbeliefs
(neoPlatonism,Catholicism,etc.).AnearlypioneerofthisresistancewasphilosopherFriedrich
Nietzsche.Inhisessay,OnTruthandLiesinanExtramoralSense(1873),Nietzscherejects
eventheverybasisofourknowledgemaking,language,asareliablesystemofcommunication:
Thevariouslanguages,juxtaposed,showthatwordsareneverconcernedwithtruth,neverwith
adequateexpression...(248).

Belowisanexample,adaptedfromtheTysontext,ofsomelanguagefreeplayandasimpleform
ofdeconstruction:

Time(noun)flies(verb)likeanarrow(adverbclause)=Timepassesquickly.

Time(verb)flies(object)likeanarrow(adverbclause)=Getoutyourstopwatchandtimethe
speedoffliesasyouwouldtimeanarrow'sflight.

Timeflies(noun)like(verb)anarrow(object)=Timefliesarefondofarrows(oratleastofone
particulararrow).

So,poststructuralistsassertthatifwecannottrustlanguagesystemstoconveytruth,thevery
basesoftruthareunreliableandtheuniverseoratleasttheuniversewehaveconstructed
becomesunraveledordecentered.Nietzscheuseslanguageslipasabasetomoveintotheslip
andshiftoftruthasawhole:Whatistruth?truthsareanillusionaboutwhichithasbeen
forgottenthattheyareillusions...(OnTruthandLies250).

ThisreturnsustothediscussionintheStructuralistarearegardingsigns,signifiers,andsignified.
Essentially,poststructuralismholdsthatwecannottrustthesign=signifier+signifiedformula,
thatthereisabreakdownofcertaintybetweensign/signifier,whichleaveslanguagesystems
hopelesslyinadequateforrelayingmeaningsothatweare(returningtoDerrida)ineternal
freeplayorinstability.

What'sLeft?

Importanttonote,however,isthatdeconstructionisnotjustabouttearingdownthisisa
commonmisconception.Derrida,in"SignatureEventContext,"addressedthislimitedviewof
poststructuraltheory:"Deconstructioncannotlimitorproceedimmediatelytoaneutralization:it
mustpracticeanoverturningoftheclassicaloppositionandageneraldisplacementofthe
system.Itisonlyonthisconditionthatdeconstructionwillprovideitselfthemeanswithwhich
tointerveneinthefieldofoppositionsthatitcriticizes,whichisalsoafieldofnondiscursive
forces"(328).

Derridaremindsusthatthroughdeconstructionwecanidentifytheinbetweensandthe
marginalizedtobegininterstitialknowledgebuilding.

ModernismvsPostmodernism

Withtheresistancetotraditionalformsofknowledgemaking(science,religion,language),
inquiry,communication,andbuildingmeaningtakeondifferentformstothepoststructuralist.
WecanlookatthisdifferenceasasplitbetweenModernismandPostmodernism.Thetable
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below,excerptedfromtheoristIhabHassan'sTheDismembermentofOrpheus(1998),offersusa
waytomakesenseofsomedifferencesbetweenmodernism,dominatedbyEnlightenmentideas,
andpostmodernism,aspaceoffreeplayanddiscourse.

Keepinmindthateventheauthor,Hassan,"...isquicktopointouthowthedichotomiesare
themselvesinsecure,equivocal"(Harvey42).Thoughpoststructuralismisuncomfortablewith
binaries,Hassanprovidesuswithsomeinterestingcontraststoconsider:

ModernismvsPostmodernism
Modernism Postmodernism
romanticism/symbolism paraphysics/Dadaism
form(conjunctive,closed) antiform(disjunctive,open)
purpose play
design chance
hierarchy anarchy
mastery/logos exhaustion/silence
artobject/finishedwork/logos process/performance/antithesis
centering absence
genre/boundary text/intertext
semantics rhetoric
metaphor metonymy
root/depth rhizome/surface
signified signifier
narrative/grandehistoire antinarrative/petitehistoire
genital/phallic polymorphous/androgynous
paranoia schizophrenia
origin/cause differencedifference/trace
GodtheFather TheHolyGhost
determinacy interdeterminacy
transcendence immanence

PostStructuralismandLiterature

Ifwearequestioning/resistingthemethodsweusetobuildknowledge(science,religion,
language),thentraditionalliterarynotionsarealsothrownintofreeplay.Theseincludethe
narrativeandtheauthor:

Narrative

Thenarrativeisafictionthatlocksreadersintointerpretingtextinasingle,chronological
mannerthatdoesnotreflectourexperiences.Postmoderntextsmaynotadheretotraditional
notionsofnarrative.Forexample,inhisseminalwork,NakedLunch,WilliamS.Burroughs
explodesthetraditionalnarrativestructureandcritiquesalmosteverythingModern:modern
government,modernmedicine,modernlawenforcement.Otherexamplesofauthorsplaying
withnarrativeincludeJohnFowlesinthefinalsectionsofTheFrenchLieutenant'sWoman,
Fowlesstepsoutsidehisnarrativetospeakwiththereaderdirectly.

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Moreover,grandnarrativesareresisted.Forexample,thebeliefthatthroughsciencethehuman
racewillimproveisquestioned.Inaddition,metaphysicsisquestioned.Instead,postmodern
knowledgebuildingislocal,situated,slippery,andselfcritical(i.e.itquestionsitselfandits
role).Becausepoststructuralworkisselfcritical,poststructuralcriticsevenlookforwaystexts
contradictthemselves(seetypicalquestionsbelow).

Author

Theauthorisdisplacedasabsoluteauthor(ity),andthereaderplaysaroleininterpretingthetext
anddevelopingmeaning(asbestaspossible)fromthetext.InTheDeathoftheAuthor,
RolandBarthesarguesthattheideaofsingularauthorshipisarecentphenomenon.Barthes
explainsthatthedeathoftheauthorshattersModernistnotionsofauthorityandknowledge
building(145).

Lastly,hestatesthatoncetheauthorisdeadandtheModernistideaofsingularnarrative(and
thusauthority)isoverturned,textsbecomeplural,andtheinterpretationoftextsbecomesa
collaborativeprocessbetweenauthorandaudience:...atextismadeofmultiplewritings,drawn
frommanyculturesandenteringintomutualrelationsofdialogue...butthereisoneplacewhere
thismultiplicityisfocusedandthatplaceisthereader(148).Barthesendshisessayby
empoweringthereader:Classicalcriticismhasneverpaidanyattentiontothereader...thewriter
istheonlypersoninliteratureitisnecessarytooverthrowthemyth:thebirthofthereader
mustbeatthecostofthedeathoftheAuthor(148).

Typicalquestions:

Howislanguagethrownintofreeplayorquestionedinthework?Forexample,notehow
AnthonyBurgessplayswithlanguage(RussianvsEnglish)inAClockworkOrange,or
howBurroughsplayswithnamesandlanguageinNakedLunch.
Howdoestheworkundermineorcontradictgenerallyacceptedtruths?
Howdoestheauthor(oracharacter)omit,change,orreconstructmemoryandidentity?
Howdoesaworkfulfillormoveoutsidetheestablishedconventionsofitsgenre?
Howdoestheworkdealwiththeseparation(orlackthereof)betweenwriter,work,and
reader?
Whatideologydoesthetextseemtopromote?
Whatisleftoutofthetextthatifincludedmightunderminethegoalofthework?
Ifwechangedthepointofviewofthetextsayfromonecharactertoanother,ormultiple
charactershowwouldthestorychange?Whosestoryisnottoldinthetext?Whoisleft
outandwhymighttheauthorhaveomittedthischaracter'stale?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

Theorists

ImmanuelKant"AnAnswertotheQuestion:WhatisEnlightenment?",1784(asa
baselinetounderstandwhatNietzschewasresisting)
FriedrichNietzscheOnTruthandLiesinanExtramoralSense,"1873TheGay
Science,1882ThusSpokeZarathustra,ABookforAllandNone,1885
JacquesDerrida"StructureSignandPlayintheDiscourseofHumanSciences,"1966Of
Grammatology,1967"SignatureEvenContext,"1972
RolandBarthes"TheDeathoftheAuthor,"1967
DeleuzeandGuattari"Rhizome,"1976
JeanFranoisLyotardThePostmodernCondition,1979
MicheleFoucaultTheFoucaultReader,1984
StephenToulminCosmopolis,1990
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MartinHeideggerBasicWritings,1993
PaulCilliersComplexityandPostmodernity,1998
IhabHassanTheDismembermentofOrpheus,1998FromPostmodernismto
Postmodernity:TheLocal/GlobalContext,2001

PostmodernLiterature

WilliamS.BurroughsNakedLunch,1959
AngelaCarterBurningYourBoats,storiesfrom19621993(firstpublishedasa
collectionin1995)
KathyAckerBloodandGutsinHighSchool,1978
PaulAusterCityofGlass(volumeoneoftheNewYorkCityTrilogy),1985(asagraphic
novelpublishedbyNeonLit,adivisionofAvonBooks,1994)
LynneTillmanHauntedHouses,1987
DavidWojnarowiczTheWaterfrontJournals,1996

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

NewHistoricism,CulturalStudies(1980s
present)
It'sAllRelative...

Thisschool,influencedbystructuralistandpoststructuralisttheories,seekstoreconnectawork
withthetimeperiodinwhichitwasproducedandidentifyitwiththeculturalandpolitical
movementsofthetime(MichelFoucault'sconceptofpistme).NewHistoricismassumesthat
everyworkisaproductofthehistoricmomentthatcreatedit.Specifically,NewHistoricismis
"...apracticethathasdevelopedoutofcontemporarytheory,particularlythestructuralist
realizationthatallhumansystemsaresymbolicandsubjecttotherulesoflanguage,andthe
deconstructiverealizationthatthereisnowayofpositioningoneselfasanobserveroutsidethe
closedcircleoftextuality"(Richter1205).

AhelpfulwayofconsideringNewHistoricaltheory,Tysonexplains,istothinkaboutthe
retellingofhistoryitself:"...questionsaskedbytraditionalhistoriansandbynewhistoricistsare
quitedifferent...traditionalhistoriansask,'Whathappened?'and'Whatdoestheeventtellus
abouthistory?'Incontrast,newhistoricistsask,'Howhastheeventbeeninterpreted?'and'What
dotheinterpretationstellusabouttheinterpreters?'"(278).SoNewHistoricismresiststhe
notionthat"...historyisaseriesofeventsthathavealinear,causalrelationship:eventAcaused
eventBeventBcausedeventCandsoon"(Tyson278).

Newhistoricistsdonotbelievethatwecanlookathistoryobjectively,butratherthatwe
interpreteventsasproductsofourtimeandcultureandthat"...wedon'thaveclearaccesstoany
butthemostbasicfactsofhistory...ourunderstandingofwhatsuchfactsmean...is...strictlya
matterofinterpretation,notfact"(279).Moreover,NewHistoricismholdsthatwearehopelessly
subjectiveinterpretersofwhatweobserve.

Typicalquestions:

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Whatlanguage/characters/eventspresentintheworkreflectthecurrenteventsofthe
authorsday?
Aretherewordsinthetextthathavechangedtheirmeaningfromthetimeofthewriting?
Howaresucheventsinterpretedandpresented?
Howareevents'interpretationandpresentationaproductofthecultureoftheauthor?
Doesthework'spresentationsupportorcondemntheevent?
Canitbeseentodoboth?
Howdoesthisportrayalcriticizetheleadingpoliticalfiguresormovementsoftheday?
Howdoestheliterarytextfunctionaspartofacontinuumwithotherhistorical/cultural
textsfromthesameperiod...?
Howcanweusealiteraryworkto"map"theinterplayofbothtraditionalandsubversive
discoursescirculatinginthecultureinwhichthatworkemergedand/ortheculturesin
whichtheworkhasbeeninterpreted?
Howdoestheworkconsidertraditionallymarginalizedpopulations?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

MichelFoucaultTheOrderofThings:AnArcheologyoftheHumanSciences,1970
Language,Countermemory,Practice,1977
CliffordGeertzTheInterpretationofCultures,1973"DeepPlay:NotesontheBalinese
Cockfight,"1992
HaydenWhiteMetahistory,1974"ThePoliticsofHistoricalInterpretation:Discipline
andDeSublimation,"1982
StephenGreenblattRenaissanceSelfFashioning:FromMoretoShakespeare,1980
PierreBourdieuOutlineofaTheoryofPractice,1977HomoAcademicus,1984The
FieldofCulturalProduction,1993

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

PostColonialCriticism(1990spresent)
HistoryisWrittenbytheVictors

Postcolonialcriticismissimilartoculturalstudies,butitassumesauniqueperspectiveon
literatureandpoliticsthatwarrantsaseparatediscussion.Specifically,postcolonialcriticsare
concernedwithliteratureproducedbycolonialpowersandworksproducedbythosewho
were/arecolonized.Postcolonialtheorylooksatissuesofpower,economics,politics,religion,
andcultureandhowtheseelementsworkinrelationtocolonialhegemony(westerncolonizers
controllingthecolonized).

Therefore,apostcolonialcriticmightbeinterestedinworkssuchasDanielDefoe'sRobinson
Crusoewherecolonial"...ideology[is]manifestinCrusoe'scolonialistattitudetowardtheland
uponwhichhe'sshipwreckedandtowardtheblackmanhe'colonizes'andnamesFriday"(Tyson
377).Inaddition,postcolonialtheorymightpointoutthat"...despiteHeartofDarkness's
(JosephConrad)obviousanticolonistagenda,thenovelpointstothecolonizedpopulationasthe
standardofsavagerytowhichEuropeansarecontrasted"(Tyson375).Postcolonialcriticism
alsotakestheformofliteraturecomposedbyauthorsthatcritiqueEurocentrichegemony.

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AUniquePerspectiveonEmpire

SeminalpostcolonialwriterssuchasNigerianauthorChinuaAchebeandKenyanauthorNgugi
waThiong'ohavewrittenanumberofstoriesrecountingthesufferingofcolonizedpeople.For
example,inThingsFallApart,Achebedetailsthestrifeanddevastationthatoccurredwhen
BritishcolonistsbeganmovinginlandfromtheNigeriancoast.

RatherthanglorifyingtheexploratorynatureofEuropeancolonistsastheyexpandedtheir
sphereofinfluence,Achebenarratesthedestructiveeventsthatledtothedeathandenslavement
ofthousandsofNigerianswhentheBritishimposedtheirImperialgovernment.Inturn,Achebe
pointsoutthenegativeeffects(andshiftingideasofidentityandculture)causedbythe
impositionofwesternreligionandeconomicsonNigeriansduringcolonialrule.

Power,Hegemony,andLiterature

Postcolonialcriticismalsoquestionstheroleofthewesternliterarycanonandwesternhistory
asdominantformsofknowledgemaking.Theterms"firstworld,""secondworld,""thirdworld"
and"fourthworld"nationsarecritiquedbypostcolonialcriticsbecausetheyreinforcethe
dominantpositionsofwesternculturespopulatingfirstworldstatus.Thiscritiqueincludesthe
literarycanonandhistorieswrittenfromtheperspectiveoffirstworldcultures.So,forexample,
apostcolonialcriticmightquestiontheworksincludedin"thecanon"becausethecanondoes
notcontainworksbyauthorsoutsidewesternculture.

Moreover,theauthorsincludedinthecanonoftenreinforcecolonialhegemonicideology,such
asJosephConrad'sHeartofDarkness.WesterncriticsmightconsiderHeartofDarknessan
effectivecritiqueofcolonialbehavior.Butpostcolonialtheoristsandauthorsmightdisagree
withthisperspective:"...asChinuaAchebeobserves,thenovel'scondemnationofEuropeanis
basedonadefinitionofAfricansassavages:beneaththeirveneerofcivilization,theEuropeans
are,thenoveltellsus,asbarbaricastheAfricans.Andindeed,Achebenotes,thenovelportrays
Africansasaprehistoricmassoffrenzied,howling,incomprehensiblebarbarians..."(Tyson
374375).

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheliterarytext,explicitlyorallegorically,representvariousaspectsofcolonial
oppression?
Whatdoesthetextrevealabouttheproblematicsofpostcolonialidentity,includingthe
relationshipbetweenpersonalandculturalidentityandsuchissuesasdouble
consciousnessandhybridity?
Whatperson(s)orgroupsdoestheworkidentifyas"other"orstranger?Howaresuch
persons/groupsdescribedandtreated?
Whatdoesthetextrevealaboutthepoliticsand/orpsychologyofanticolonialist
resistance?
Whatdoesthetextrevealabouttheoperationsofculturaldifferencethewaysinwhich
race,religion,class,gender,sexualorientation,culturalbeliefs,andcustomscombineto
formindividualidentityinshapingourperceptionsofourselves,others,andtheworldin
whichwelive?
Howdoesthetextrespondtoorcommentuponthecharacters,themes,orassumptionsofa
canonized(colonialist)work?
Aretheremeaningfulsimilaritiesamongtheliteraturesofdifferentpostcolonial
populations?
HowdoesaliterarytextintheWesterncanonreinforceorunderminecolonialistideology
throughitsrepresentationofcolonializationand/oritsinappropriatesilenceabout
colonizedpeoples?(Tyson378379)
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Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

Criticism

EdwardSaidOrientalism,1978CultureandImperialism,1994
KamauBrathwaiteTheHistoryoftheVoice,1979
GayatriSpivakInOtherWorlds:EssaysinCulturalPolitics,1987
DominickLaCapraTheBoundsofRace:PerspectivesonHegemonyandResistance,
1991
HomiBhabhaTheLocationofCulture,1994

Literatureandnonfiction

ChinuaAchebeThingsFallApart,1958
NgugiwaThiong'oTheRiverBetween,1965
SembeneOusmanGod'sBitsofWood,1962
RuthPrawerJhabvalaHeatandDust,1975
BuchiEmechetaTheJoysofMotherhood,1979
KeriHulmeTheBonePeople,1983
RobertsonDaviesWhat'sBredintheBone,1985
KazuoIshiguroTheRemainsoftheDay,1988
BharatiMukherjeeJasmine,1989
JillKerConwayTheRoadfromCoorain,1989
HelenaNorbergHodgeAncientFutures:LearningfromLadakh,1991
MichaelOndaatjeTheEnglishPatient,1992
GitaMehtaARiverSutra,1993
ArundhatiRoyTheGodofSmallThings,1997
PatrickChamoiseauTexaco,1997

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

FeministCriticism(1960spresent)
S/he

Feministcriticismisconcernedwith"...thewaysinwhichliterature(andothercultural
productions)reinforceorunderminetheeconomic,political,social,andpsychological
oppressionofwomen"(Tyson).Thisschooloftheorylooksathowaspectsofourcultureare
inherentlypatriarchal(maledominated)and"...thiscritiquestrivestoexposetheexplicitand
implicitmisogynyinmalewritingaboutwomen"(Richter1346).Thismisogyny,Tysonreminds
us,canextendintodiverseareasofourculture:"Perhapsthemostchillingexample...isfoundin
theworldofmodernmedicine,wheredrugsprescribedforbothsexesoftenhavebeentestedon
malesubjectsonly"(83).

Feministcriticismisalsoconcernedwithlessobviousformsofmarginalizationsuchasthe
exclusionofwomenwritersfromthetraditionalliterarycanon:"...unlessthecriticalorhistorical
pointofviewisfeminist,thereisatendencytounderrepresentthecontributionofwomen
writers"(Tyson8283).
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CommonSpaceinFeministTheories

Thoughanumberofdifferentapproachesexistinfeministcriticism,thereexistsomeareasof
commonality.ThislistisexcerptedfromTyson:

1.Womenareoppressedbypatriarchyeconomically,politically,socially,and
psychologicallypatriarchalideologyistheprimarymeansbywhichtheyarekeptso
2.Ineverydomainwherepatriarchyreigns,womanisother:sheismarginalized,defined
onlybyherdifferencefrommalenormsandvalues
3.Allofwestern(AngloEuropean)civilizationisdeeplyrootedinpatriarchalideology,for
example,inthebiblicalportrayalofEveastheoriginofsinanddeathintheworld
4.Whilebiologydeterminesoursex(maleorfemale),culturedeterminesourgender
(masculineorfeminine)
5.Allfeministactivity,includingfeministtheoryandliterarycriticism,hasasitsultimate
goaltochangetheworldbypromptinggenderequality
6.Genderissuesplayapartineveryaspectofhumanproductionandexperience,including
theproductionandexperienceofliterature,whetherweareconsciouslyawareofthese
issuesornot(91).

Feministcriticismhas,inmanyways,followedwhatsometheoristscallthethreewavesof
feminism:

1.FirstWaveFeminismlate1700searly1900's:writerslikeMaryWollstonecraft(A
VindicationoftheRightsofWomen,1792)highlighttheinequalitiesbetweenthesexes.
ActivistslikeSusanB.AnthonyandVictoriaWoodhullcontributetothewomen'ssuffrage
movement,whichleadstoNationalUniversalSuffragein1920withthepassingofthe
NineteenthAmendment
2.SecondWaveFeminismearly1960slate1970s:buildingonmoreequalworking
conditionsnecessaryinAmericaduringWorldWarII,movementssuchastheNational
OrganizationforWomen(NOW),formedin1966,coherefeministpoliticalactivism.
WriterslikeSimonedeBeauvoir(Ledeuximesexe,1972)andElaineShowalter
establishedthegroundworkforthedisseminationoffeministtheoriesdovetailedwiththe
AmericanCivilRightsmovement
3.ThirdWaveFeminismearly1990spresent:resistingtheperceivedessentialist(over
generalized,oversimplified)ideologiesandawhite,heterosexual,middleclassfocusof
secondwavefeminism,thirdwavefeminismborrowsfrompoststructuraland
contemporarygenderandracetheories(seebelow)toexpandonmarginalizedpopulations'
experiences.WriterslikeAliceWalkerworkto"...reconcileit[feminism]withthe
concernsoftheblackcommunity...[and]thesurvivalandwholenessofherpeople,men
andwomenboth,andforthepromotionofdialogandcommunityaswellasforthe
valorizationofwomenandofallthevarietiesofworkwomenperform"(Tyson97).

Typicalquestions:

Howistherelationshipbetweenmenandwomenportrayed?
Whatarethepowerrelationshipsbetweenmenandwomen(orcharactersassuming
male/femaleroles)?
Howaremaleandfemalerolesdefined?
Whatconstitutesmasculinityandfemininity?
Howdocharactersembodythesetraits?
Docharacterstakeontraitsfromoppositegenders?Howso?Howdoesthischangeothers
reactionstothem?
Whatdoestheworkrevealabouttheoperations(economically,politically,socially,or
psychologically)ofpatriarchy?

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Whatdoestheworkimplyaboutthepossibilitiesofsisterhoodasamodeofresisting
patriarchy?
Whatdoestheworksayaboutwomen'screativity?
Whatdoesthehistoryofthework'sreceptionbythepublicandbythecriticstellusabout
theoperationofpatriarchy?
Whatroletheworkplayintermsofwomen'sliteraryhistoryandliterarytradition?(Tyson)

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

MaryWollstonecraftAVindicationoftheRightsofWomen,1792
SimonedeBeauvoirLedeuximesexe,1972
JuliaKristevaAboutChineseWomen,1977
ElaineShowalterALiteratureofTheirOwn,1977"TowardaFeministPoetics,"1979
DeborahE.McDowell"NewDirectionsforBlackFeministCriticism,"1980
AliceWalkerInSearchofOurMother'sGardens,1983
LillianS.Robinson"TreasonoutText:FeministChallengestotheLiteraryCanon,"1983
CamilePagliaSexualPersonae:TheAndrogyneinLiteratureandArt,1990

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

GenderStudiesandQueerTheory(1970s
present)
Gender(s),Power,andMarginalization

Genderstudiesandqueertheoryexploreissuesofsexuality,power,andmarginalizedpopulations
(womanasother)inliteratureandculture.Muchoftheworkingenderstudiesandqueertheory,
whileinfluencedbyfeministcriticism,emergesfrompoststructuralinterestinfragmented,de
centeredknowledgebuilding(Nietzsche,Derrida,Foucault),language(thebreakdownofsign
signifier),andpsychoanalysis(Lacan).

Aprimaryconcerningenderstudiesandqueertheoryisthemannerinwhichgenderand
sexualityisdiscussed:"Effectiveasthiswork[feminism]wasinchangingwhatteacherstaught
andwhatthestudentsread,therewasasenseonthepartofsomefeministcriticsthat...itwasstill
theoldgamethatwasbeingplayed,whenwhatitneededwasanewgameentirely.Theargument
posedwasthatinordertocounterpatriarchy,itwasnecessarynotmerelytothinkaboutnew
texts,buttothinkabouttheminradicallynewways"(Richter1432).

Therefore,acriticworkingingenderstudiesandqueertheorymightevenbeuncomfortablewith
thebinaryestablishedbymanyfeministscholarsbetweenmasculineandfeminine:"Cixous
(followingDerridainOfGrammatology)setsupaseriesofbinaryoppositions(active/passive,
sun/moon...father/mother,logos/pathos).Eachpaircanbeanalyzedasahierarchyinwhichthe
formertermrepresentsthepositiveandmasculineandthelatterthenegativeandfeminine
principle"(Richter14331434).

InBetweens

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Manycriticsworkingwithgenderandqueertheoryareinterestedinthebreakdownofbinaries
suchasmaleandfemale,theinbetweens(alsofollowingDerrida'sinterstitialknowledge
building).Forexample,genderstudiesandqueertheorymaintainsthatculturaldefinitionsof
sexualityandwhatitmeanstobemaleandfemaleareinflux:"...thedistinctionbetween
"masculine"and"feminine"activitiesandbehaviorisconstantlychanging,sothatwomenwho
wearbaseballcapsandfatigues...canbeperceivedasmorepiquantlysexybysomeheterosexual
menthanthosewomenwhowearwhitefrocksandglovesandlookdowndemurely"(Richter
1437).

Moreover,Richterremindsusthataswelearnmoreaboutourgeneticstructure,thebiologyof
male/femalebecomesincreasinglycomplexandmurky:"eventhephysicaldualismofsexual
geneticstructuresandbodilypartsbreaksdownwhenoneconsidersthoseinstancesXXY
syndromes,naturalsexualbimorphisms,aswellassurgicaltranssexualsthatdefyattemptsat
binaryclassification"(1437).

Typicalquestions:

Whatelementsofthetextcanbeperceivedasbeingmasculine(active,powerful)and
feminine(passive,marginalized)andhowdothecharacterssupportthesetraditionalroles?
Whatsortofsupport(ifany)isgiventoelementsorcharacterswhoquestionthe
masculine/femininebinary?Whathappenstothoseelements/characters?
Whatelementsinthetextexistinthemiddle,betweentheperceivedmasculine/feminine
binary?Inotherwords,whatelementsexhibittraitsofboth(bisexual)?
Howdoestheauthorpresentthetext?Isitatraditionalnarrative?Isitsecureandforceful?
Orisitmorehesitantorevencollaborative?
Whatarethepolitics(ideologicalagendas)ofspecificgay,lesbian,orqueerworks,and
howarethosepoliticsrevealedin...thework'sthematiccontentorportrayalsofits
characters?
Whatarethepoetics(literarydevicesandstrategies)ofaspecificlesbian,gay,orqueer
works?
Whatdoestheworkcontributetoourknowledgeofqueer,gay,orlesbianexperienceand
history,includingliteraryhistory?
Howisqueer,gay,orlesbianexperiencecodedintextsthatarebywriterswhoare
apparentlyhomosexual?
Whatdoestheworkrevealabouttheoperations(socially,politically,psychologically)
homophobic?
Howdoestheliterarytextillustratetheproblematicsofsexualityandsexual"identity,"
thatisthewaysinwhichhumansexualitydoesnotfallneatlyintotheseparatecategories
definedbythewordshomosexualandheterosexual?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

LuceIrigaraySpeculumoftheOtherWoman,1974
HlneCixous"TheLaughoftheMedussa,"1976
LauraMulvey"VisualPleasureandNarrativeCinema,"1975"AfterthoughtsonVisual
PleasureandNarrativeCinema,"1981
MicheleFoucaultTheHistoryofSexuality,VolumeI,1980
EveKosofskySedgwickEpistemologyoftheCloset,1994
LeeEdelman"Homographies,"1989
MichaelWarner
JudithButler"ImitationandGenderInsubordination,"1991

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:
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Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

Ecocriticism(1960Present)
Ecocriticismisanumbrellatermunderwhichavarietyofapproachesfallthiscanmakeita
difficulttermtodefine.AsecocriticLawrenceBuellsays,ecocriticismisanincreasingly
heterogeneousmovement(1).But,simplyput,ecocriticismisthestudyoftherelationship
betweenliteratureandthephysicalenvironment(Glotfeltyxviii).Emerginginthe1980sonthe
shouldersoftheenvironmentalmovementbeguninthe1960swiththepublicationofRachel
CarsonsSilentSpring,ecocriticismhasbeenandcontinuestobeanearthcenteredapproach
(Glotfeltyxviii)thecomplexintersectionsbetweenenvironmentandculture,believingthat
humancultureisconnectedtothephysicalworld,affectingitandaffectedbyit(Glotfeltyxix).
Ecocriticismisinterdisciplinary,callingforcollaborationbetweennaturalscientists,writers,
literarycritics,anthropologists,historians,andmore.Ecocriticismasksustoexamineourselves
andtheworldaroundus,critiquingthewaythatwerepresent,interactwith,andconstructthe
environment,bothnaturalandmanmade.Attheheartofecocriticism,manymaintain,isa
commitmenttoenvironmentalityfromwhatevercriticalvantagepoint(Buell11).The
challengeforecocriticsiskeep[ing]oneeyeonthewaysinwhichnatureisalways[]
culturallyconstructed,andtheotheronthefactthatnaturereallyexists(Gerrard10).Similarto
criticaltraditionsexamininggenderandrace,ecocriticismdealsnotonlywiththesocially
constructed,oftendichotomouscategorieswecreateforreality,butwithrealityitself.

FirstandSecondWaves

SeveralscholarshavedividedEcocriticismintotwowaves(Buell)(Glotfelty),recognizingthe
firstastakingplacethroughouttheeightiesandnineties.Thefirstwaveischaracterizedbyits
emphasisonnaturewritingasanobjectofstudyandasameaningfulpractice(Buell).Centralto
thiswaveandtothemajorityofecocriticsstilltodayistheenvironmentalcrisisofourage,
seeingitasthedutyofboththehumanitiesandthenaturalsciencestoraiseawarenessandinvent
solutionsforaproblemthatisbothculturalandphysical.Assuch,aprimaryconcerninfirst
waveecocriticismwastospeakfornature(Buell11).Thisis,perhaps,whereecocriticism
gaineditsreputationasanavowedlypoliticalmodeofanalysis(Gerrard3).Thiswave,unlike
itssuccessor,kepttheculturaldistinctionbetweenhumanandnature,promotingthevalueof
nature.

Thesecondwaveisparticularlymoderninitsbreakingdownofsomeofthelongstanding
distinctionsbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman,questioningtheseveryconcepts(Gerrard5).
Theboundariesbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman,natureandnonnaturearediscussedas
constructions,andecocriticschallengetheseconstructions,asking(amongotherthings)how
theyframetheenvironmentalcrisisanditssolution.Thiswavebroughtwithitaredefinitionof
thetermenvironment,expandingitsmeaningtoincludebothnatureandtheurban(Buell
11).Outofthisexpansionhasgrowntheecojusticemovement,oneofthemorepoliticalof
ecocriticismbranchesthatisraisinganawarenessofclass,race,andgenderthroughecocritical
readingoftext(Bressler236),oftenexaminingtheplightofthepoorestofapopulationwhoare
thevictimsofpollutionareseenashavinglessaccesstonatureinthetraditionalsense.

Thesewavesarenotexactlydistinct,andthereisdebateoverwhatexactlyconstitutesthetwo.
Forinstance,someecocriticswillclaimactivismhasbeenadefiningfeatureofecocriticismfrom
thebeginning,whileothersseeactivismasadefiningfeatureofprimarilythefirstwave.While

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theexactfeaturesattributedtoeachwavemaybedisputed,itisclearthatEcocriticismcontinues
toevolveandhasundergoneseveralshiftsinattitudeanddirectionsinceitsconception.

TropesandApproaches

Pastoral

Thistrope,foundinmuchBritishandAmericanliterature,focusesonthedichotomybetween
urbanandrurallife,isdeeplyentrenchedinWesternculture(Gerrard33).Attheforefrontof
workswhichdisplaypastoralismisageneralidealizationofthenatureandtheruralandthe
demonizationoftheurban.Often,suchworksshowaretreatfromcitylifetothecountrywhile
romanticizingrurallife,depictinganidealizedruralexistencethatobscurestherealityofthe
hardworklivinginsuchareasrequires(Gerrard33).GregGerrardidentifiesthreebranchesof
thepastoral:ClassicPastoral,characterizedbynostalgia(37)andanappreciationofnatureasa
placeforhumanrelaxationandreflectionRomanticPastoral,aperiodaftertheIndustrial
Revolutionthatsawruralindependenceasdesirableagainsttheexpansionoftheurbanand
AmericanPastoralism,whichemphasize[d]agrarianism(49)andrepresentslandasaresource
tobecultivated,withfarmlandoftencreatingaboundarybetweentheurbanandthewilderness.

Wilderness

Aninterestingfocusformanyecocriticsisthewaythatwildernessisrepresentedinliterature
andpopularculture.Thisapproachexaminesthewaysinwhichwildernessisconstructed,
valued,andengaged.RepresentationsofwildernessinBritishandAmericanculturecanbe
separatedintoafewmaintropes.First,OldWorldwildernessdisplayswildernessasaplace
beyondthebordersofcivilization,whereinwildernessistreatedasathreat,aplaceofexile
(Gerrard62).ThistropecanbeseeninBiblicaltalesofcreationandearlyBritishculture.Old
WorldwildernessisoftenconflatedwithdemonicpracticesinearlyAmericanliterature(Gerrard
62).NewWorldwilderness,seeninportrayalsofwildernessinlaterAmericanliterature,applies
thepastoraltropeoftheretreattowildernessitself,seeingwildernessnotasaplacetofear,but
asaplacetofindsanctuary.TheNewWorldwildernesstropehasinformedmuchofthe
Americanidentity,andoftenconstructsencounterswiththewildernessthatleadtoamore
authenticexistence(Gerrard71).

Ecofeminism

Asabranchofecocriticism,ecofeminismprimarilyanalyzestheinterconnectionofthe
oppressionofwomenandnature(Bressler236).Drawingparallelsbetweendominationofland
andthedominationofmenoverwomen,ecofeministsexaminethesehierarchical,gendered
relationships,inwhichthelandisoftenequatedwiththefeminine,seenasafertileresourcesand
thepropertyofman.Theecofeminismapproachcanbedividedintotwocamps.Thefirst,
sometimesreferredtoasradicalecofeminism,reversesthepatriarchaldominationofmanover
womanandnature,exaltingnature,thenonhuman,andtheemotional(Gerrard24).This
approachembracestheideathatwomenareinherentlyclosertonaturebiologically,spiritually,
andemotionally.Thesecondcamp,whichfollowedthefirsthistorically,maintainsthatthereis
nosuchthingasafeminineessencethatwouldmakewomenmorelikelytoconnectwith
nature(Gerrard25).Ofcourse,ecofeminismisahighlydiverseandcomplexbranch,andmany
writershaveundertakenthejobofexaminingthehierarchicalrelationshipsstructuredinour
culturalrepresentationsofnatureandofwomenandotheroppressedgroups.Inparticular,
studiesregardingracehavefollowedinthistrend,identifyinggroupsthathavebeenhistorically
seenassomehowclosertonature.ThewayNativeAmericans,forinstance,havebeendescribed
asprimitiveandportrayedasdwellinginharmonywithnature,despitefactstothecontrary.
Gerrardoffersanexaminationofthistrope,callingittheEcologicalIndian(Gerrard120).
Similarstudiesregardingrepresentationsandoppressionofaboriginalshavesurfaced,
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highlightingthemisconceptionsofthesepeoplesassomehowbehindEuropeans,needingto
progressfromanaturaltoacivilizedstate(Gerrard125).

TypicalQuestions

Takinganecocriticalapproachtoatopicmeansaskingquestionsnotonlyofaprimarysource
suchasliterature,butaskinglargerquestionsaboutculturalattitudestowardsanddefinitionsof
nature.Generally,ecocriticismcanbeappliedtoaprimarysourcebyeitherinterpretingatext
throughanecocriticallens,withaneyetowardsnature,orexamininganecocriticaltropewithin
thetext.Thequestionsbelowareexamplesofquestionsyoumightaskbothwhenworkingwith
aprimarysourceandwhendevelopingaresearchquestionthatmighthaveabroaderperspective.

Howisnaturerepresentedinthistext?
Howhastheconceptofnaturechangedovertime?
Howisthesettingoftheplay/film/textrelatedtotheenvironment?
Whatistheinfluenceonmetaphorsandrepresentationsofthelandandtheenvironmenton
howwetreatit?
Howdoweseeissuesofenvironmentaldisasterandcrisesreflectedinpopularcultureand
literaryworks?
Howareanimalsrepresentedinthistextandwhatistheirrelationshiptohumans?
Howdotherolesorrepresentationsofmenandwomentowardstheenvironmentdifferin
thisplay/film/text/etc.
Whereistheenvironmentplacedinthepowerhierarchy?
Howisnatureempoweredoroppressedinthiswork?
Whatparallelscanbedrawnbetweenthesufferingsandoppressionofgroupsofpeople
(women,minorities,immigrants,etc.)andtreatmentoftheland?
Whatrhetoricalmovesareusedbyenvironmentalists,andwhatcanwelearnfromthem
aboutourculturalattitudestowardsnature?

Therearemanymorequestionsthanthesetobeasked,andalargevarietyofapproachesalready
existthatareaskingdifferentquestions.Dosomeresearchtocheckonthestateofecocritical
discussioninyourownareaofinterest.

FurtherResources

Therearemanymoreapproachestoanalyzinginteractionsbetweencultureandnature,manyof
whichareinterdisciplinary.Thefollowingtextsarerecommendedtohelpyoustartexploring
otheravenuesofEcocriticsm.

TheoryandCriticism

LawrenceBuellTheEnvironmentalImagination:Thoreau,NatureWriting,andthe
FormationofAmericanCulture(1995)andToxicDiscourse,1998
CharlesBresslerLiterarycriticism:anintroductiontotheoryandpractice,1999
CheryllGlotfeltyandHaroldFrommTheEcocriticismReader:LandmarksinLiterary
Ecology,(1996)
GregGarrardEcocriticism,2004
DonnaHaraway"ACyborgManifesto:Science,Technology,andSocialistFeminismin
theLateTwentiethCentury,"(1991)
ISLE:InterdisciplinaryStudiesinLiteratureandEnvironment(Journal)
JosephMakusTheComedyofSurvival:literaryecologyandaplayethic,(1972)
LeoMarxTheMachineintheGarden:TechnologyandthePastoralIdealinAmerica,
(1964)
RaymondWilliamsTheCountryandTheCity,(1975)
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Literature&LiteraryFigures

EdwardAbbey

DesertSolitaire:ASeasonintheWilderness(1968)
AppalachianWilderness(1970)
TheMonkeyWrenchGang(1975)

MaryHunterAustin

TheLandofLittleRain(1903)

RachelCarson

SilentSpring(1962)

AldoLeopold

ASandCountyAlmanac:AndSketchesHereandThere(1949)

JohnMuir

AThousandMileWalktotheGulf(1916)
StudiesintheSierra(1950)

HenryDavidThoreau

Waldenor,LifeintheWoods(1854)

WilliamsWordsworth

LyricalBallads,withaFewOtherPoems(1798)
LyricalBallads,withOtherPoems(1800)

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins,LibbyChernouski,ElizabethBoyle.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschoolsof
criticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

CriticalRaceTheory(1970spresent)
Introduction

CriticalRaceTheory,orCRT,isatheoreticalandinterpretivemodethatexaminesthe
appearanceofraceandracismacrossdominantculturalmodesofexpression.Inadoptingthis
approach,CRTscholarsattempttounderstandhowvictimsofsystemicracismareaffectedby
culturalperceptionsofraceandhowtheyareabletorepresentthemselvestocounterprejudice.

Closelyconnectedtosuchfieldsasphilosophy,history,sociology,andlaw,CRTscholarship
tracesracisminAmericathroughthenationslegacyofslavery,theCivilRightsMovement,and
recentevents.Indoingso,itdrawsfromworkbywriterslikeSojournerTruth,Frederick
Douglass,W.E.B.DuBois,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,andothersstudyinglaw,feminism,andpost
structuralism.CRTdevelopedintoitscurrentformduringthemid1970swithscholarslike
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DerrickBell,AlanFreeman,andRichardDelgado,whorespondedtowhattheyidentifiedas
dangerouslyslowprogressfollowingCivilRightsinthe1960s.

ProminentCRTscholarslikeKimberlCrenshaw,MariMatsuda,andPatriciaWilliamssharean
interestinrecognizingracismasaquotidiancomponentofAmericanlife(manifestedintextual
sourceslikeliterature,film,law,etc).Indoingso,theyattempttoconfrontthebeliefsand
practicesthatenableracismtopersistwhilealsochallengingthesepracticesinordertoseek
liberationfromsystemicracism.

Assuch,CRTscholarshipalsoemphasizestheimportanceoffindingawayfordiverse
individualstosharetheirexperiences.However,CRTscholarsdonotonlylocateanindividuals
identityandexperienceoftheworldinhisorherracialidentifications,butalsotheirmembership
toaspecificclass,gender,nation,sexualorientation,etc.Theyreadthesediverseculturaltexts
asproofoftheinstitutionalizedinequalitiesracializedgroupsandindividualsexperienceevery
day.

AsRichardDelgadoandJeanStefancicexplainintheirintroductiontothethirdeditionof
CriticalRaceTheory:TheCuttingEdge,Oursocialworld,withitsrules,practices,and
assignmentsofprestigeandpower,isnotfixedrather,weconstructwithitwords,storiesand
silence.Butweneednotacquiesceinarrangementsthatareunfairandonesided.Bywritingand
speakingagainstthem,wemayhopetocontributetoabetter,fairerworld(3).Inthissense,
CRTscholarsseektangible,realworldendsthroughtheintellectualworktheyperform.This
contributestomanyCRTscholarsemphasisonsocialactivismandtransformingeveryday
notionsofrace,racism,andpower.

Morerecently,CRThascontributedtosplintergroupsfocusedonAsianAmerican,Latino,and
Indianracialexperiences.

CommonQuestions

WhatisthesignificanceofraceincontemporaryAmericansociety?
Where,inwhatways,andtowhatendsdoesraceappearindominantAmericanculture
andshapethewaysweinteractwithoneanother?
Whattypesoftextsandotherculturalartifactsreflectdominantculturesperceptionsof
race?
Howcanscholarsconveythatracismisaconcernthataffectsallmembersofsociety?
HowdoesracismcontinuetofunctionasapersistentforceinAmericansociety?
HowcanwecombatracismtoensurethatallmembersofAmericansocietyexperience
equalrepresentationandaccesstofundamentalrights?
Howcanweaccuratelyreflecttheexperiencesofvictimsofracism?

WhyUseThisApproach?

Aswecansee,adoptingaCRTapproachtoliteratureorothermodesofculturalexpression
includesmuchmorethansimplyidentifyingrace,racism,andracializedcharactersinfictional
works.Rather,it(broadly)emphasizestheimportanceofexaminingandattemptingto
understandthesocioculturalforcesthatshapehowweandothersperceive,experience,and
respondtoracism.Thesescholarstreatliterature,legaldocuments,andotherculturalworksas
evidenceofAmericanculturescollectivevaluesandbeliefs.Indoingso,theytraceracismasa
duallytheoreticalandhistoricalexperiencethataffectsallmembersofacommunityregardless
oftheirracialaffiliationsoridentifications.

MostCRTscholarshipattemptstodemonstratenotonlyhowracismcontinuestobeapervasive
componentthroughoutdominantsociety,butalsowhythispersistentracismproblematically
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deniesindividualsmanyoftheconstitutionalfreedomstheyareotherwisepromisedintheUnited
Statesgoverningdocuments.Thisenablesscholarstolocatehowtextsdevelopinandthrough
theculturalcontextsthatproducedthem,furtherdemonstratinghowpervasivesystemicracism
trulyis.CRTscholarstypicallyfocusonboththeevidenceandtheoriginsofracisminAmerican
culture,seekingtoeradicateitatitsroots.

Additionally,becauseCRTadvocatesattendingtothevariouscomponentsthatshapeindividual
identity,itoffersawayforscholarstounderstandhowraceinteractswithotheridentitieslike
genderandclass.AsscholarslikeCrenshawandWillamshaveshown,CRTscholarshipcanand
shouldbeamenabletoadoptingandadaptingtheoriesfromrelatedfieldslikewomensstudies,
feminism,andhistory.Indoingso,CRThasevolvedoverthelastdecadestoaddressthevarious
concernsfacingindividualsaffectedbyracism.

Interestingly,CRTscholarshipdoesnotonlydrawattentiontoandaddresstheconcernsof
individualaffectedbyracism,butalsothosewhoperpetrateandareseeminglyunaffectedby
racialprejudice.ScholarslikeW.E.B.DuBois,PeggyMcIntosh,CherylHarris,andGeorge
Lipsitzdiscusswhiteprivilegeandnotionsofwhitenessthroughouthistorytobetterunderstand
howAmericancultureconceptualizesrace(ortheseemingabsenceofrace).

ImportantTerms

Whiteprivilege:DiscussedbyLipsitz,Lee,Harris,McIntosh,andotherCRTscholars,
whiteprivilegereferstothevarioussocial,political,andeconomicadvantageswhite
individualsexperienceincontrasttononwhitecitizensbasedontheirracialmembership.
Theseadvantagescanincludebothobviousandsubtledifferencesinaccesstopower,
socialstatus,experiencesofprejudice,educationalopportunities,andmuchmore.For
CRTscholars,thenotionofwhiteprivilegeoffersawaytodiscussdominantcultures
tendencytonormalizewhiteindividualsexperiencesandignoretheexperiencesofnon
whites.FieldssuchasCRTandwhitenessstudieshavefocusedexplicitlyontheconceptof
whiteprivilegetounderstandhowracisminfluenceswhitepeople.
Microaggressions:Microaggressionsrefertotheseeminglyminute,oftenunconscious,
quotidianinstancesofprejudicethatcollectivelycontributetoracismandthe
subordinationofracializedindividualsbydominantculture.PeggyDavisdiscusseshow
legaldiscourseparticipatesinandcancounteracttheeffectsofmicroaggressions.
InstitutionalizedRacism:Thisconcept,discussedextensivelybyCamaraPhyllisJones,
referstothesystemicwaysdominantsocietyrestrictsaracializedindividualorgroups
accesstoopportunities.Theseinequalities,whichincludeanindividualsaccessto
materialconditionsandpower,arenotonlydeeplyimbeddedinlegalinstitutions,buthave
beenabsorbedintoAmericanculturetosuchadegreethattheyareofteninvisibleoreasily
overlooked.
Socialconstruction:InthecontextofCRT,socialconstructionreferstothenotionthat
raceisaproductofsocialthoughtandrelations.Itsuggeststhatraceisaproductofneither
biologynorgenetics,butisratherasocialinvention.
Intersectionalityandantiessentialism:Thesetermsrefertothenotionthatoneaspectof
anindividualsidentitydoesnotnecessarilydetermineothercategoriesofmembership.As
DelgadoandStefancicexplain,Everyonehaspotentiallyconflicting,overlapping
identities,loyalties,andallegiances(CRT:AnIntroduction10).Inotherwords,wecannot
predictanindividualsidentity,beliefs,orvaluesbasedoncategorieslikerace,gender,
sexuality,religion,nationality,etcinstead,wemustrecognizethatindividualsarecapable
ofclaimingmembershiptoavarietyofdifferent(andoftentimesseeminglycontradictory)
categoriesandbeliefsystemsregardlessoftheidentitiesoutsidersattempttoimposeupon
them.

WorksCited
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Delgado,RichardandJeanStefancic.CriticalRaceTheory:AnIntroduction.2nded.NewYork:
NewYorkUniversityPress,2012.

Delgado,RichardandJeanStefancic,eds.CriticalRaceTheory:TheCuttingEdge.3rded.
Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2013.Print.

RecommendedSourcesforAdditionalResearch

Bell,DerrickA.WhosAfraidofCriticalRaceTheory?UniversityofIllinoisLawReview4
(1995):893910.

Crenshaw,Kimberl,NeilGotanda,GaryPeller,andKendallThomas,eds.CriticalRace
Theory:TheKeyWritingsthatFormedtheMovement.NewYork:TheNewPress,1995

Davis,Peggy.LawasMicroaggression.YaleLawJournal98(1989):15591577.

Gates,HenryLouis.TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfricanAmericanLiteraryCriticism.
NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2014.

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