1.

Advantage of digi comm aver analog comm

ans:
1. The main advantage of digital signals over analog signals is that the precise
signal level of the digital signal is not vital. This means that digital signals are
fairly immune to the imperfections of real electronic systems which tend to
spoil analog signals. As a result, digital CD's are much more robust than
analog LP's.
2. Codes are often used in the transmission of information. These codes can
be used either as a means of keeping the information secret or as a means
of breaking the information into pieces that are manageable by the
technology used to transmit the code, e.g. The letters and numbers to be
sent by a Morse code are coded into dots and dashes.
3. Digital signals can convey information with greater noise immunity,
because each information component (byte etc) is determined by the
presence or absence of a data bit (0 or one). Analog signals vary continuously
and their value is affected by all levels of noise.
4. Digital signals can be processed by digital circuit components, which are
cheap and easily produced in many components on a single chip. Again, noise
propagation through the demodulation system is minimized with digital
techniques.
5. Digital signals do not get corrupted by noise etc. You are sending a series
of numbers that represent the signal of interest (i.e. audio, video etc.)
6. Digital signals typically use less bandwidth. This is just another way to say
you can cram more information (audio, video) into the same space.
7. Digital can be encrypted so that only the intended receiver can decode it
(like pay per view video, secure telephone etc.)
8. Enables transmission of signals over a long distance.
9. Transmission is at a higher rate and with a wider broadband width.
10. It is more secure.
11. There is minimal electromagnetic interference in digital technology.
12. It enables multi-directional transmission simultaneously.
Regenerative Repeaters
Last Updated on Sun, 24 Sep 2017 | Voice Channels
As we are probably aware, pulses passing down a digital transmission line suffer
attenuation and are badly distorted by the frequency characteristic of the line. A
regenerative repeater amplifies and reconstructs such a badly distorted digital
signal and develops a nearly perfect replica of the original at its output.
Regenerative repeaters are an essential key to digital transmission in that we could
say that the "noise stops at the repeater."
Figure 6.11 is a simplified block diagram of a regenerative repeater and shows
typical waveforms corresponding to each functional stage of signal processing. As
illustrated in the figure, at the first stage of signal processing is amplification and
equalization. With many regenerative repeaters, equalization is a two-step process.
The first is a fixed equalizer that compensates for the attenuation-frequency
characteristic (attenuation distortion), which is caused by the standard length of
transmission line between repeaters (often 6000 ft or 1830 m). The second
equalizer is variable and compensates for departures between nominal repeater
section length and the actual length as well as loss variations due to temperature.
The adjustable equalizer uses automatic line build-out (ALBO) networks that are
automatically adjusted according to characteristics of the received signal.9
The signal output of the repeater must be precisely timed to maintain accurate
pulse width and space between the pulses. The timing is derived from the incoming
bit stream. The incoming signal is rectified and clipped, producing square waves
that are applied to the timing extractor, which is a circuit tuned to the timing
frequency. The output of the circuit controls a clock-pulse generator that produces
an output of narrow pulses that are alternately positive and negative at the zero
crossings of the square-wave input.
The narrow positive clock pulses gate the incoming pulses of the regenerator, and
the negative pulses are used to run off the regenerator. Thus the combination is
used to control the width of the regenerated pulses.
Regenerative repeaters are the major source of timing jitter in a digital transmission
system. Jitter is one of the principal impairments in a digital network, giving rise to
pulse distortion and intersymbol interference. Jitter is discussed in more detail in
Section 6.9.2.

Figure 6.11 Simplified functional block diagram of a regenerative repeater

for use with PCM cable systems.
9Line build-out is the adding of capacitance and/or resistance to a transmission line
to look "electrically" longer or shorter than it actually is physically.
Most regenerative repeaters transmit a bipolar (AMI) waveform (see Figure 6.10).
Such signals can have one of three possible states in any instant in timepositive,
zero, or negative (volts)and are often designated +, 0, . The threshold circuits
are gates to admit the signal at the middle of the pulse interval. For instance, if the
signal is positive and exceeds a positive threshold, it is recognized as a positive
pulse. If it is negative and exceeds a negative threshold, it is recognized as a
negative pulse. If it has a (voltage) value between the positive and negative voltage
thresholds, it is recognized as a 0 (no pulse).
When either threshold is exceeded, the regenerator is triggered to produce a pulse
of the appropriate duration, polarity, and amplitude. In this manner the distorted
input signal is reconstructed as a new output signal for transmission to the next
repeater or terminal facility.