Ion Heliade Rdulescu

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For the village of the same name, see Ziduri.

Ion Heliade Rdulescu

Portrait of Heliade Rdulescu, by Miu Popp

Born January 6, 1802

Trgovite, Wallachia

Died April 27, 1872 (aged 70)

Bucharest, Principality of Romania

Pen name Ion Heliade, Eliad

Occupation poet, essayist, journalist, translator, historian,

philosopher

Nationality Wallachian, Romanian

Period 18281870

Genre lyric poetry, epic poetry, autobiography, satire

Subject linguistics, Romanian history, philosophy of

history
 Literary Romanticism
movement
Classicism

Signature

Ion Heliade Rdulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as Eliade or Eliade Rdulescu; Romanian
pronunciation: [i.on heliade rdulesku]; January 6, 1802 April 27, 1872) was a Wallachian,
later Romanian academic, Romantic and Classicist poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer,
newspaper editor and politician. A prolific translator of foreign literature into Romanian, he was
also the author of books on linguistics and history. For much of his life, Heliade Rdulescu was a
teacher at Saint Sava College in Bucharest, which he helped reopen. He was a founding member
and first president of the Romanian Academy.
Heliade Rdulescu is considered one of the foremost champions of Romanian culture from the
first half of the 19th century, having first risen to prominence through his association
with Gheorghe Lazr and his support of Lazr's drive for discontinuing education in Greek. Over
the following decades, he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language, but
caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction of Italian neologisms into
the Romanian lexis. A Romantic nationalist landowner siding with moderate liberals, Heliade was
among the leaders of the 1848 Wallachian revolution, after which he was forced to spend several
years in exile. Adopting an original form of conservatism, which emphasized the role of the
aristocratic boyars in Romanian history, he was rewarded for supporting the Ottoman Empireand
clashed with the radical wing of the 1848 revolutionaries.

Contents
[hide]

1Biography
o 1.1Early life
o 1.2Under Grigore Ghica
o 1.3Printer and court poet
o 1.41848 Revolution
o 1.5Exile
o 1.6Final years
2Heliade and the Romanian language
o 2.1Early proposals
o 2.2Italian influence
3Literature
o 3.1Tenets
o 3.2Historical and religious subjects
o 3.3Satire and polemics
4In cultural reference
5Notes
6References
7External links

Biography[edit]
Early life[edit]
Heliade Rdulescu was born in Trgovite, the son of Ilie Rdulescu, a wealthy proprietor who
served as the leader of a patrol unit during the 1810s, and Eufrosina Danielopol, who had been
educated in Greek.[1] Three of his siblings died of bubonic plague before 1829.[1] Throughout his
early youth, Ion was the focus of his parents' affectionate supervision: early on, Ilie Rdulescu
purchased a house once owned by the scholar Gheorghe Lazr on the outskirts
of Bucharest (near Obor), as a gift for his son.[1] At the time, the Rdulescus were owners of a
large garden in the Bucharest area, nearby Herstru, as well as of estates in the vicinity
of Fgra and Grbovi.[1][2]
After basic education in Greek with a tutor known as Alexe, Ion Heliade Rdulescu taught himself
reading in Romanian Cyrillic (reportedly by studying the Alexander Romance with the help of his
father's Oltenian servants).[3] He subsequently became an avid reader of popular novels,
especially during his 1813 sojourn in Grbovi (where he had been sent after other areas of the
country came to be ravaged by Caragea's plague).[2] After 1813, the teenaged Rdulescu was a
pupil of the Orthodox monk Naum Rmniceanu; in 1815, he moved on to the Greek school
at Schitu Mgureanu, in Bucharest, and, in 1818, to the Saint Sava School, where he studied
under Gheorghe Lazr's supervision.[4]

Site of Ion Heliade Rdulescu's birthplace in Trgovite

Between his 1820 graduation and 1821, when effects of the Wallachian uprising led to the School
ceasing its activities, he was kept as Lazr's assistant teacher, tutoring
in arithmetics and geometry.[2][5] It was during those years that he adopted the
surname Heliade (also rendered Heliad, Eliad or Eliade), which, he later explained, was a Greek
version of his patronymic, in turn stemming from the Romanian version of Elijah.[2][6]
Under Grigore Ghica[edit]
In 1822, after Gheorghe Lazr had fallen ill, Heliade reopened Saint Sava and served as its main
teacher (initially, without any form of remuneration).[2][7][8] He was later joined in this effort by
other intellectuals of the day, such as Eufrosin Poteca,[2][7] and, eventually, also opened an art
class overseen by the Croat Carol Valtain.[9] This re-establishment came as a result of
ordinances issued by Prince Grigore IV Ghica, who had just been assigned by the Ottoman
Empire to the throne of Wallachia upon the disestablishment of Phanariote rule, encouraging the
marginalization of ethnic Greeks who had assumed public office in previous decades.[7] Thus,
Prince Ghica had endorsed education in Romanian and, in one of his official firmans, defined
teaching in Greek as "the foundation of evils" (temelia rutilor).[7]
During the late 1820s, Heliade became involved in cultural policies. In 1827, he and Dinicu
Golescu founded Soietatea literar romneasc(the Romanian Literary Society), which, through
its program (mapped out by Heliade himself), proposed Saint Sava's transformation into a
college, the opening of another such institution in Craiova, and the creation of schools in virtually
all Wallachian localities.[7][10] In addition, Soietatea attempted to encourage the establishment of
Romanian-language newspapers, calling for an end to the state monopoly on printing
presses.[7][11] The grouping, headquartered on central Bucharest's Podul Mogooaiei, benefited
from Golescu's experience abroad, and was soon joined by two future Princes, Gheorghe
Bibescu and Barbu Dimitrie tirbei.[7] Its character was based on Freemasonry;[12] around that
time, Heliade is known to have become a Freemason, as did a large section of his generation.[13]
In 1828, Heliade published his first work, an essay on Romanian grammar, in
the Transylvanian city of Hermannstadt (which was part of the Austrian Empire at the time), and,
on April 20, 1829, began printing the Bucharest-based paper Curierul Romnesc.[14][15] This was
the most successful of several attempts to create a local newspaper, something Golescu first
attempted in 1828.[14] Publishing articles in both Romanian and French, Curierul Romnesc had,
starting in 1836, its own literary supplement, under the title of Curier de Ambe Sexe; in print until
1847, it notably published one of Heliade's most famous poems, Zburtorul.[16] Curierul
Romnesc was edited as a weekly, and later as a bimonthly, until 1839, when it began to be
issued three or four times a week. Its best-known contributors were Heliade himself, Grigore
Alexandrescu, Costache Negruzzi, Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Ioan Catina, Vasile Crlova, and Iancu
Vcrescu.[17]
In 1823, Heliade met Maria Alexandrescu, with whom he fell passionately in love, and whom he
later married.[2] By 1830, the Heliades' two children, a son named Virgiliu and a daughter named
Virgilia, died in infancy; subsequently, their marriage entered a long period of crisis, marked by
Maria's frequent outbursts of jealousy.[2] Ion Heliade probably had a number of extramarital
affairs: a Wallachian Militia officer named Zalic, who became known during the 1840s, is thought
by some, including the literary critic George Clinescu, to have been the writer's illegitimate
son.[2] Before the death of her first child, Maria Heliade welcomed into her house Grigore
Alexandrescu, himself a celebrated writer, whom Ion suspected had become her
lover.[2]Consequently, the two authors became bitter rivals: Ion Heliade referred to Alexandrescu
as "that ingrate", and, in an 1838 letter to George Bari, downplayed his poetry and character
(believing that, in one of his fables, Alexandrescu had depicted himself as a nightingale, he
commented that, in reality, he was "a piteous rook dressed in foreign feathers").[2] Despite these
household conflicts, Maria Heliade gave birth to five other children, four daughters and one son
(Ion, born 1846).[18]
Printer and court poet[edit]

The old building of the National Theatre Bucharestin 1866

In October 1830, together with his uncle Nicolae Rdulescu, he opened the first privately owned
printing press in his country, operating on his property at Cimeaua Mavrogheni, in Obor (the
land went by the name of Cmpul lui Eliad"Eliad's Field", and housed several other large
buildings).[11][18] Among the first works he published was a collection of poems by Alphonse de
Lamartine, translated by Heliade from French, and grouped together with some of his own
poems.[11] Later, he translated a textbook on meter and Louis-Benjamin Francoeur's standard
manual of Arithmetics, as well as works by Enlightenment authorsVoltaire's Mahomet, ou le
fanatisme, and stories by Jean-Franois Marmontel.[11] They were followed, in 1839, by a version
of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Julie, or the New Heloise.[11]
Heliade began a career as a civil servant after the Postelnicie commissioned him to print
the Official Bulletin, and later climbed through the official hierarchy, eventually serving
as Clucer.[18] This rise coincided with the establishment of the Regulamentul Organic regime,
inaugurated, upon the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 18281829, by an Imperial
Russian administration under Pavel Kiselyov.[18]When Kiselyov placed an order with Heliade for
the printing of official documents, including the Regulament, the writer and his family were made
prosperous by the sales. Nevertheless, Heliade maintained contacts with the faction of
reformist boyars: in 1833, together with Ion Cmpineanu, Iancu Vcrescu, Ioan Voinescu
II, Constantin Aristia, tefan and Nicolae Golescu, as well as others, he founded the short-
lived Soietatea Filarmonic (the Philharmonic Society), which advanced a cultural agenda (and
was especially active in raising funds for the National Theater of Wallachia).[19] Aside from its
stated cultural goals, Soietatea Filarmonic continued a covert political activity.[20]
In 1834, when Prince Alexandru II Ghica came to the throne, Heliade became one of his close
collaborators, styling himself "court poet".[18] Several of the poems and discourses he authored
during the period are written as panegyrics, and dedicated to Ghica, whom Heliade depicted as
an ideal prototype of a monarch.[18] As young reformists came into conflict with the prince, he kept
his neutrality, arguing that all sides involved represented a privileged minority, and that the
disturbances were equivalent to "the quarrel of wolves and the noise made by those in higher
positions over the torn-apart animal that is the peasant".[18] He was notably critical of
the radical Mitic Filipescu, whom he satirized in the poem Cderea dracilor ("The Demons'
Fall"), and later defined his own position with the words "I hate tyrants. I fear anarchy".[21]
It was also in 1834 that Heliade began teaching at the Soietatea Filarmonic's school (alongside
Aristia and the musician Ioan Andrei Wachmann), and published his first translations from Lord
Byron (in 1847, he completed the translation of Byron's Don Juan).[11][22][23] The next year, he
began printing Gazeta Teatrului Naional (official voice of the National Theater, published until
1836), and translated Molire's Amphitryon into Romanian.[24] In 1839, Heliade also
translated Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote from a French source.[11] The first collection of his
own prose and poetry works saw print in 1836.[11] Interested in the development of local art, he
contributed a brochure on drawing and architecture in 1837, and, during the same year, opened
the first permanent exhibit in Wallachia (featuring copies of Western paintings, portraits,
and gypsum casts of various known sculptures).[9]
By the early 1840s, Heliade began expanding on his notion that modern Romanian needed to
emphasize its connections with other Romance languages through neologisms from Italian, and,
to this goal, he published Paralelism ntre limba romn i italian ("Parallelism between the
Romanian language and Italian", 1840) and Paralelism ntre dialectele romn i italian sau forma
ori gramatica acestor dou dialecte ("Parallelism between the Romanian and Italian Dialects or
the Form or Grammar of These Two Dialects", 1841).[23] The two books were followed by
a compendium, Prescurtare de gramatica limbei romno-italiene ("Summary of the Grammar of
the Romanian-Italian Language"), and, in 1847, by a comprehensive list of Romanian words that
had originated in Slavic, Greek, Ottoman Turkish, Hungarian, and German (see Romanian
lexis).[23] By 1846, he was planning to begin work on a "universal library", which was to include,
among other books, the major the philosophical writings of, among others, Plato, Aristotle, Roger
Bacon, Ren Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz, David Hume, Immanuel
Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.[25]
1848 Revolution[edit]
Main article: Wallachian Revolution of 1848
Heliade in 1848, detail of a group portrait of Provisional Government members
Before Alexandru Ghica was replaced with Gheorghe Bibescu, his relations with Heliade had
soured.[18] In contrast with his earlier call for moderation, the writer decided to side with the liberal
current in its conspiratorial opposition to Bibescu.[18][23][26] The so-called "Trandafiloff affair" of early
1844 was essential in this processit was provoked by Bibescu's decision to lease all Wallachian
mines to a Russian engineer named Alexander Trandafiloff, a measure considered illegal by
the Assembly and ultimately ending in Bibescu's decision to dissolve his legislative.[27] These
events made Heliade publish a pamphlet titled Mceul ("The Eglantine"), which was heavily
critical of Russian influence and reportedly sold over 30,000 copies.[27] It was centered on the pun
alluding to Trandafiloff's nametrandafir cu of n coad (lit. "a rose ending in -of", but also "a rose
with grief for a stem").[27] Making additional covert reference to Trandafiloff as "the eglantine", it
featured the lyrics:

Mi mcee, mi mcee, Eglantine, o eglantine,

[...] [...]
D-ne pace i te car, Leave us in peace and go away,
Du-te dracului din ar.[27] Get the hell out of the country.

Title page of Mmoire sur lhistoire de la Regneration Roumaine ou sur les vnements de 1848
accomplis en Valachie(1851)
In spring 1848, when the first European revolutions had erupted, Heliade was attracted into
cooperation with Fria, a secret society founded by Nicolae Blcescu, Ion Ghica, Christian Tell,
and Alexandru G. Golescu, and sat on its leadership committee.[26] He also collaborated with the
reform-minded French teacher Jean Alexandre Vaillant, who was ultimately expelled after his
activities were brought to the attention of authorities.[28] On April 19, 1848, following financial
setbacks, Curierul Romnesc ceased printing (this prompted Heliade to write Cntecul ursului,
"The Bear's Song", a piece ridiculing his political enemies).[29]
Heliade progressively distanced himself from the more radical groups, especially after
discussions began on the issue of land reform and the disestablishment of the boyar class.
Initially, he accepted the reforms, and, after the matter was debated within Fria just before
rebellion broke out, he issued a resolution acknowledging this (the document was probably
inspired by Nicolae Blcescu).[30] The compromise also set other goals, including national
independence, responsible government, civil rights and equality, universal taxation, a larger
Assembly, five-year terms of office for Princes (and their election by the National
Assembly), freedom of the press, and decentralization.[30] On June 21, 1848, present
in Islaz alongside Tell and the Orthodox priest known as Popa apc, he read out these goals to
a cheering crowd, in what was to be the effective start of the uprising (see Proclamation of
Islaz).[30][31] Four days after the Islaz events, the revolution succeeded in toppling Bibescu, whom it
replaced with a Provisional Government which immediately attracted Russian hostility. Presided
over by Metropolitan Neofit, it included Heliade, who was also Minister of Education, as well as
Tell, tefan Golescu, Gheorghe Magheru, and, for a short while, the Bucharest
merchant Gheorghe Scurti.[32]
Disputes regarding the shape of land reform continued, and in late July, the Government
created Comisia proprietii (the Commission on Property), representing both peasants and
landlords and overseen by Alexandru Racovi and Ion Ionescu de la Brad.[33] It too failed to reach
a compromise over the amount of land to be allocated to peasants, and it was ultimately recalled
by Heliade, who indicated that the matter was to be deliberated once a new Assembly had been
voted into office.[33] In time, the writer adopted a conservative outlook in respect to boyar tradition,
developing a singular view of Romanian history from a consideration of property and rank in
Wallachia.[34] In the words of historian Nicolae Iorga: "Eliad had wanted to lead, as dictator, this
movement that added liberal institutions to the old society that had been almost completely
maintained in place".[35]
Like most other revolutionaries, Heliade favored maintaining good relations with the Ottoman
Empire, Wallachia's suzerain power, hoping that this policy could help counter Russian
pressures.[23][33] As Sultan Abdlmecid I was assessing the situation, Sleyman Paa was
dispatched to Bucharest, where he advised the revolutionaries to carry on with their diplomatic
efforts, and ordered the Provisional Government to be replaced by Locotenena domneasc,
a triumvirate of regents comprising Heliade, Tell, and Nicolae Golescu.[33] Nonetheless, the
Ottomans were pressured by Russia into joining a clampdown on revolutionary forces, which
resulted, during September, in the reestablishment of Regulamentul Organic and its system of
government.[36] Together with Tell, Heliade sought refuge at the British consulate in Bucharest,
where they were hosted by Robert Gilmour Colquhoun in exchange for a deposit of Austrian
florins.[37]
Exile[edit]

Johann Coronini-Cronberg and his troops in front of the Meitani House in Bucharest
Leaving his family behind, he was allowed to pass into the Austrian-ruled Banat, before moving
into self-exile in France while his wife and children were sent to Ottoman lands.[18][23][38] In 1850
1851, several of his memoirs of the revolution, written in both Romanian and French, were
published in Paris, the city where he had taken residence.[39] He shared his exile with Tell and
Magheru, as well as with Nicolae Rusu Locusteanu.[35]
It was during his time in Paris that he met with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,
the anarchist philosopher who had come to advance a moderate small-scale property project (to
counter both economic liberalism and socialism).[40] Heliade used this opportunity to make the
Romanian cause known to the staff of Proudhon's La Voix de Peuple.[41] Major French
publications to which he contributed included La Presse, La Semaine, and Le Sicle, where he
also helped publicize political issues pertaining to his native land.[42]Heliade was credited with
having exercised influence over historian lias Regnault; Nicolae Iorga argued that Regnault's
discarded his own arguments in favor of a unified Romanian state to include Transylvania (a
concept which Heliade had come to resent), as well amending his earlier account of the 1848
events, after being exposed to "Eliad's propaganda".[35]
While claiming to represent the entire body of Wallachian migrs,[21] Heliade had by then grown
disappointed with the political developments, and, in his private correspondence, commented
that Romanians in general were "idle", "womanizing", as well as having "the petty and base
envies of women", and argued that they required "supervision [and] leadership".[38] His fortune
was declining, especially after pressures began for him to pay his many debts, and he often
lacked the funds for basic necessities.[38] At the time, he continuously clashed with other former
revolutionaries, including Blcescu, C. A. Rosetti, and the Golescus, who resented his ambiguous
stance in respect to reforms, and especially his willingness to accept Regulamentul Organic as
an instrument of power; Heliade issued the first in a series of pamphlets condemning young
radicals, contributing to factionalism inside the migr camp.[42] His friendship with Tell also
soured, after Heliade began speculating that the revolutionary general was
committing adultery with Maria.[38]
In 1851, Heliade reunited with his family on the island of Chios, where they stayed until
1854.[23][38] Following the evacuation of Russian troops from the Danubian Principalities during
the Crimean War, Heliade was appointed by the Porte to represent the Romanian nation
in Shumen, as part of Omar Pasha's staff.[23] Again expressing sympathy for the Ottoman cause,
he was rewarded with the title of Bey.[23] According to Iorga, Heliade's attitudes reflected his hope
of "recovering the power lost" in 1848;[35] the historian also stressed that Omar never actually
made use of Heliade's services.[43]
Later in the same year, he decided to return to Bucharest, but his stay was cut short when the
Austrian authorities, who, under the leadership of Johann Coronini-Cronberg, had taken over
administration of the country as a neutral force, asked for him to be expelled.[23] Returning to
Paris, Heliade continued to publish works on political and cultural issues, including an analysis of
the European situation after the Peace Treaty of 1856 and an 1858 essay on the Bible.[23] In 1859,
he published his own translation of the Septuagint, under the name Biblia sacr ce cuprinde Noul
i Vechiul Testament ("The Holy Bible, Comprising the New and Old Testament").[44]
As former revolutionaries, grouped in the Partida Naional faction, advanced the idea of union
between Wallachia and Moldavia in election for the ad hoc Divan, Heliade opted not to endorse
any particular candidate, while rejecting outright the candidature of former prince Alexandru II
Ghica (in a private letter, he stated: "let them elect whomever [of the candidates for the throne],
for he would still have the heart of a man and some principles of a Romanian; only don't let that
creature [Ghica] be elected, for he is capable of going to the dogs with this country").[38]
Final years[edit]

Photograph of an aging Heliade Rdulescu

Later in 1859, Heliade returned to Bucharest, which had become the capital of the United
Principalities after the common election of Alexandru Ioan Cuzaand later that of an internationally
recognized Principality of Romania. It was during that period that he again added Rdulescu to
his surname.[26] Until his death, he published influential volumes on a variety of issues, while
concentrating on contributions to history and literary criticism, and editing a new collection of his
own poems. In 1863, Domnitor Cuza awarded him an annual pension of 2,000 lei.[44]
One year after the creation of the Romanian Academy (under the name of "Academic Society"),
he was elected its first President (1867), serving until his death.[44] In 1869, Heliade
and Alexandru Papiu-Ilarian successfully proposed the Italian diplomat and philologist Giovenale
Vegezzi Ruscalla as honorary member of the Academy.[45] By then, like most other 1848
Romantics, he had become the target of criticism from the younger generation of intellectuals,
represented by the Iai-based literary society Junimea; in 1865, during one of its early public
sessions, Junimea explicitly rejected works by Heliade and Iancu Vcrescu.[46]
During the elections of 1866, Heliade Rdulescu won a seat in the Chamber as a deputy for the
city of Trgovite.[38] As Cuza had been ousted from power by a coalition of political groupings, he
was the only Wallachian deputy to join Nicolae Ionescu and other disciples of Simion Brnuiu in
opposing the appointment of Carol of Hohenzollern as Domnitor and a proclamation stressing the
perpetuity of the Moldo-Wallachian union.[47] Speaking in Parliament, he likened the adoption of
foreign rule to the Phanariote period.[48] The opposition was nevertheless weak, and the resolution
was passed with a large majority.[48]
Among Ion Heliade Rdulescu's last printed works were a textbook on poetics (1868) and a
volume on Romanian orthography.[44] By that time, he had come to consider himself a prophet-like
figure, and the redeemer of his motherland,[49] notably blessing his friends with the words
"Christ and Magdalene be with you!"[50] His mental health declining, he died at his Bucharest
residence on Polon Street, nr. 20.[38] Heliade Rdulescu's grandiose funeral ceremony attracted
a large number of his admirers;[38] the coffin was buried in the courtyard of the Mavrogheni
Church.[44]

Heliade and the Romanian language[edit]

A typical open-air religious school in Bucharest during the 1840s

Early proposals[edit]
Heliade's most influential contributions are related to his interest in developing the
modern Romanian language, in which he synthesized Enlightenment tenets and Romantic
nationalist ideals of the 1848 generation.[51] At a time when Romanian was being discarded by the
educated in favor of French or Greek, he and his supporters argued in favor of adapting
Romanian to the requirements of modernization; he wrote: "Young people, preoccupy yourselves
with the national language, speak and write in it; prepare yourselves for its study, for its
cultivation,and cultivating a language means to write in it about all sciences and arts, about all
eras and peoples. The language alone unites, strengthens and defines a nation; preoccupy
yourselves with it first and foremost, as, through this, you shall be carrying out the most
fundamental of policies, you shall be laying the foundation of nationality".[51]
Heliade inaugurated his series of proposals for reforming the language in 1828, when his work
on Romanian grammar called for the Cyrillic script to be reduced to 27 letters, reflecting phonetic
spelling (for this rule, Heliade cited the example of the Latin alphabet as used in Ancient
Rome).[52] Soon after, he began a campaign in favor of introducing Romance neologisms, which
he wanted to adapt to Romanian spelling.[53] By that time, Romanians in various regions had
grown aware of the need to unify the varieties of Romanian and create a standard Romanian
lexis: this notion was first supported by the Transylvanians Gheorghe incai and Petru Maior,
whose proposal was to unite Romanians around the issue of the choice of liturgical language,
both Orthodox and Greek-Catholic (see Transylvanian School).[54] Heliade, who first proposed
a language regulator (an idea which was to be employed in creating the Romanian Academy),
expanded on this legacy, while stressing that the dialect spoken in Muntenia, which had formed
the basis of religious texts published by the 16th century printer Coresi, serve as the standard
language.[55]
In addition, he advocated aesthetical guidelines in respect to the standard shape of Romanian,
stressing three basic principles in selecting words: "proper wording", which called
for vernacular words of Latin origin to be prioritized; "harmony", which meant that words of Latin
origin were to be used in their most popular form, even in cases where euphony had been altered
by prolonged usage; and "energy", through which Heliade favored the primacy of the shortest and
most expressive of synonyms used throughout Romanian-speaking areas.[56] In parallel, Heliade
frowned upon purist policies of removing widely used neologisms of foreign originarguing that
these were "a fatality", he indicated that the gains of such a process would have been shadowed
by the losses.[57]
These early theories exercised a lasting influence, and, when the work of unifying Romanian was
accomplished in the late 19th century, they were used as a source of inspiration: Romania's
major poet of the period, Mihai Eminescu, himself celebrated for having created the
modern literary language, gave praise to Heliade for "writing just as [the language] is
spoken".[57] This assessment was shared by Ovid Densusianu, who wrote: "Thinking of how
people wrote back then, in thick, drawly, sleepy phrases, Heliade thus shows himself superior to
all his contemporaries, and ... we can consider him the first prose writer who brings in the note
of modernity".[58]
Italian influence[edit]
A second period in Heliade's linguistic researches, inaugurated when he adopted tienne
Condillac's theory that a language could be developed from conventions, eventually brought
about the rejection of his own earlier views.[57] By the early 1840s, he postulated that Romanian
and Italian were not distinct languages, but rather dialects of Latin, which prompted him to
declare the necessity of replacing Romanian words with "superior" Italian ones.[59][60] One of
his stanzas, using his version of the Romanian Latin alphabet, read:
Primi aui-vor quel sutteranu resunetu
i primi salta-vor afara din grpa
Sacri Poei que prea uor rini
Copere, i quror puin d'uman picioarele mplumb.[61]
Approximated into modern Romanian and English, this is:

Primii auzi-vor acel subteran rsunet
i primii slta-vor afar din groap
Sacrii Poei ce prea uoar rn-i
Acoper, i crora de uman puin picioarele
le sunt legate.
The first ones to hear that subterranean echo
And first to jump out of their pit will be
The sacred Poets whom only too light earth
Covers, and whose legs are superficially tied
to humankind.

The target of criticism and ridicule, these principles were dismissed by Eminescu as "errors" and
"a priori systems of orthography".[62] During their existence, they competed with both August
Treboniu Laurian's adoption of strong Latin mannerisms and the inconsistent Francized system
developed in Moldavia by Gheorghe Asachi, which, according to the 20th century literary
critic Garabet Ibrileanu, constituted "the boyar language of his time".[59] Ibrileanu also noted that
Asachi had come to admire Heliade's attempts, and had praised them as an attempt to revive the
language "spoken by Trajan's men"in reference to Roman Dacia.[59]
While defending the role Moldavian politicians in the 1840s had in shaping modern Romanian
culture, Ibrileanu argued that practices such as those of Heliade and Laurian carried the risk of
"suppressing the Romanian language", and credited Alecu Russo, more than his successors
at Junimea, with providing a passionate defense of spoken Romanian.[63] He notably cited
Russo's verdict: "The modern political hatred aimed at [Russia] has thrown us into Italianism, into
Frenchism, and into other -isms, that were not and are not Romanianism, but the political perils,
in respect to the enslavement of the Romanian soul, have since passed; true Romanianism ought
to hold its head up high".[63] The literary critic George Clinescu also connected Heliade's
experimentation to his Russophobia, in turn reflecting his experiences as a revolutionary:
"Hating Slavism and the Russians, who had striven to underline [Slavic influences in Romanian],
he said to himself that he was to serve his motherland by discarding all Slavic
vestiges".[61] Clinescu notably attributed Heliade's inconsistency to his "autodidacticism", which,
he contended, was responsible for "[his] casual implication in all issues, the unexpected move
from common sense ideas to the most insane theories".[64]
Overall, Heliade's experiments had marginal appeal, and their critics (Eminescu included)
contrasted them with Heliade's own tenets.[61][62] Late in his life, Heliade seems to have
acknowledged this, notably writing: "This language, as it is written today by people who can
speak Romanian, is my work".[65] One of the few authors to be influenced by the theory was
the Symbolist poet Alexandru Macedonski, who, during his youth, wrote several pieces in
Heliade's Italian-sounding Romanian.[66] Despite Heliade's thesis being largely rejected, some of
its practical effects on everyday language were very enduring, especially in cases where Italian
words were borrowed as a means to illustrate nuances and concepts for which Romanian had no
equivalent.[67] These
include afabil ("affable"), adorabil ("adorable"), colosal ("colossal"), implacabil ("implacable"), inef
abil ("ineffable"), inert ("inert"), mistic ("mystical"), pervers ("perverse" or
"pervert"), suav ("suave"), and venerabil ("venerable").[67]

Literature[edit]
Tenets[edit]
Celebrated as the founder of Wallachian Romanticism, Heliade was equally influenced
by Classicism and the Age of Enlightenment.[68] His work, written in a special cultural context
(where Classiciasm and Romanticism coexisted), took the middle path between two opposing
camps: the Romantics (Alecu Russo, Mihail Koglniceanu and others) and the Classicists
(Gheorghe Asachi, Grigore Alexandrescu, George Baronzi etc.).[69] George Clinescu defined
Heliade as "a devourer of books", noting that his favorites, who all played a part in shaping his
style and were many times the subject of his translations, included: Alphonse de
Lamartine, Dante Aligheri, Ludovico Ariosto, Torquato Tasso, Voltaire, Jean-Franois
Marmontel, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Franois-Ren de Chateaubriand.[25]
His poetic style, influenced from early on by Lamartine, was infused with Classicism during his
middle age, before he again adopted Romantic tenets.[70] Initially making use of guidelines set
by Nicolas Boileau-Despraux in respect to poetry, he came to oppose them after reading Victor
Hugo's Romantic preface to Cromwell (without ever discarding them altogether).[71]
Like the Classicists, Heliade favored a literature highlighting "types" of characters, as the union of
universal traits and particular characteristics, but, like the Romantics, he encouraged writers to
write from a subjective viewpoint, which he believed to be indicative of their mission as
"prophets, ... men who criticize, who point out their society's plagues and who look on to a
happier future, waiting for a savior".[72] Through the latter ideal of moral regeneration, Heliade also
complimented the Romantic stress on "national specificity", which he adopted in his later
years.[73]At the same time, he centered much of his own literary work on non-original material,
either by compiling it from various translations or by translating from a single sourcehaving his
focus on creating the basis for further development by introducing samples of untapped literary
genres and styles to Romanian literature.[65]
While several of Heliade's contributions to literature have been considered to be of low
importance,[74] many others, above all his Romantic poem Zburtorul, are hailed as major
accomplishments.[75] Zburtorul, borrowing from Romanian mythology its main character (the
eponymous incubus-like being who visits nubile girls at night) also serves to depict the
atmosphere of a Wallachian village from that period.[76] According to George Clinescu, the
poem's value partly relies on its depiction of lust through the girls' eyes: "lacking the rages
of Sappho and Phaedra. The puberty crisis is explained through mythology and cured
through magic".[77]
An 1837 essay of his, centered on a debate regarding the translation of Homer's works into
Romanian, featured a series of counsels to younger writers: "This is not the time for criticism,
children, it is the time for writing, so write as much and as good as you can, but without
meanness; create, do not ruin; for the nation receives and blesses the maker and curses the
destroyer. Write with a clear conscience".[78] Paraphrased as "Write anything, boys, as long as
you go on writing!" (Scriei, biei, orice, numai scriei!), this quote became the topic of derision in
later decades, and was hailed as an example of Heliade's failure to distinguish between quality
and quantity.[79] The latter verdict was considered unfair by the literary historian erban
Cioculescuand others, who argued that Ion Heliade Rdulescu's main goal was to encourage the
rapid development of local literature to a European level.[65] Although he recognized, among other
things, Heliade's merits of having removed pretentious boyar discourse from poetry and having
favored regular rhyme, Paul Zarifopol accused him and Gheorghe Asachi of "tastelessness" and
"literary insecurity".[80] He elaborated: "Rdulescu was arguably afflicted with this sin more than
Asachi, given his unfortunate ambitions of fabricating a literary language".[80]
Heliade's name is closely connected with the establishment of Romanian-language theater,
mirroring the activities of Asachi in Moldavia.[59][81] Ever since he partook in creating Soietatea
Filarmonic and the Bucharest Theater, to the moment of his death, he was involved in virtually
all major developments in local dramatic and operatic art.[82] In August 1834, he was one of the
intellectuals who organized the first show hosted by Soietatea Filarmonic, which featured,
alongside a cavatina from Vincenzo Bellini's Il pirata, Heliade's translation
of Voltaire's Mahomet.[83] In subsequent years, members of the association carried out the
translation of French theater and other foreign pieces, while encouraging Romanian-language
dramatists, an effort which was to become successful during and after the 1840s
(when Constantin Aristia and Costache Caragiale entered their most creative periods).[84] Heliade
himself advocated didacticism in drama (defining it as "the preservation of social health"), and
supported professionalism in acting.[85]
Historical and religious subjects[edit]

The Chindia Tower, part of the Trgovitecitadel site

Ion Heliade Rdulescu made extensive use of the Romantic nationalist focus on history, which he
initially applied to his poetry.[86] In this instance as well, the goal was to educate his public; he
wrote: "Nothing is worthy of derision as much as someone taking pride in his parents and
ancestors and nothing more worthy of praise than when the ancestors' great deeds serve as a
model and an impulse for competition among descendants".[87] The main historical figure in his
poetry is the late 16th century Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave, the first one to rally
Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania under a single rule: celebrated in Heliade's poem O noapte
pe ruinele Trgovitii ("A Night on the Ruins of Trgovite"), he was to be the main character of a
lengthy epic poem, Mihaiada, of which only two sections, written in very different styles, were
ever completed (in 1845 and 1859 respectively).[88] Other historical poems also expanded on the
ideal of a single Romanian state, while presenting the 1848 generation as a model for future
Romanian politicians.[89]
Throughout the 1860s, one of Heliade's main interests was an investigation into the issues
involving Romanian history during the origin of the Romanians and the early medieval history of
the Danubian Principalities. At a time when, in Moldavia, the newly surfaced Chronicle of
Hurutraced a political lineage of the country to the Roman Empire through the means of a
narrative which was later proven to be entirely fictional, Heliade made use of its theses to draw
similar conclusions regarding Wallachia.[90] His conservative views were thus expanded to the
level of historiographic thesis:[91][92] according to Heliade, boyars had been an egalitarian and
permeable class, which, from as early as the times of Radu Negru, had adopted humane laws
that announced and welcomed those of the French Revolution (he notably claimed that
the county-based administration was a democratic one, and that it had been copied from
the Israelite model as depicted in the Bible).[91]
The ideal he expressed in a work of the period, Equilibru ntre antithesi ("A Balance
between Antitheses") was moderate progressivism, with the preservation of social
peace.[93] In Tudor Vianu's view, partly based on earlier assessments by other critics, Equilibru,
with its stress on making political needs coincide with social ones through the means of
counterweights, evidenced strong influences from Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's thought, as well as
vaguer ones from that of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.[94] Nonetheless, his system parted
with Hegelianismin that, instead of seeking a balance between the Geist and existence, it
considered the three states of human progress (Thesis, antithesis, synthesis) the reflection of
a mystical numberfavored throughout history.[67]
In parallel, Heliade worked on a vast synthesis of his own philosophy of history, based on his
interpretation of Biblical theology.[65] His 1858 work, Biblice ("Biblical Writings"), was supposed to
form the first of four sections in a Christian history of the world.[65] Referring to this project,
Clinescu defined Heliade's ideas as "interesting, no matter how nave at times, in
general Voltairian and Freemason [in shape]".[67] Biblicele partly evidenced Heliade's interests in
the Talmud and Zohar-like gematriawith emphasis placed on the numbers 3, 7, and 10, as
well as ample references to the Sephirot.[67] One of his original thoughts on the matter was a
reference to "deltas" (triangles) of deitiesElohim-Spirit-Matter and Spirit-Matter-the
Universe.[67] A portion of Heliade Rdulescu's poems also draw on religious themes and
discourse. According to George Clinescu, the poet had attempted to create a parallel to
both The Divine Comedyand the Bible, from Genesis to Revelation, with a style influenced by
Lamartine and Victor Hugo.[95]
Satire and polemics[edit]
Heliade was aware of the often negative response to his work: in a poem dedicated to the
memory of Friedrich Schiller, he expanded on the contrast between creation and social setting (in
reference to mankind, it stressed Te iart s faci rul, iar binele nici mort"They forgive the evil
committed against them, but never the good").[52] A noted author of satire, he used it as a vehicle
to criticize social customs of his day, as well as to publicize personal conflicts and
resentments.[96] As a maverick, he attacked political figures on both sides: conservatives who
mimicked liberalism were the subject of his Areopagiul bestielor ("The Areopagus of the Beasts"),
while many other of his post-1848 prose and poetry pieces mocked people on the left wingof
liberalism, most notably C. A. Rosetti and his supporters.[97] During and after his exile, his conflicts
with Cezar Bolliac and Ion Ghica also made the latter two the target of irony, most likely based on
Heliade's belief that they intended to downplay his contributions to the Wallachian Revolution of
1848.[98]
His autobiographical pieces, marked by acid comments on Greek-language education, and, in
this respect, similar to the writings of his friend Costache Negruzzi, also display a dose of self-
irony.[98] The enduring polemic with Grigore Alexandrescu, as well as his quarrel with Bolliac,
formed the basis of his pamphlet Domnul Sarsail autorul ("Mr. Old Nick, the Author"), an attack
on what Heliade viewed as writers whose pretentions contrasted with their actual mediocrity.[99] In
other short prose works, Ion Heliade Rdulescu commented on the caricature-like nature
of parvenu Bucharesters (the male prototype, Coconul Drgan, was "an ennobled hoodlum",
while the female one, Coconia Drgana, always wished to be the first in line for the unction).[100]
In various of his articles, he showed himself a critic of social trends. During the 1830s, he reacted
against misogyny, arguing in favor of women's rights: "Who has made man create himself unfair
laws and customs, in order for him to cultivate his spirit and forsake [women] into
ignorance...?".[101] In 1859, after the Jewish community in Galai fell victim to a pogrom, he spoke
out against Antisemitic blood libel accusations: "Jews do not eat children in England, nor do they
in France, nor do they in Germany, nor do they do so wherever humans have become humans.
Where else are they accused of such an inhumane deed? Wherever peoples are still Barbaric or
semi-Barbaric".[102]
A large portion of Heliade's satirical works rely on mockery of speech patterns and physical traits:
notable portraits resulting from this style include mimicking the manner of Transylvanian
educators (with their strict adherence to Latin etymologies), and his critique of
the exophthalmos Rosetti (with eyes "more bulged than those of a giant frog").[103][104] Without
sharing Heliade's views on literature, the younger Titu Maiorescu drew comparisons with his
predecessor for launching into similar attacks, and usually in respect to the same rivals.[105]

In cultural reference[edit]

Monument to Heliade Rdulescu, opposite the University of Bucharest building

A monument to Ion Heliade Rdulescu, sculpted by the Italian artist Ettore Ferrari, stands in front
of the University building in central Bucharest. In addition to naming a lecture room after him,
the Romanian Academy has instituted the Ion Heliade Rdulescu Awardin 1880, it was
awarded to Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, for his Cuvinte den btrni, and worth 5,000
gold lei.[106] Ten years after, the prize was the center of a scandal, involving on one side the
dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale and, on the other, the cultural establishment formed around
members of the National Liberal Party, including Hasdeu and Dimitrie Sturdza. The latter
disapproved of Caragiale's anti-Liberal stance and his association with Junimea, as well as to his
anti-nationalism, dislike of didacticism, and alleged cosmopolitanism.[107][108] They thus refused to
grant him the prize.[107][108]
A high school in his native Trgovite bears the name Ion Heliade Rdulescu, as does a village in
the commune of Ziduri, Buzu County. The grave of Take Ionescu, an influential political figure
and one-time Prime Minister of Romania who was Heliade's descendant, is situated in Sinaia
Monastery, in the immediate vicinity of a fir tree planted by Heliade and his fellow 1848
revolutionaries.[109]
In his 1870 poem Epigonii ("The Epigones"), Mihai Eminescu paid tribute to early Romanian-
language writers and their contributions to literature. An entire stanza is dedicated to Heliade:

Eliad zidea din visuri i din basme
seculare
Delta biblicelor snte, profeiilor
amare,
Adevr scldat n mite, sfinx ptruns
de-neles;
Munte cu capul de piatr de furtune
deturnat,
St i azi n faa lumii o enigm
nesplicat
i vegheaz-o stnc ars dintre nouri
de eres.[110]
Out of dreams and secular tales, Eliad was building
The delta of Biblical saints, of bitter prophecies,
Truth bathed in myth, a sphinx imbued with
meaning;
A mountain with its head of stone misplaced by the
storm,
He still stands today, before the world, as an
unsolved enigma
And watches over a burnt rock from between
clouds of heresy.

During the early 1880s, Alexandru Macedonski and his Literatorul attempted to preserve
Heliade's status and his theories when these were faced with criticism from Junimea; by 1885,
this rivalry ended in defeat for Macedonski, and contributed to the disestablishment
of Literatorul.[111]
Although a Junimist for a large part of his life, Ion Luca Caragiale himself saw a precursor in
Heliade, and even expressed some sympathy for his political ideals. During the 1890s, he
republished a piece by Heliade in the Conservative Party's main journal, Epoca.[103] One of
Caragiale's most significant characters, the Transylvanian schoolteacher Marius Chico
Rostogan, shares many traits with his counterparts in Heliade's stories.[103] Developing his own
theory, he claimed that there was a clear difference between, on one hand, the generation of
Heliade Rdulescu, Ion Cmpineanu, and Nicolae Blcescu, and, on the other, the National
Liberal establishment formed around Pantazi Ghica, Nicolae Misail and Mihail Ptrlgeanuhe
identified the latter grouping with hypocrisy, demagogy, and political corruption, while arguing that
the former could have found itself best represented by the Conservatives.[112]
Comments about Heliade and his Bucharest statue feature prominently in Macedonski's short
story Nicu Dereanu, whose main character, a daydreaming Bohemian, idolizes the Wallachian
writer.[113] Sburtorul, a modernist literary magazine of the interwar period, edited by Eugen
Lovinescu, owed its name to Zburtorul, making use of an antiquated variant of the name (a form
favored by Heliade). During the same years, Camil Petrescu made reference to Heliade in his
novel Un om ntre oameni, which depicts events from Nicolae Blcescu's lifetime.[114]
In his Autobiography, the Romanian philosopher Mircea Eliade indicated that it was likely that his
ancestors, whose original surname was Ieremia, had adopted the new name as a tribute to
Heliade Rdulescu, whom they probably admired.[115]

Notes[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Stnescu-Stanciu, p.67
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k Stnescu-Stanciu, p.68
3. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.VI, XXXVII; Stnescu-Stanciu, p.6768
4. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848; Mciuc, p.VI, XXXVII
5. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.VIVII; XXXVII
6. Jump up^ Djuvara, p.183
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Giurescu, p.120
8. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.VIII, IXX, XXXVII
9. ^ Jump up to:a b George Oprescu (ed.), Scurt istorie a artelor plastice n R.P.R., Editura
Academiei RPR, Bucharest, 1958, p.31. OCLC 7162839
10. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.VII, X, XXXVII
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Mciuc, p.XXXVIII
12. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848; Djuvara, p.317
13. Jump up^ Djuvara, p.317; (in Romanian) Dan Amedeo Lzrescu, "1848: Revoluia
intelectualilor" Archived 2007-05-21 at the Wayback Machine., in Magazin Istoric, June 1998
14. ^ Jump up to:a b Giurescu, p.125
15. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXI, XXXVIII
16. Jump up^ Giurescu, p.125, 126; Mciuc, p.XIXII
17. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XI
18. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j Stnescu-Stanciu, p.69
19. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848; Mciuc, p.VII, XIIXIII, XXXVIII
20. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848; Giurescu, p.131; Mciuc, p.XII
21. ^ Jump up to:a b Mciuc, p.VII
22. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.X
23. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k Mciuc, p.XXXIX
24. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XII, XXXVIII
25. ^ Jump up to:a b Clinescu, p.64
26. ^ Jump up to:a b c Giurescu, p.132
27. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Isar
28. Jump up^ Iorga, La Monarchie de juillet et les Roumains
29. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XI, XXIX
30. ^ Jump up to:a b c Giurescu, p.133
31. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848; Djuvara, p.331
32. Jump up^ Giurescu, p.134
33. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Giurescu, p.135
34. Jump up^ Boia, p.43, 4849
35. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Iorga, La Rvolution de 1848...
36. Jump up^ Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.135137
37. Jump up^ Giurescu, p.137
38. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Stnescu-Stanciu, p.70
39. Jump up^ Iorga, La Rvolution de 1848...; Mciuc, p.XXXIX
40. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.II, p.268269
41. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.II, p.268
42. ^ Jump up to:a b Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848
43. Jump up^ Iorga, La guerre de Crime...
44. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Mciuc p. XL
45. Jump up^ Gabriel trempel, "Pagini de istorie academic. Alexandru Papiu-Ilarian", in Magazin
Istoric, June 1995, p.46
46. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.II, p.44
47. Jump up^ Kellogg, p.2223
48. ^ Jump up to:a b Kellogg, p.23
49. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848; Clinescu, p.6667
50. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.67
51. ^ Jump up to:a b Mciuc, p.XV
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Mciuc, p.XVI
53. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XVIXVII
54. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XVII
55. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XVIIXVIII
56. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XVIII
57. ^ Jump up to:a b c Mciuc, p.XIX
58. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXXIXXXII
59. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Ibrileanu, Amestec de curente...
60. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XIXXX
61. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clinescu, p.65
62. ^ Jump up to:a b Eminescu, in "Aprecieri critice", p.207; Mciuc, p.XX
63. ^ Jump up to:a b Ibrileanu, Evoluia spiritului critic...
64. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.64-65
65. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Mciuc, p.XXIV
66. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.II, p.346, 365366
67. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Clinescu, p.66
68. Jump up^ Djuvara, p.315; Mciuc, p.XXXXI; Alexandru Rosetti and Ion Ghea, in "Aprecieri
critice", p.212213
69. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXI
70. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXV; Alexandru Rosetti and Ion Ghea, in "Aprecieri critice", p.212
71. Jump up^ Alexandru Rosetti and Ion Ghea, in "Aprecieri critice", p.212213
72. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXIXXII
73. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXIIXXIII
74. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.65; Mciuc, p.XIVXXV; Zarifopol
75. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.6769; Mciuc, p.XV, XXXXXI
76. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.6869; Mciuc, p.XXXXXI; Zarifopol
77. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.68
78. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXIII
79. Jump up^ Ibrileanu, Amestec de curente...; Mciuc, p.XXIII
80. ^ Jump up to:a b Zarifopol
81. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XII
82. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XIIXV
83. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XIII
84. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XIIIXIV
85. Jump up^ Ion Massoff, in "Aprecieri critice", p.209210; Mciuc, p.XIV
 86. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXVIXXVIII
87. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXVII
88. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXVIII
89. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXIX
90. Jump up^ Boia, p.4849
91. ^ Jump up to:a b Boia, p.43, 49
92. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.VIII
93. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.67; Mciuc, p.VIII; Vianu, Vol.II, p.261272
94. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.II, p.264272, 311
95. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.6768
96. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXIXXXXI
97. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXIXXXX, XXXIV
98. ^ Jump up to:a b Mciuc, p.XXXIV
99. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXXIIXXXIII
100. Jump up^ Mciuc, p.XXXIII
101. Jump up^ (in Romanian) Liliana Popescu, "Condiia femeii n secolul XIXnceputul
secolului XX" Archived 2007-06-22 at the Wayback Machine., in Alin Ciupal, Despre femei i
istoria lor n Romnia Archived 2007-06-22 at the Wayback Machine. , at the University of
Bucharest site (retrieved June 9, 2007)
102. Jump up^ (in Romanian) Andrei Oiteanu, "Acuzaia de omor ritual (O sut de ani de la
pogromul de la Chiinu)" Archived2006-10-06 at the Wayback Machine., in Contrafort, 2 (100),
February 2003 (retrieved June 9, 2007)
103. ^ Jump up to:a b c tefan Cazimir, Caragiale: universul comic, Editura pentru Literatur,
Bucharest, 1967, p.84-86. OCLC 7287882
104. Jump up^ Clinescu, p.69; in "Aprecieri critice", p.211212
105. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.I, p.333, 399
106. Jump up^ Paul Cornea, Studiu introductiv, in B. P. Hasdeu, Etymologicum magnum
Romaniae, Vol.I, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1970, p.VII
107. ^ Jump up to:a b erban Cioculescu, Caragialiana, Editura Eminescu, Bucharest, 1974,
p.124125, 128132. OCLC 6890267
108. ^ Jump up to:a b Vianu, Vol. II, p.182
109. Jump up^ (in Romanian) Marius Dobrin, "Take Ionescuun mare democrat, un mare
european", in Respiro (retrieved June 5, 2007)
110. Jump up^ (in Romanian) Mihai Eminescu, Epigonii (wikisource)
111. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.II, p.362, 376
112. Jump up^ Z. Ornea, Junimea i junimismul, Vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1998,
p.202-204, 228. ISBN 973-21-0562-3
113. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.II, p.429430
114. Jump up^ Vianu, Vol.III, p.317
115. Jump up^ Mircea Eliade, Autobiography, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1990,
p.4. ISBN 0-226-20407-3

References[edit]
Rdulescu, Ion Heliade, Scrieri alese, Editura Albatros, Bucharest, 1978. OCLC 16207716
Constantin Mciuc, "Prefa", "Tabel cronologic", p. VXL
"Aprecieri critice", p. 207218
"Heliade Rdulescu, Ion", in the Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848, at Ohio
University (retrieved June 9, 2007)
Boia, Lucian, History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness, Central European University
Press, Budapest, 2001. ISBN 963-9116-96-3
Clinescu, George, Istoria literaturii romne. Compendiu, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1983
Djuvara, Neagu, ntre Orient i Occident. rile romne la nceputul epocii
moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995. ISBN 973-28-0523-4
Giurescu, Constantin C., Istoria Bucuretilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pn n zilele
noastre, Editura Pentru Literatur, Bucharest, 1966. OCLC 1279610
(in Romanian) Ibrileanu, Garabet, Spiritul critic n cultura romneasc (wikisource)
 Amestec de curente contradictorii: G. Asachi
Evoluia spiritului criticDeosebirile dintre vechea coal critic moldoveneasc i
"Junimea"
(in French) Iorga, Nicolae, Histoire des relations entre la France et les Roumains (wikisource)
La Monarchie de juillet et les Roumains
La Rvolution de 1848 et les migrs
La guerre de Crime et la fondation de l'Etat roumain
(in Romanian) Isar, Nicolae, Sub semnul romnismului de la domnitorul Gheorghe Bibescu la
scriitorul Simeon Marcovici. Domnitorul Gheorghe Bibescu: A. Privire asupra domniei, at
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Kellogg, Frederick, The Road to Romanian Independence, Purdue University Press, West
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(in Romanian) Stnescu-Stanciu, Theo, "i Heliade a fost ndrgostit", in Magazin Istoric,
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Ion Heliade Rdulescu

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The Humanities and The Social Sciences in The Academy. Literature, Folklore and the Arts,
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(in Romanian) Rzvan Prianu, n amintirea lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu. Aniversarea a 200
de ani de la naterea sa at the Wayback Machine(archived October 27, 2009) (page
dedicated to the memory of Ion Heliade Rdulescu, upon the 200th anniversary of his death)