FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS - DIAFYM

Profesor : Dr Ever Menacho Casimiro

 Formacin de la Tierra y del Sistema Solar

HipotesisNebular
Todos los cuerpos del
sistema solar formados
a partir de la nebulosa
Nebulosa = nube de
gases y polvo estelar
Principalmente
hidrogeno y helio
Hiptesis Nebular
La gravedad concentra el material en el centro de la nube (Sol)
Los protoplanetas se forman a partir de concentraciones de
materia ms pequeas (remolinos)
Prototierra
Ms grande que la
Tierra hoy
Composicin
homognea
Bombardeado por los
meteoritos
Luna formada por
colisin con grandes
asteroides
Prototierra
Calor Radioactivo
Desintegracion espontanea de atomos
Reacciones de Fusion
El calor de la contraccin (el protoplanet se
contrae debido a la gravedad)
Prototierra se funde parcialmente
Estratificacin de densidad (Tierra en capas)
Estratificacin de Densidad

Alta densidad = pesada por su tamao

La Tierra Temprana experiment la separacin gravitatoria.
Los materiales de alta densidad (hierro y nquel) se asentaron en el
ncleo.
Materiales menos densos formaron esferas concntricas alrededor
del ncleo.
Estructura interna de la tierra
Capas defeinidas por:

Composicion quimica
Propiedades fisicas
Estructura interna de la tierra
Capas por composicion quimica

Corteza
Baja densidad, principalmente
minerales silicatos
Manto
Principalmente (Fe) y (Mg) , minerales
silicatos
Nucleo
Alta densidad, principalmente Fe y Ni
 Diferenciacin qumica global
Este diferencial qumico global se complet hace unos 4.300 millones de
aos, y la Tierra haba desarrollado un ncleo interno y externo, un manto y
una corteza
 Composicin Qumica de la Tierra
Cada una de las capas principales tiene una composicin
qumica distintiva, con la corteza muy diferente de la Tierra en
su conjunto

Whole Earth: Crust:

Fe+O+Si+Mg = 93% Si+O+Al = 82%
Capas por propiedades fisicas
Litosfera
Astenosfera
Mesosfera
Nucleo externo
Nucleo interno
Litosfera
Rigida
Incluye corteza y manto superior
Espesor alrededor de 100 km
Corteza continental vs. corteza Oceanica
Astenosfera

Relativamente caliente, de plstico

Flujos con alta viscosidad
Importante para el movimiento de placas litosfricas
Una profundidad en base de la litosfera a unos 700 km
Ajuste Isostatico

Movimiento vertical de la corteza terrestre

Flotabilidad de la litosfera sobre astenosfera
La corteza continental menos densa flota ms alta que la corteza
ocenica ms densa
Rebote isosttico - aumento de corteza antes pesada por hielo
glaciar
 Tiempo Geologico

Geocronologa es el estudio del tiempo en relacin con la existencia de

la tierra
Datacin Relativa
Determina la edad de una roca en relacin con su entorno
Datos numricas
Determina la edad real en aos
Estructuras sedimentarias
Un organismo enterrado en un sedimento
Tipos de inconformidades
Vista hipottica de la tierra temprana
Gran Caon
 Limestone: caliza
Secuencia de rocas sedimentarias Sandstone: arenizca
Shale: esquisto
Hypothetical Landscape
 Datacin Relativa.
INDICE FSILES : Especies que tenan amplia distribucin
geogrfica, pero que vivieron slo por un breve perodo de
tiempo
Disconformidades: Lmite entre 2 capas que son de diferente
edad
Razones:
Capas de roca eliminadas por erosin
No hay capas de roca depositadas
MTODOS DE CORRELACIN:
Semejanzas Paleontolgicas
Semejanzas mineralgicas
Mtodo de datamiento numrico
Isotope Dating se basa en la tasa de decaimiento de los
istopos radiactivos dentro de una roca
Los istopos radiactivos tienen ncleos que se
desintegran espontneamente emitiendo o capturando
una variedad de partculas subatmicas
Los istopos isotpicos radioactivos en descomposicin
se descomponen para formar istopos hijos
La mitad de la vida es el tiempo que tarda la mitad de
los tomos del istopo parental en descomponerse
Algunos istopos radiactivos con productos secundarios
U-238 => Pb-206; K-40 => Ar-40; C-14 => N-14
Los ncleos atmicos inestables se descomponen
Decadencia Beta - ncleos atmicos inestables
Captura de electrones - ncleos inestables
Desintegracin radioactiva
Prdida de istopos hijos
Metodo de Carbono-14
Correlacin de la seccin de anillo de rbol
Origen de varvas en lagos
TIEMPO GEOLOGICO
PRECAMBRICO
 Precambrian Time

4,600,000,000 YRS AGO TO

570,000,000 YRS AGO

85% OF EARTHS HISTORY!!

SIMPLE LIFE STARTS IN THE OCEANS

Precambrian
4.6 billion years to, say, 548 or 544 million years (depending on method).
Represents 88% of all of the history of the earth.
Referred to as the Cryptozoic Eon.
hidden life

(no more BIFs)

(prokaryotes)
Growth of Laurentia
Comparison of Atmospheres
First Redbeds
 Growth of the early continents
Island Arcs and other terranes accrete as
intervening ocean crust is subducted
Little Archean ocean crust survives: most subducted
But silica-rich continental crust too buoyant to subduct.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
evolve
creates energy from photosynthesis
giving off oxygen gas (beginning to
form the atmosphere of today).
Form large stromatolites (below)
7% of Earths history

Era Paleozoica
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
 Six major Paleozoic continents are
recognized after Rodinia breakup
Gondwana - S. continents, India
Laurentia - North America, Greenland,
part Gr. Britain
Baltica Northern Europe
Siberia Most of Northern Asia
Kazakhstania part Central Asia
China - All of SE Asia and SE China
The base of the Cambrian
What defines the start of
the Cambrian period?
Used to be where
trilobites were found, but
small shelly fauna (SSF)
was found under the
trilobites
Ediacaran fauna is gone
Cambrian explosion
Cambrian period
Cambrian Period (570-500 MYA)

Cambrian Explosion Most major animal phyla are found in the fossil record (mostly
aquatic invertebrates with exoskeletons).

Burgess Shale major fossil site located in Canadian Rockies

Ordovician - Silurian

SILURIAN
Silurian collision of Baltica/Laurentia
Caledonian Orogeny, suturing forms Laurasia
-----------------------------------
ORDOVICIAN
Ordovician Gondwana moved 40o S to a South Pole
location (Glaciers formed, we find L. Ord. tillites)
Baltica moved S, then N
Microcontinent & Island Arcs collided with Laurentia (led to
Taconic Orogeny) narrowing Iapetus
End of Ordovician extinction
Second largest mass extinction (except for the end of Permian)
450 to 440 my
Cause: massive ice age as Gondwana moves over South Pole
Sea level falls as glaciers grow, and expose much shelf area
Mid Ordovician to Silurian
Devonian

Acadian Orogeny in the Appalachians

Other orogenies: Antler (W. N.Am. Cordillera) and Ellesmere (north
margin of Laurentia)
Gondwana moves to higher southern latitudes. All other continents at
low northern latitudes.
Devonian Period (395-345 MYA)

Age of the Fish (giant armored fish).

1st bony fish (scales and swim bladder for buoyancy).

 Paleogeography Early Devonian
Continued collision of Baltica/Laurentia formed Laurasia, closed Iapetus Ocean
Caledonian Orogeny in B/L finishes E. Dev
Acadian Orogeny in the Appalachians
folds older rocks M. Dev.

Antler

Caledonian

Acadian

Other orogenies: Antler (Cordillera) and Ellesmere (north margin of Laurentia)

Gondwana moves to higher southern latitudes.
All other continents at low northern latitudes.
Final Assembly of Pangaea

After the suturing of Gondwana and Laurasia

(includes Hercynian and Allegheny Orogenies),
Then:

Siberia collided with Kazakhstania in the

Pennsylvanian, forming the Altai Mountains.

Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the

Permian, forming the Ural Mountains.
Paleogeography Late Permian

Allegheny Orogeny Hercynian

N Eur-S Eur
 Permian Period (280-225 MYA)

Reptiles dominate.
Pangaea begins to form (Appalachian Mnts; dry climate; ice age in the southern hemisphere)
Mass Extinction (90% of all species go extinct-mostly marine invertebrates).

Early Permian reptiles, Cacops in front & Casea in The middle Permian reptile, Anteosaurus.
back.
Mass Extinction

One of the Big FIVE Mass Extinctions

Mass extinction at the end of the Triassic the
least understood of the Big Five
The Mesozoic Era
WHEN DINOSAURS RULED THE EARTH
The Mesozoic Era

Began approximately 245 million years ago after a major mass extinction.
Is subdivided into 3 periods:
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
Ends about 66 million years ago with a major mass extinction
The Triassic Period
245 - 206 million years ago
Immediately after the Permian Mass Extinction
Lots of new area is open for animals to live
Three general types of animals:
holdovers from before the extinction
new groups that lasted only a short time
new groups that lasted a long time
The Triassic World
 Earliest Dinosaurs
(Triassic)

Pisanosaurus
Length:3 feet
Height:1 foot
Weight:15 pounds
Eoraptor:
Length:3 feet
Height:1 feet
Weight:20 pounds Lesothsaurus:
Length:3 feet
Height:1 foot
Weight:15 pounds
The Jurassic Period
206 - 144 Million Years Ago
Giant plant-eating dinosaurs
Vicious carnivore dinosaurs
Oceans full of fish, squid, sharks, etc.
Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs
Pterosaurs
Birds
The Jurassic World
 Ankyloasaurus

Diplodocus
Jurassic Carnivorous Dinosaurs
Many different forms
Some were very large:
Tyrannosaurus Rex
Allasaurus

Some were smaller:

Raptors, and many more
All had sharp teeth, claws,
and speed
Jurassic Marine Dinosaurs

Most with similar shapes as

a dolphins or sharks
Ate fish and other marine
animals
Some were VERY large Ichthyosaurus
All could swim VERY fast
The Cretaceous Period
144 - 66 million years ago
The last period when Dinosaurs lived
Ends with a mass extinction around 66 million years ago

First flowering plants!

The Cretaceous World
The Cretaceous Mass Extinction

Approximately 60% of all species went extinct.

Affected many land animals/plants
Affected fewer marine animals
What organisms went extinct?

All dinosaurs
All pterosaurs
All ichthyosaurs
Many terrestrial plants
Many marine animals
What organisms survived?

MAMMALS (!)
Birds
Many plants (ferns were the most successful plant for a while)
Trees with flowers
Small lizards/crocodiles/alligators/turtles
Fish, squids, sharks, etc.
What caused the extinction?
Meteorite impact theory
66 million years ago, a ~10 km wide meteorite struck the Earth near what is now
Mexico.
Meteorite Impact

This is an EXAGGERATED view of a meteorite impact

How could a meteorite impact
cause a mass extinction?
The impact caused shock waves, tidal waves, and sent a
tremendous amount of dust into the atmosphere
As the dust re-entered the Earths atmosphere, it would
have instantly heated the atmosphere causing
tremendous forest fires
The dust could have caused the Earths climate to cool
in the long-run by blocking sunlight
Plants, animals, etc went extinct due to the climate
changes and competition between organisms
Meteorite Impact Evidence #1

Unique Quartz Crystals

Very commonly formed under high

pressure/temperature
This quarts was only found in meteorite craters
and nuclear testing sites
Meteorite Impact Evidence #2

Iridium

An element that is very rare in Earth

rocks and very common in meteorites
The layer of rocks above the last
dinosaur bones contains ~160 times
normal levels of iridium
Problems with the Meteorite
Impact Hypothesis
Why were some animals affected, while others were not?
Why did birds survive, and dinosaurs (a very close relative) not?
Why did small reptiles survive when small dinosaurs didnt?
Why did mammals survive?
Out-dated Hypotheses

Hay Fever - caused by flowering plants

Dinosaurs were so big, that they crushed themselves
Mammals out-competed the dinosaurs
Mammals ate all the dinosaur eggs
Cosmic rays killed the dinosaurs
The Cenozoic Era
 Introduction
The Cenozoic began ~65 mya
and continues until the present
Cenozoic rocks are more easily
accessible and less deformed
than older rocks

divided into the Tertiary and

Quaternary
 Cenozoic Tectonic activity concentrated in two areas
Alpine-Himalayan belt deformation began in the Mesozoic and remains
geologically active.
Isolation of Tethys to form the modern Mediterranean Sea

circum-Pacific belt deformation occurred throughout the Cenozoic

 Earths Major Orogenic Belts

The Circum-Pacific and Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belts, Earths present-day

major mountain building belts
 Cenozoic Pacific realm
1. Subduction of the Farallon Plate and its Mid Ocean Ridge
2. Formation of Andean Cordillera San Andreas forms
Antarctica separates from Australia,
heads to the South Pole (Eocene)
 Himalayan Orogeny

Thin-skinned tectonics Subduction

Partly subducted so under AW
 Himalayan Orogeny

Zoomed-in Views AW

FAB
Cenozoic Cooling
Australia separates Central America
construction
(Northern Hemisphere)
Starts see Monterey
Fm.
 Pleistocene Glaciation
The Pleistocene began about 1.8 1.6 mya and ended about
10,000 years ago
several intervals of widespread glaciation took place, separated by warmer
intervals
Pleistocene Ice Ages and Interglacial Intervals
The Pleistocene began 1.6 Ma, ended 10,000 years ago

Four major periods of widespread glaciation occurred, were separated by

warmer interglacial periods
 Causes of Ice Ages

Plate Tectonics
Moves Continents to Poles
Raises mountains above snowline

Orbit distance, Axis Tilt and Wobble

Moderates solar radiation north of 65 N
Milankovitch Cycles ~ 100,000 years
Low summertime radiation 65 N, glaciers expand
Milankovitch Cycles
A change in Earths orbital eccentricity
occurs every 100,000 years

A 2 change in tilt of Earths

axis occurs every 41,000 years

A precession of Earths
axis occurs every
23,000 years