Stellar Nurseries

Optical
Infrared: 30 Doradus in LMC

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LgsQ
m5QUbm8
The Life Cycle of Stars
Dense, dark
clouds, possibly
forming stars in
the future

Aging
supergiant

Young stars, still

in their birth
nebulae
Contraction of Giant Molecular Cloud Cores

Horse
Head
Nebula
Thermal Energy (pressure)
Magnetic Fields
Rotation (angular momentum)
Turbulence
External trigger required to
initiate the collapse of clouds
to form stars. (Caused by
supernova possibly)
 Star Energy
Nuclear Fusion a nuclear reaction in which to
atoms are fused together

New elements are created and energy is released.

This process is responsible for creating ALL

elements found in the universe
in other words, we are all made from star dust.
 Star Energy (cont)
Hydrogen fusion
H + H He + Energy

Helium fusion
He + He Be + More Energy

As the mass of elements increases, energy

production increases
Proton Proton Chain
 Proton-Proton Chain Reaction
The Suns energy is produced by hydrogen fusion, a
sequence of thermonuclear reactions in which four
hydrogen nuclei combine to produce a single helium
nucleus; called proton-proton chain reaction
Proton-Proton Chain Reaction: Step 1
Proton-Proton Chain Reaction: Step 2
Proton-Proton Chain Reaction: Step 3
 Proton-Proton Chain Reaction

4 H He + energy + neutrinos

Mass of 4 H > Mass of 1 He

In every second, 600 million tons of hydrogen

converts into helium to power the Sun

At this rate, the Sun can continue the hydrogen

burning for more than 6 billion years.
 The balance between gravity trying to make
the star shrink and heat holding it up is
called Thermodynamic Equilibrium.
 How many different
colors can you spot?
 Characteristics of Stars
Temperature & Color
The color of a star indicates the
Temperature of the star
Stars are classified by Temp
Decreasing Temp (bright to dim
O, B, A, F, G, K, M
[Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me ]

http://www.seasky.org/cosmic/sky7a01.html
 Star class overview
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zYlW
Trp6JE
 Important Characteristics of
Stars
Magnitude (brightness)
A measure of brightness of celestial objects
Smaller values represent brighter objects than
larger values
Apparent magnitude
How bright a star appears to be from Earth
Absolute magnitude (luminosity)
How bright a star actually is from 10pc
Intrinsic Brightness/
Absolute Magnitude

The more distant a light source is,

the fainter it appears.
 Apparent Magnitude
How bright object appears from your
vantage point.
Distance and Intrinsic Brightness
Example:

Recall that:
Magn. Intensity Ratio Betelgeuse
Diff.
App. Magn. mV = 0.41
1 2.512
2 2.512*2.512 = (2.512)2
= 6.31

5 (2.512)5 = 100 Rigel
For a magnitude difference of 0.41 App. Magn. mV = 0.14
0.14 = 0.27, we find an intensity ratio
of (2.512)0.27 = 1.28
 Sample Problem
If Star A has an apparent magnitude of -4,
and Star B has an apparent magnidue of
10, how many times brighter is Star A than
B?
Absolute Magnitude

To characterize a stars intrinsic

brightness, define Absolute
Magnitude (MV):

Absolute Magnitude = Magnitude that a

star would have if it were at a distance of
10 pc.
If you were to bring the bike
and the car to the same
distance
The Distance Modulus
If we know a stars absolute magnitude, we can
infer its distance by comparing absolute and
apparent magnitudes:
Distance Modulus
= mV MV
= -5 + 5 log10(d [pc])

Distance in units of parsec

Equivalent:
d = 10(mV MV + 5)/5 pc
 Sample Problem
If a star has an absolute magnitude of -10,
and an apparent magnitude of 20, how far
away is the star in pc?
The Size (Radius) of a Star
We already know: flux increases with surface
temperature (~ T4); hotter stars are brighter.

But brightness also increases with size:

A Star B will be
B brighter than star
A.

Absolute brightness is proportional to radius squared, L ~ R2.

Quantitatively: L = 4 p R2 s T4
Surface flux due to a
Surface area of the star blackbody spectrum
Example: Star Radii
Polaris has just about the same spectral type (and
thus surface temperature) as our sun, but it is
10,000 times brighter than our sun.

Thus, Polaris is 100 times larger than the sun.

This causes its luminosity to be 1002 = 10,000 times

more than our suns.
 Organizing the Family of Stars:
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
We know:
Stars have different temperatures, different
luminosities, and different sizes.
To bring some order into that zoo of different types
of stars: organize them in a diagram of

Luminosity versus Temperature (or spectral type)

Absolute mag.

Luminosity

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
or

Temperature
Spectral type: O B A F G K M
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
The Radii of Stars in the
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Rigel Betelgeuse

Polaris

Sun

100 times smaller than the sun

Masses of Stars in the Hertzsprung-
Russell Diagram
The higher a stars mass, the Masses in units of solar
more luminous (brighter) it masses
is: 40
L ~ M3.5 18
High-mass stars have
much shorter lives than 6
low-mass stars: 3
1.7
tlife ~ M-2.5 1.0
0.8
0.5

Sun: ~ 10 billion yr.

10 Msun: ~ 30 million yr.
0.1 Msun: ~ 3 trillion yr.
 Mass is Crucial
Mass is the single most important property of any
star.
at each stage of a stars life, mass determines
what its luminosity will be
what its spectral type will be
The mass of a star can only be measured directly
by
observing the effect which gravity from another object
has on the star
This is most easily done for two stars which orbit
one anothera binary star!
 A Census of the Stars
Faint, red dwarfs
(low mass) are the
most common
stars.

Bright, hot, blue

main-sequence
stars (high-mass)
are very rare

Giants and
supergiants are
extremely rare.
 BRIGHT

HOT COOL

FAINT

2004 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley

 The Main Sequence (MS)

90% of all stars

lie on the main
sequence!

2004 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley

 Types of Stars
Classification
Class Temperature Color
O 20,000- 60,000 K Blue
B 10,000 30,000 K Blue-white
A 7,500 10,000 K White
F 6,000 7,500 K Yellow-white
G 5,000 6,000 K Yellow
K 3,500 5,000 K Orange
M 2,000 3,500 K Red
 Hottest stars: weak absorption by hydrogen
and helium (type O).
Medium: strong hydrogen absorption (type A).
Coolest: absorption by heavy elements or
molecules (type M).
 The Stellar Spectral Sequence

In order of temperature (hot to cool), the spectral sequence of

stars is O-B-A-F-G-K-M. The traditional mnemonic is Oh Be A
Fine Girl Kiss Me. (Recently, types L and T have been added
 Main Sequence Stars
A major grouping of stars that forms a
narrow band from the upper left to the
lower right when plotted according to
luminosity and surface temperature on the
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
 Lifetime on the Main Sequence
O & B Dwarfs burn fuel like a bus!
M Dwarfs burn fuel like a compact car!

Our Sun will last 1010 years on the

Main Sequence
(MS Lifetime = 1010 yrs /
M2.5)

2004 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley

 Lifetime on the Main Sequence

So for example:
B2 dwarf (10 M) lasts 3.2 x 107 yr
F0 dwarf (2 M) lasts 1.8 x 109 yr
M0 dwarf (.5 M) lasts 5.6 x 1010 yr

But the Universe is 1.37 x 1010 yr old!

Every M dwarf that was ever created is still
on the main sequence!!
2004 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley
 2004 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley
 1st Step:
Stars form from nebulas
Regions of concentrated dust and gas

Gas and dust begin to collide, contract and heat

up
All due to gravity
 2nd Step:
As nebula contracts, a small star is formed
Called a protostar

Eventually, the protostar will begin nuclear

fusion (10 million degrees K)
Hydrogen protons attract to each other
Strong nuclear force
Fusion begins
Necessary for stars to survive
 3rd Step:
Star joins the main sequence
90% of stars spend life here
Nuclear fusion = Hydrogen into Helium
Mass of star determines location on main sequence
 Beginning of the End:
Stars begin to die when they run out of
hydrogen
Gravity begins to take over

Star begins to shrink; outer core of hydrogen

begins to fuse
Star gets bigger
 Beginning of the End:
When star gets bigger, it cools down
Red giant

Eventually, star can fuse helium into other

elements
Carbon, oxygen, and other heavier elements
 Beginning of the End:
Once star runs out of fuel, star shrinks under
its own gravity

Turn into a white dwarf, neutron star, or black

hole
 Death of Stars:
What stars end up as depend on mass

Low and Medium mass stars

Planetary nebula --------- white dwarf

High mass stars

Supernova --------- neutron star or black hole
 Death of Stars: Low and Medium Mass

Main Sequence Star

Red Giant

Planetary Nebula

White Dwarf
 Red Giant Phase
Common to all main sequence stars
Larger stars produce more massive red
giants
Planetary Nebulae
Often asymmetric, possibly due to
Stellar rotation
Magnetic fields
Dust disks around the stars

The Butterfly
Nebula
White Dwarfs
Degenerate stellar remnant (C,O core)
Extremely dense:
1 teaspoon of WD material: mass 16 tons!!!

Chunk of WD material the size of a beach ball

would outweigh an ocean liner!

White Dwarfs:
Mass ~ Msun
Temp. ~ 25,000 K
Luminosity ~ 0.01 Lsun
 Death of Stars: High Mass

Main Sequence Star

Red Super Giant

Supernova

Neutron Star Black Hole

Observations of Supernovae

Supernovae can easily be seen in distant galaxies.

Supernova Remnants

X-
rays
The Crab Nebula:
Remnant of a
supernova
observed in a.d.
1054
Cassiopeia A

Optical The Veil Nebula

The Cygnus Loop

The Famous Supernova of 1987:
SN 1987A
Before At maximum

Unusual type II Supernova in the

Large Magellanic Cloud in Feb. 1987
The Remnant of SN 1987A

Ring due to SN ejecta catching up with pre-SN

stellar wind; also observable in X-rays.
Properties of Neutron Stars
Typical size: R ~ 10 km
Mass: M ~ 1.4 3 Msun
Density: r ~ 1014 g/cm3

Piece of
neutron star
matter of the
size of a
sugar cube
has a mass
of ~ 100
million tons!!!
Images of Pulsars and Other Neutron Stars

The vela Pulsar moving

through interstellar space

The Crab
nebula and
pulsar
The Crab Pulsar

Pulsar wind + jets

Remnant of a supernova observed in A.D. 1054

The Crab Pulsar (2)

Visual image

X-ray image
 What is a Black Hole???

Black
An object Holes Info
so massive Sheetthat not even
and dense
light can escape its gravity

The end result from a supernova of a star that

has a mass greater than 3x the sun
Black Holes
Just like white dwarfs (Chandrasekhar limit: 1.4 Msun),
there is a mass limit for neutron stars:

Neutron stars can not exist

with masses > 3 Msun

We know of no mechanism to halt the collapse

of a compact object with > 3 Msun.

It will collapse into a single point a singularity:

=> A Black Hole!

 High Mass Stars:
Mass greater than 8x our sun
Create high mass elements such as iron

Neutron Star
Formed if remaining star < 3x suns mass

Black Holes
Formed if remaining star > 3x suns mass
 As fusion begins to slow down, the core of
the sun will contract
Temperature in the core will rise

The outer layers of the sun will expand,

consuming in the inner planets

Sun will become a Red Giant

 Core of the sun will begin to fuse helium into
larger elements such as carbon and oxygen

Continuing over the next 100 million years

Core will become entirely carbon and oxygen
Core will contract
Outer layers will expand

Outer layers will form a planetary nebula

Core of sun will become a white dwarf
General Properties
Average star
Spectral type G2
Only appears so bright because it is so close.
Absolute visual magnitude = 4.83 (magnitude if it
were at a distance of 32.6 light years)
109 times Earths diameter
333,000 times Earths mass
Consists entirely of gas (av. density = 1.4 g/cm3)
Central temperature = 15 million 0K
Surface temperature = 5800 0K
The fate of our Sun
The Photosphere
Apparent surface layer of the sun
Depth 500 km
Temperature 5800 oK
Highly opaque (H- ions)
Absorbs and re-emits radiation produced in the solar interior

The solar corona

Energy Transport in the
Photosphere
Energy generated in the suns center must be transported outward.
Near the photosphere, this happens through

Convection:
Cool gas
sinking down Bubbles of hot
gas rising up

1000 km
Bubbles last for
10 20 min.
Granulation

is the visible consequence of convection

The Chromosphere
Region of suns atmosphere just above the photosphere.
Visible, UV, and X-ray lines
from highly ionized gases
Temperature increases
gradually from 4500 oK to
10,000 oK, then jumps to
1 million oK Filaments

Transition region

Chromospheric
structures visible in Ha
emission (filtergram)
The Layers of the Solar
Atmosphere
Visible Sun Spot Ultraviolet
Regions

Photosphere

Corona
Chromosphere

Coronal activity,
seen in visible
light
The Magnetic Carpet of the Corona
Corona contains very low-density, very hot (1 million oK) gas

Coronal gas is heated through motions of magnetic fields

anchored in the photosphere below (magnetic carpet)

Computer
model of the
magnetic
carpet
The Solar Wind

Constant flow of particles from the sun.

Velocity 300 800 km/s

Sun is constantly losing mass:

107 tons/year
( 10-14 of its mass per year)
Energy Generation in the Sun: The
Proton-Proton Chain
Basic reaction:
Need large proton speed ( high
4 1H 4He + energy temperature) to overcome Coulomb
barrier (electrostatic repulsion
between protons).
4 protons have 0.048*10- T 107 0K =
27 kg (= 0.7 %) more mass
10 million 0K
than 4He.

Energy gain = Dm*c2

= 0.43*10-11 J
per reaction.

Sun needs 1038 reactions, transforming 5 million tons of mass

into energy every second, to resist its own gravity.
Sun Spots

Cooler regions of the

photosphere (T 4240 K).
Only appear dark against the bright
sun. Would still be brighter than
the full moon when placed on the
night sky!
Sun Spots (2)
Active Regions

Visible

Ultraviolet
Sun Spots (3)
Magnetic field in sun spots is about 1000 times stronger than
average.
Magnetic North Poles

Magnetic
South
Poles

In sun spots, magnetic field lines emerge out

of the photosphere.
The Solar Cycle
After 11 years, North/South
order of leading/trailing sun
spots is reversed

11-year cycle

Reversal of magnetic polarity

=> Total solar cycle
= 22 years
Prominences
Relatively cool gas May be seen as dark
(60,000 80,000 oK) filaments against the
bright background of the
photosphere

Looped Prominences: gas ejected from the suns

photosphere, flowing along magnetic loops
Eruptive Prominences

(Ultraviolet
images)

Extreme events (solar

flares) can significantly
influence Earths magnetic
field structure and cause
northern lights (aurora
borealis).