Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

www.elsevier.com/locate/apm

Mathematical modelling of layered contact mechanics

of camtappet conjunction
M. Teodorescu a, H. Rahnejat b,*

a
School of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, City University, London, UK
b
Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University,
Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK

Received 1 January 2006; received in revised form 1 August 2006; accepted 9 October 2006
Available online 18 December 2006

Abstract

The paper briey introduces a fast converging mathematical model to predict the peculiarities of the non-conforming
contact between an innitely long cylinder and a coated elastic substrate. The proposed method is then integrated into a
multi-physics analysis of the valve train system of a racing type internal combustion (IC) engine. Due to relatively high
loads and speeds experienced, particularly in the camtappet contacts, hard wear resistant coatings are used, which greatly
inuence the contact mechanics performance. Results indicate that the layer thickness is the determining factor in contact
characteristics, which alters during the cam cycle. Therefore, for optimal performance coatings of non-uniform thickness
should ideally be applied to the circumference of the cam rather than the usual coating of the tappet surface with a given
thickness.
 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Multi-physics analysis; Contact mechanics; Wear resistant coatings; Valve trains; Camtappet contact

1. Introduction

Load bearing conjunctions often represent the most critical factors limiting the performance of all mechan-
ical systems. They are responsible for signicant energy loss (mainly due to friction), as well as being the most
likely places for initiation of wear and fatigue spalling. Contact elasticity problems are typically non-linear,
but accurate and relatively quick predictions are vital in the design process. The problem is further compli-
cated, when the contact behaviour should be considered in the larger context of a complex mechanical system,
and its full interaction with the rest of the system components should be understood [13]. Consequently,
accurate prediction of physics of various contacts represents a major concern for engine designers.
Experimental investigations have shown that for certain conditions, hard coatings applied to one of the
contacting bodies can improve wear resistance over a period of time [4]. Protective layers prevent high contact

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1509 227569; fax: +44 1509 227569.
E-mail address: h.rahnejat@lboro.ac.uk (H. Rahnejat).

0307-904X/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apm.2006.10.019
 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2611

Nomenclature
n
k C 1...4 integration constants
n
E modulus of elasticity
E* =2/[(1  (mw)2)/Ew + (1  (mf)2)/Ef]
q
H undeformed prole
kH1!3 generic deection function
kH 2 Hak l1 mw 1  mmw 1ak l1 mw  1
kH 3 mmw 1
J mass moment of inertia
PHertz maximum Hertzian pressure
Pk(res) the amplitude of the kth harmonic of the residual pressure k = 0 ! N
P(old) residual pressure due to the harmonic terms
P(new) current pressure
R instantaneous cam radius at the point of contact
Tk = tanh akl1
W contact load
a half-width of the Hertzian contact
d = a/l1
eP error in pressure convergence
eW error in load convergence
q
h0 deformed prole
l1 layer thickness
m equivalent mass
p pressure
s tappet lift
q n
k uy deection due to the kth harmonic k = 0 ! N
x coordinate along the contact surface
y coordinate into the depth of the contacting solid
H = [E/(1 + mw)]/[Ew(1 + m/)]
kH 1 = [H + Tk]/[TkH + 1]
kH 2 = [Tk + 1]/[H(TkH + 1)]
kXy generic deection function
aj = 2kp/L
kk = L/k wavelength for the kth harmonic
uk phase angle for the kth harmonic
q n
rij stress eld for the coating
q n
k rij kth harmonic of the stress for the coating k = 0 ! N
q n
ei strain in the coating
q n
k ei kth harmonic of the strain in the coating k = 0 ! N
m = [(m/  1)(mw + 1)]/[(m/ + 1)(mw  1)]
mn Poissons ratio for the coating
j under-relaxation factor
nk 2 {/k, wk, fk} stress functions
/ general reference to the coated layer
w general reference to the substrate
f general reference to cam
2612 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

Subscripts
C refers to the cam
T refers to the tappet
q 2{C, T}

stresses from penetrating into the softer substrate material. However, if these layers are suciently thin, the
sub-surface stresses tend to concentrate at the layer/substrate interface and can lead to delamination with
insucient levels of adhesion. Furthermore, an improper layer thickness or choice of material can lead to brit-
tle coatings, which exfoliate during operation [4].
Pertinent predictions require long computation times due to the non-linear nature of general elasticity prob-
lem. This is usually well beyond the acceptable industrial design timeframe. Therefore, for most industrial
applications the layer thickness, as well as its properties is decided upon by experience, rather than through
scientic rigour.
The design of an optimal valve train conguration often represents a compromise between the combustion/
thermodynamic cycle requirements and limitations of the mechanical assembly. The mechanism is character-
ised by an oscillatory movement, reduced inertial dynamics and high inertial imbalance. Consequently, there is
a plethora of interacting physical phenomena, which cannot be decoupled and have to be taken into consid-
eration right at the outset of the design process.
A current trend in IC engine development is to improve the output power, whilst maintaining the same
basic engine dimensions. This goal is often achieved through increasing engine speed, and decreasing the mass
of engine components. One consequence is decreased inertial losses and improved overall eciency. However,
use of lighter materials can lead to increased structural vibration. Therefore, the multi-physics nature of anal-
ysis is all but too apparent.
A direct consequence of using components with reduced inertial dynamics in valve train design is that the
highly accelerated oscillatory motion increases the load applied on the camtappet contact, as well as the
chance for valve spring surge, camtappet contact separation, and their subsequent impact [5]. In these cir-
cumstances the camtappet contact is heavily loaded and susceptible to premature wear, fatigue spalling or
both.
The technological challenge of applying thin continuous smooth layers is nancially prohibiting for com-
mon engine applications, therefore the main user of the technology is the racing industry. The cost of depos-
iting advanced coating materials is directly proportional to layer thickness. As a result the coating should
preferably be kept as thin as possible.

2. Inertial dynamics of the valve train system

To fully understand the behaviour of camtappet conjunction, the full elastohydrodynamic (EHL) behav-
iour of the contact should be considered. This requires simultaneous solution of contact elasticity problem,
together with the Reynolds hydrodynamic equation for the nite line concentrated contact under transient
condition. Such a modelling approach has been described by Kushwaha and Rahnejat [2] for a general case
of uncoated elastic solids (semi-innite elastic half-spaces). The methodology is very stable and it generates
reliable predictions. However, its extension to include the layered bonded solids (such as coatings on either
or both surfaces) would be very time intensive.
The current research proposes a fast converging method, which integrates the dynamic behaviour of the
valve train system and the contact mechanics of camtappet conjunction in a single multi-physics framework.
During part of the cycle that elastohydrodynamic regime of lubrication prevails in practice (during the cam
event with high load) a dry contact analysis approximates the actual conditions closely, particularly at lower
speeds of lubricant entrainment. The divergence from lubricated conditions emerges for instances of cam ank
or contact on the base radius, where hydrodynamic conditions are prevalent at lower contact loads and higher
relative surface speeds. However, failure of contacting surfaces is not usually noted under hydrodynamic
conditions.
 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2613

To demonstrate the technique used, a single cylinder research engine is analysed, which incorporates the
major characteristics of a racing engine. The valve train comprises two intake and two exhaust valves, actu-
ated by a common camshaft. The intake valves are directly actuated by a cam, whilst the exhaust valves are
actuated by a rocker arm system. Fig. 1 shows the mechanism conguration. The top speed for this engine is
12,000 rpm, and the maximum power output is 50 bhp.
Fig. 2 shows an equivalent system for the overall valve train system. There are dierent equivalent sub-sys-
tems for the exhaust mechanism and for each of the intake valves. Considering the existing geometrical con-
guration, the exhaust mechanism is modelled as a 3-degrees of freedom system, and each of the intake
mechanisms as a 2-degrees of freedom system.

Cam

Cam Tappet
contact/impact

Vc

Tappet

Valve
Intake
Exhaust
Fig. 1. General view of the valve train system.

Exhaust

z''
m3

Intake Intake

y' y'' y'''

m1 m2 m4

s' s'' s'''

Timing
Cam-tappet
' contact
'' '''

J2 J3 J4

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the valve train system.

2614 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

For each intake mechanism a lumped mass element concentrates the inertial properties of the mechanism
and several springs and dampers account for system stiness and damping. The contact between the valve and
the valve seat, as well as the possible contact separations (due to tappet surge) are taken into consideration and
are represented in gure 2 as horizontal parallel lines. The higher stiness introduced by the exhaust rocker
arm is responsible for the third degree of freedom in the exhaust mechanism. For the exhaust mechanism,
one of the lumped masses concentrates the valve inertia on the valve side of the rocker arm, whilst its contri-
bution on the cam side accounts for the second mass.
For each individual lumped mass the equation of motion is given by NewtonEuler formulation. The cou-
pling between the systems is ensured via a exible camshaft, where both torsional and longitudinal vibrations
are taken into account. For this purpose the camshaft is divided into separate sections. Each section is allo-
cated a lumped mass (for predicting longitudinal vibration) and a lumped moment of inertia (for predicting
torsional vibration). Stiness and damping properties of camshaft are also considered as being concentrated
by springs and dampers. The elastic properties of the contact between the cam and the tappet are considered
(the circled area in Fig. 2) as an input, which is provided by a contact mechanics model described later.
The governing equations for each of the valve trains, as well as for the exible camshaft are derived, using
the NewtonEuler formulation. Eq. (1) represents the general form of the governing equations, where Li is a
generic concentrated inertial element (mass or mass moment of inertia), ni is a generic deection (lateral dis-
placements or angle of twist), and Ui is a generic excitation (force or moment)

Li
ni cei cei1 n_ i  cei n_ i1  cei1 n_ i1 k ei k ei1 ni  k ei ni1  k ei1 ni1 Ui 0; 1
ni 2 fxi ; ui g; Li 2 fmi ; J i g and Ui 2 fF i ; M i g;
k i k i1 ci ci1
k ei ; ce i : 2
k i k i1 ci ci1

The ve dierential equations (three for the individual valve-trains, one for the camshaft torsional vibration,
and the other for the camshaft lateral vibration) are solved numerically by a marching integration scheme. At
each time step, the predictions from the camshaft model are fed as excitations into the valve train models, and
the predictions of the valve train models are integrated into the excitation applied onto the camshaft at the
following time step. The equivalent values for stiness and damping required for the dynamics models are
computed at each time step, using Eq. (2).
Fig. 3 shows the predicted contact load, as well as the radius of curvature for the camtappet contact. It
should be noted that for the accelerated motion associated with the fast engine operation, the camtappet load

0 1.0E-01

-250 7.5E-02
Contact Radius [m]
Contact Load [N]

Load
-500 5.0E-02
Radius

-750 2.5E-02

-1000 0.0E+00
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Crank Angle [deg]

Fig. 3. Contact loading conditions at 7100 rpm.

 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2615

is mainly due to the inertial forces and the valve spring load, which is used to prevent the tappet separating
from the cam. The simulation is performed at an engine speed of 7100 rpm, however, for higher engine speeds
the tappet can separate and an additional set of phenomena (mainly related to shock propagation through the
system and lubricant squeeze lm eect) should also be included. These phenomena have been investigated in
some detail by Teodorescu et al. [5,6] for several engine congurations.

3. Contact mechanics model for two elastic bodies

The normal contact load generates local elastic deformation. The size and the shape of the contact foot-
print, as well as the pressure distribution, depend on the contact geometry (instantaneous radius of curvature
of the cam), material properties and load. Hertz [7] studied the idealized frictionless contact of semi-innite
(uncoated) cylinders, assuming small strains. However, if the Hertzian assumptions are not met (such as
for layered bonded solids), alternative predictive methods are required.
The need for prediction of behaviour of hard wear resistant coatings (e.g. for tools and highly loaded
rolling element bearings) and soft lubricating layers (e.g. gold coatings for space application bearings)
has led to the development of various simplied analytic solutions. The original work by Hannah [8] has
been extended, among others, by Johnson [9], OSullivan and King [10], Jaar [11], Barber [12], and Nag-
hieh et al. [13]. These methods are fast, accurate, and generally accepted by the scientic community. How-
ever, they are usually limited to certain layer thickness and elastic properties. The most complex situation is
when the layer is neither thick nor thin, as often is the case in many engine applications, where the coating
thickness has been arrived at in an experiential manner, rather than by any analytical rigour. When a pre-
dictive method is applied for these intermediate cases, the most widely used approach has been nite ele-
ment method (FEM) Votsios [14], Konvopoulos [15] or Ovaert and Pan [16]. However, accurate
predictions require a very large number of nodes, and consequently lead to excessive computation. If the
contact mechanics solution is to be included in a multi-physic approach, which accounts for a large number
of physical phenomena within a convergence loop, the computation speed becomes a very important
factor.
Recently, an additional family of contact mechanics solutions have been proposed as possible fast and
accurate approaches. These methods are based on the original work of Sneddon [17] and later on extended
by Hook [18], Greenwood and Morales-Espejel [19], Polansky and Keer [20], Liu and Wang [21] or Teodo-
rescu et al. [22] amongst other researchers. These methods predict that the response of the elastic materials
to the applied pressure can be computed rstly by decomposing the contact pressure into a harmonic series
over a chosen domain. Then, the elastic response for each harmonic component of applied pressure is com-
puted, and recomposed so that a nal overall solution is obtained. The fundamental basis for such an
approach lies in the Bernoullis principle of superposition. The current contact model extends this methodology
and investigates its application for an integrated multi-physics solution.
The radius of curvature of the cam and the corresponding applied load vary widely during the cam cycle.
Therefore, contact conditions are very dierent at each location. Fig. 4 shows with a thick line: the Hertzian
contact footprint (for a hypothetical uncoated tappet) as a function of crank angle, and with a thin line: the
non-dimensional layer thickness (with respect to the contact footprint size). It is noticeable that the same layer
deposited on the cam prole can be treated as a very thin layer on the cam anks or relatively thick, when the
contact is just prior to or immediately after the cam nose.
Fig. 5 is a schematic representation of the contacting conditions between the cam and the tappet. Both con-
tacting bodies are made of the same steel. However, the tappet side is coated with a thin layer of Diamond-
Like Carbon (DLC). The normal contact load by the cam generates a reaction force on the tappet side. The
pressure distribution on both sides of the contact should be the same, but with an opposite sign. Furthermore,
under equilibrium condition, the shape of the deformed mating surfaces should conform over the contact foot-
print. Since the elastic properties of the contacting bodies are very dierent (only one side of the contact is
DLC coated) the individual deections are dierent. The hard coating prevents the high stresses from pene-
trating into the substrate material. It tends to reduce the elastic deformation and consequently decreases
the contact footprint, whilst increasing the maximum contact pressures. Therefore, it is imperative to develop
an accurate model to predict the behaviour of the bonded coating on the steel substrate.
2616 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

d 6
2.0E-04
5

4
a [m]

d [-]
3
1.0E-04

2
a
1

0.0E+00 0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Crank Angle [deg]

Fig. 4. The Hertzian half-contact footprint and the normalised layer thickness (where a is the half-width of the Hertzian contact and
d = a/l1).

Fourier Decomposition
Interval

"y " for the cam

Undeformed profiles
Deformed profiles Pressure distribution
applied on the tappet


l1 uz
-a 0 a x

Cam
Pressure distribution
Protective Layer applied on the cam
Tappet
"y " for the tappet

Contact region

Fig. 5. Loaded contact conguration.

At each iteration step the pressure distribution can be decomposed into a harmonic series as
NX!1
1
px P 0 P k cosak x  uk ; 3
2 k1

where
ak 2p=kk and kk L=k:
The coating applied on the tappet alters the properties of the contact and, therefore, the sub-surface stress and
strain elds, as well as the contact deection. By independently applying each component of the pressure
distribution (Eq. (3)) to both sides of the contact [23,24]:
 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2617
8
NX!1
>
>
> q rnij 0 q rnij
>
q n
k rij
>
>
>
> k1 8
>
>
< NX!1 < q 2 fC; T g;
qen q n q n
i 0 ie k ei where n 2 f/; w; fg; 4
>
> :
>
> k1
i; j 2 fx; yg:
>
> NX!1
>
>
>
> q n q n q n
: ui 0 ui k ui
k1

Each line from Eq. (4) consists of two distinct terms. The rst one is due to the constant pressure component
from Eq. (3) and the second term is the sum of the responses generated by the harmonic components of the
pressure distribution. The predictive approach for each of these terms is fundamentally dierent [22].
The sub-surface stress eld is dependent on the applied load, the elastic properties of the media and the
geometrical conguration. For each elastic media in the contact there is a unique scalar function, which
can fully describe the eld. Therefore, in the case of the bonded single layer solid, two such functions are
required; one for the layer and another for the substrate.
Using the notations from Fig. 5, each stress function should satisfy the following biharmonic equation
[23,24]:
o4 nk o4 nk o4 nk
2 0; nk f/k ; wk ; fk g: 5
ox4 ox2 oy 2 oy 4
Eq. (6) shows a possible shape, which can fulll the conditions imposed by Eq. (5) and preserves the physics of
the problem. This approach was described in detail by Love [23] and applied for a similar set of conditions by
Teodorescu et al. [22]:
nk cosak x  uk k C n1 cosh ak y k C n2 sinh ak y k C n3 y cosh ak y k C n4 y sinh ak y;
6
nk f/k ; wk ; fk g:
For a harmonic wave applied along the x-axis, this function preserves the harmonic order, as well as the phase
angle, but it diminishes in amplitude within the medium. However, full damping of the pressure wave is not
reached before y ! 1.
The sub-surface stress eld is determined as
8
>
2
m o nk
8
>
< k rnij 1 < nk 2 f/k ; wk ; fk g;
oioj
> h i where : i; j 2 fx; yg; 7
: k en 1 k rn  mn k rn
>
m i  j 1:
i ii jj
En
To correctly predict the integration constants for each function in (6), the following set of boundary condi-
tions is used for the semi-innite (substrate) side of the cam contact [22]:
f f
y0! k rxy 0; k ryy P k cosak x  u;
f f
8
y1! k rxy 0; k ryy 0:
To determine the boundary conditions for the layered (coated) side of the contact the interaction between the
layer and the substrate has to be taken into account. Considering the assumption of a normally loaded bonded
layered solid without slippage between the layer and the substrate, the boundary conditions are given as
/ / /
y0! k rxy 0; k ryy P k cosak x  u; ks 1 0;
/ w / w / w
y l1 ! k rxy k rxy ; k ux k ux ; k uy k uy ; 9
w w
y1! k rxy 0; k ryy 0:
Teodorescu et al. [22,25] have shown that by integrating Eq. (7) with the boundary conditions stated in (8) the
sub-surface stress eld, as well as deection can be expressed as
2618 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627
8 f
>
> k rxx sech ak y P k cosak x  uk tanh ak y  11  ak y;
>
> rf sech a y P cosa x  u tanh a y  1a y 1;
< k yy k k k k k k
f 10
>
> k rxy sech ak y P k sinak x  uk tanh ak y  1ak y;
>
>
: f f f
k uy sech ak y P k cosak x  uk tanh ak y  1ak y1 m 2=ak E :

The last
R 1 term in Eq. (10) is computed, assuming that deection at a specied depth can be expressed as:
u
k y y k y
e dy.
Using a similar approach, Eq. (7) can be integrated for a layered solid, using the set of boundary conditions
in (9). The resulting sub-surface stress eld, as well as the surface deection, can be expressed as:
For the substrate (y P l1)
8 w
>
> k r sech ak y P k cosak x  uk 1  tanh ak yk H2 Hak l1  mak l1  y 1;
> xx
>
< k rwyy sech ak y P k cosak x  uk 1  tanh ak yk H2 Hak l1  mak l1  y  1;
w 11
>
> k rxy sech ak y P k sinak x  u1  tanh ak yk H2 Hak l1   mak l1  y;
>
>
: w w
k uy sech ak y P k cosak x  uk 1  tanh ak yk H2 k H 2 ak y 1 k H 3 =ak E :

For the layer (0 P y > l1)

8 /
>
> k r sech ak y P k cosak x  uk tanh ak yak y  k H1 1k H1 ak y;
> xx
>
< k r/yy sech ak y P k cosak x  uk tanh ak yak y k H1  1k H1 ak y;
/ 12
>
> k rxy sech ak y P k sinak x  uk ak y1  k H1 tanh ak y;
>
>
: / w
k uy cosak x  uk P k k Xy =E :

The full expression for kXy is given in Appendix A.

As expected, the stress elds predicted by Eqs. (10)(12) for each individual harmonic component of the
load have a harmonic form. The phase angle and the harmonic number of the stress or deection wave is
inherited from the applied load. However, the amplitude is attenuated into the depth of the solid.
The deection at a specied depth in the layer is computed by adding R l the layer deection to the deection of
the layer-substrate interface. This can be expressed as: k uy k ul1 y 1 k e/y dy.
For the extreme cases of an innitely thick layer (l1 ! 1), and for an innitely thin layer (l1 ! 0), as well as
for a bonded layer and the substrate of the same elastic properties, the sub-surface elds predicted by Eqs. (11)
and (12) reduce to that given by Eq. (10) for semi-innite solids. This is a further proof of the validity of the
method developed.
Contacting surfaces nally converge into conforming deformed proles within the elastic limit. This intrin-
sic property is used in the present study as one of the main convergence criteria (a form of imposed constraint
function). The methodology assumes an initial pressure distribution and computes the harmonic components
from Eq. (3). The surface deection due to the constant pressure (q0 u0 ) is computed, using the method described
by Johnson [9] and the surface deection (at y = 0) due to the harmonic components is computed using Eq.
(10) for the cam side Ck u0 k uf0 and Eq. (12) for the tappet side Tk u0 k u/0 .
The cam and tappet deformed proles are computed as
NX
!1
q
h0 q H qk u0 q
k u0 ; q 2 fC; T g: 13
k1

The conformity of deformed proles is ascertained, and if not met (within an acceptable error margin), then a
residual deection term (u(res)) is dened as their dierence. Considering the elastic behaviour of metals, there
exists a unique pressure distribution, which yields a given surface deection. Therefore, the residual deection
term is decomposed into a Fourier series, for each harmonic component of which the residual pressure is com-
puted, using the inverse form of the last of the relationships in (12) as
P kres ukres Ew =k X0 cosak x  uk : 14
 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2619

The original pressures are then adjusted to include these residual terms, thus:

P knew P kold jP kres ; 15

where j 2 {0.2 . . . 0.5} is an under-relaxation factor.

By harmonically decomposing the residual deection, a constant term is also obtained. However, an ana-
lytic formulation, which predicts the pressure distribution generating such a term is not available. Therefore,
its contribution is included in the overall error and diminishes during the convergence procedure.
Pressure convergence is pursued, until the dierence between any two successive iterations is smaller than
the specied error. The resulting pressure distribution is recomposed and its integrated value is compared with
the applied normal load (which is determined by the integrated inertial dynamics of the valve train system in
this instance). If a signicant dierence is predicted, the contact footprint is adjusted accordingly, and a new
pressure distribution is computed. Ultimately, a pressure distribution, which predicts precise conformity of
deected proles is obtained for each prescribed contact load during the cam cycle.

4. Contact between the cam and an uncoated tappet

The initial predictions are performed for the case, where both the cam and the tappet are uncoated. This
can be achieved by a special case of Eqs. (11) and (12). The details of this procedure have been explained in the
previous section. Fig. 6 shows the sub-surface stress eld for the cam, as well as for the tappet, when the cam
tappet contact is 50 crank angle prior to the cam nose (conventionally indicated as 50). This position cor-
responds to the minimum radius of curvature. The camtappet interface is represented by the horizontal line
at y/a = 0. The sub-surface stress eld for the cam side is on the positive direction of the y/a-axis, and that for
the tappet side is along the negative direction. This convention is used for the case of overhead camshaft
constructions.
The two predicted sub-surface stress elds are identical, with the maximum shear stress being 0.29PHertz, as
expected, giving an error of 3% when compared to the Hertzian prediction of 0.3PHertz. The dierence is due to
the Fourier series approximation and the cumulative numerical error. Up to 1000 harmonics have been used
for all the analysis reported here. The prediction for the depth at which the maximum shear stress occurs is the
same as for the Hertzian theory (i.e. at 0.78a). The current analysis uses the following convergence criteria:

Fig. 6. Sub-surface stress eld [s1/PHertz] at 50.

2620 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

3.00E-04
Maximum 1 Depth
9.E+07

Depth of maximum stress [m]

2.00E-04
Maximum 1 [N/m2]

6.E+07

1.00E-04
3.E+07

0.E+00 0.00E+00
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Crank Angle [deg]

Fig. 7. Maximum stress and its depth into the solid.

(
eP 100  P res =P max  6 102 ;
Ra 16
eW 100  W  a P =W  6 102 :
The degree of precision can obviously be improved by imposing lower convergence error margins, as well as
using a larger number of harmonic components. However, this would increase the computation time.
The minimum radius of curvature (see Fig. 3) is not on the cam nose, but adjacent to it. However, the load
on the cam nose is the largest. Moreover, the maximum load is obtained close to the maximum contact radius.
At this location the sub-surface stress eld is decreased by the larger contact footprint dimensions. Conse-
quently, the maximum sub-surface stress during the cam event is not necessarily located at the minimum
radius nor at the maximum load. To determine its precise location, further investigations have to be made.
Fig. 7 shows the maximum stress together with the depth, where it occurs for the whole cam event. Very high
levels of sub-surface stresses eld near to the contact surface can lead to pitting. If the maximum shear stress
becomes larger than 50% of the materials yield stress, inelastic deformation can take place according to the
Tresca criterion. Teodorescu et al. [26] have shown that friction, and particularly the contribution to boundary
interactions is maximum around the cam nose. Therefore, in order to reduce the computation time, the current
study has considered only the heavily loaded interval: 70 either side of the cam nose, neglecting the lighter
loaded intervals at the valve opening and closing events.

5. The contact between a cam and a DLC coated tappet

The thickness of protective layer, as well as its composition varies widely with the valve-train conguration,
as well as with the manufacturer. The results of the proposed mathematical model are generic and applicable
to a large variety of conditions. To demonstrate its applicability to practical situations, case of a layer of DLC
with a thickness of 5 lm has been considered.
Fig. 8 shows the sub-surface stress elds for the camtappet contact at 50 (in terms of crank angle) prior to
the cam nose contact. This is the same location analysed for the simplied (uncoated) condition, in Fig. 6. The
values are normalised with respect to the maximum pressure of an equivalent Hertzian (uncoated) contact to
enable comparative studies. Using the convention introduced in the previous section, the stress eld for the
tappet side is represented below the y/a = 0 line, whilst that for the cam is represented above this line. It
should be noted that the hard layer retains the stresses and inhibits their penetration into the softer substrate.
These ndings conform to those reported for similar cases of hard coated substrates by OSullivan and King
 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2621

Fig. 8. Sub-surface stress eld for a tappet coated with a layer of 5 lm DLC at 50 a = 1.1 105 m; PHertz = 2.47 GPa.

[10], who have employed nite element analysis. For thin layered solids closed form solutions have been pro-
posed, for example, by Johnson [9], when the substrate is considered as rigid. However, as the layer thickness
increases the predictions by such formulae diverge from numerical results. Appendix B provides brief compar-
ison between the Fourier decomposition method employed here and that of Johnsons analytical approach.
Under the current conditions the hard layer concentrates the high shear stresses at the layer-substrate inter-
face. Therefore, particular care should be taken for these stresses not to exceed the adhesion limit, where the
layer would exfoliate. Furthermore, the reduced contact footprint dimensions increases the maximum contact
pressure on the semi-innite side of the contact.
The mathematical model proposed in Section 3 predicts the deformed proles of both the contacting elastic
solids. The hard layer bonded to the softer substrate increases the stiness on the coated side of the contact
and, therefore, reduces its deection. Fig. 9 shows the predicted contact deection at the aforementioned loca-
tion (50) for the uncoated contact condition (Fig. 9a) and for the coated one (Fig. 9b). It is noticeable that
in the case of a coated tappet the predicted deection for the tappet side of the contact decreases signicantly,
whilst on the cam side it increases.
Hard coatings, having a higher elastic modulus than the substrate material reduce the contact footprint
area, thus result in higher generated pressures for the same applied load. Fig. 10 compares the predicted
contact pressure for the coated and for the uncoated tappets at the aforementioned 50 position to the
cam nose event. The values on the x-axis are normalised with respect to the maximum Hertzian pressure
under the same contact load. It should be noted that the expected decrease in contact footprint size for
the coated condition is predicted. Note, however, that the contact footprint for the uncoated contact con-
dition is not identical to that which would be predicted by the Hertzian theory due to the iterative nature
of the highlighted method. With tighter convergence criteria a closer solution would obviously be
obtained. Nevertheless, the current error for the uncoated cam with respect to the classical Hertzian the-
ory is only 3%.
Fig. 11a shows the predicted sub-surface maximum stress eld for the contact condition at 70 crank angle
degrees prior to the cam nose. At this location the cams radius of curvature is larger than that for results of
Fig. 8. Therefore, the non-dimensional layer thickness is signicantly decreased. To better visualise the stress
eld Fig. 11b uses dierent scales for the cam and the tappet sides of the contact.
It should be noted that the deposition of a hard layer amplies the stress eld on both sides of the contact.
However, the stresses on the tappet side are twice as large as those for the uncoated condition (see Fig. 12a).
2622 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

5.0E-03
Cam Deformed profiles
Undeformed profiles

Profile/a [-] 0.0E+00

Tappet

-5.0E-03

-1.0E-02
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x/a [-]

5.0E-03
Deformed profiles
Cam
Undeformed profiles

0.0E+00
Profile/a [-]

Tappet
-5.0E-03

-1.0E-02
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x/a [-]

Fig. 9. Prole deection for an uncoated tappet as well as for a tappet coated with a 5 lm layer of DLC at 50. (a) Uncoated tappet,
(b) coated tappet.

3.E+08

Coated Tappet
Uncoated Tappet
Contact Pressure [Pa]

2.E+08

1.E+08

0.E+00
0 0.5 1
x/a [-]

Fig. 10. The inuence of the layer on contact pressure.

 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2623

Fig. 11. Contact conditions for a tappet coated with a layer of 5 lm DLC at 70 a = 4.05 105 m; PHertz = 1.8 GPa. (a) Uniform
grid on y-axis for both solids, (b) expanded grid on y-axis for the layered solid.

The depth of the maximum stress is also shallower for the coated condition (see Fig. 12b). Also, the maximum
stresses occur at the layer-substrate interface. For the layer to eectively guard against failure, it should rstly
sustain the stress eld and further avoid exfoliating or cracking under increased loading.
Although the pressure is higher for the layered solid contact, this does not necessarily translate to higher
levels of deformation. Therefore, there appears to be less chance of lm formation under elastohydrodynamic
condition. This is an important point often not appreciated in practice.

6. The inuence of layer thickness on the maximum shear stress

For a given valve-train conguration, as well as engine operating condition, a broad range of factors should
be taken into consideration in order to choose an optimal layer thickness. It has been emphasized in the
2624 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

2.5E+08
Semi-infinite
Layered Tappet
2.0E+08 Cam

Maximum 1 [Pa]
1.5E+08

1.0E+08

5.0E+07

0.0E+00
-70 -35 0 35 70
Crank Angle [deg]

5.0E-05
Depth of Maximum stress 1 [m]

4.0E-05
Semi-infinite
Layered Tappet
3.0E-05 Cam

2.0E-05

1.0E-05

0.0E+00
-70 -50 -30 -10 10 30 50 70
Crank Angle [deg]

Fig. 12. The inuence of a 5 lm DLC layer on the tappet sub-surface stress eld. (a) Maximum s1, (b) depth of maximum stress.

previous sections that the sub-surface stress eld and contact footprint are greatly altered by the nature of
bonded layered solid (coating): its mechanical properties and thickness. An incorrect coating can become
brittle or exfoliate under excessive stress levels. Therefore, it is clear that a pertinent analysis within a
multi-physics framework should ideally be performed, before a protective layer is chosen. In applying the
results of predictions in practice, it should also be noted that protective layers are made of expensive materials,
which in addition require intricate deposition techniques. Therefore, from the economical point of view, the
layer should be kept as thin as possible without jeopardising its wear protective purpose.
To further understand the inuence of the layer thickness over the sub-surface stress eld, several possible
layer thicknesses have been considered. Fig. 13a shows the maximum sub-surface stress for the tappet side of
the contact and Fig. 13b for the cam side of the contact.
For the layered side, when the contact is close to the cam nose the sub-surface stress eld is only marginally
aected. However, the maximum shear stresses just prior to and immediately after the cam nose are signi-
cantly aected and the results suggest that a thicker layer performs better.
As long as the layer deposition is relatively thin, the cam side of the contact is hardly aected by its actual
thickness. However, regardless of layer thickness, due to the reduced size of the contact footprint with hard
coatings, the sub-surface stress eld is increased and the depth at which the maximum stress occurs is
 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2625

2.5E+08
Semi-infinite 5e-6 m

7e-6 m 12e-6 m
2.0E+08

Maximum 1 [Pa]

1.5E+08

1.0E+08

5.0E+07

0.0E+00
-70 -35 0 35 70
Crank Angle [deg]

1.5E+08
Semi-infinite 5e-6 m

7e-6 m 12e-6 m
1.2E+08
Maximum 1 [Pa]

9.0E+07

6.0E+07

3.0E+07

0.0E+00
-70 -35 0 35 70
Crank Angle [deg]

Fig. 13. The inuence of layer thickness on maximum s1. (a) Tappet, (b) cam.

decreased. If this behaviour is not taken into consideration in the design stage of a valve-train system, it can
lead to dramatic consequences and result in premature cam wear. The same tendency has been experimentally
observed in Ref. [4]. They noticed that by applying a thin DLC layer on the tappet side, its wear rate was
decreased whilst the cam wear was increased.
By analysing the stress eld predicted for dierent layer thicknesses, one can conclude that there is no ideal
solution, which would ensure a minimal stress eld as well as a thin economical layer. However, there is an
optimal layer thickness for each crank angle position of the cam. The designer should opt either for the thin-
nest layer, which can just withstand the stress levels or a thick layer, which would be more expensive, but has
less chance of structural degradation. Ideally, a layer with a variable thickness over the cam event would solve
the situation. The deposition closer to the cam nose contact can be signicantly thinner than elsewhere. Fur-
thermore, considering that only the central portion of the cam event is heavily loaded, it is not necessary to
coat the area corresponding to the opening and closing ramps.
Due to geometrical considerations, as well as uniform wear distribution, the tappet spins [27], and therefore
layers should be deposited in rings of constant thickness, where the outer rings are thicker than the inner ones.
However, the technology required to deposit non-uniform coating patterns can become prohibitively expen-
sive. In practice, one solution may be to only coat certain regions of cam event, as already proposed.
2626 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627

7. Conclusions

A generic fast converging mathematical model for the contact between elastic innitely long cylinders has
been provided. The methodology is included in a multi-physic framework, which predicts the dynamics of the
valve train system, as well as the contact characteristics in an integrated manner. The sub-surface stress eld is
predicted for both sides of the contact during the cam opening event. The inuence of the layer thickness over
the contact characteristics was predicted for several possible layer thicknesses.

Appendix A

0 1
k H2 H 2 ak l1 1 H 3 cosh ak l1  sinh ak l1
B  
Ew ak l1 cosh ak l1  sinh ak l1 k H1 cosh ak l1  ak l1 sinh ak l1 C
1B B m /
 1 C
C
k Xy B E/ ak y cosh ak y sinh ak y  k H1 cosh ak y  ak y sinh ak y C; A:1
ak B C
@ E w A
/
m 1 / cosh ak l1  k H1 sinh ak l1  cosh ak y k H1 sinh ak y
E
0 1
/ Ew
H H a l 1 H cosh a l  sinh a l  m 1 cosh a l  H sinh a l  1
1B B
2 2 k 1 3 k 1 k 1
E/
k 1 1 k 1 C
C:
k X0 @ w A
ak / E
m  1 / ak l1 cosh ak l1  sinh ak l1 H1 cosh ak l1  ak l1 sinh ak l1  1
E
A:2

Appendix B

Predictions from the current method are compared with Johnsons analytical expression for case of thin
coatings. The Johnson [9] gives contact footprint and the pressure distribution as
s
3 3 1  2m/ 1 m/
a Rl1 W; B:1
2 1  m/ E /
1  m/ E / a2
px 1  x2 =a2 : B:2
1  2m/ 1 m/ 2Rl1

3.E+09

Johnson [10] Proposed Method

2.E+09
Pressure [Pa]

1.E+09

0.E+00
0.0E+00 4 .0E-06 8.0E-06 1.2E-05
Distance [m]

Fig. B.1. Pressure distribution on a thinly coated elastic semi-innite solid H = 2, d = 10.
 M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 26102627 2627

This solution is generally accepted as accurate for thin bonded layers, where d = a/l1  1, and having a value
usually in excess of 2. Fig. B.1 shows the predicted pressure distribution using both methods (the current and
that using [9]) for H = 2 and d = 10. The degree of conformance is satisfactory.

References

[1] P.M. Johns, R. Gohar, Roller bearing under radial and eccentric loads, Tribol. Int. 13 (1981) 131136.
[2] M. Kushwaha, H. Rahnejat, Transient elastohydrodynamic lubrication of nite line conjunction of cam to follower concentrated
contact, J. Phys. Part D: Appl. Phys. 35 (2002) 28722890.
[3] M. Kushwaha, H. Rahnejat, Z.M. Jin, Valve-train dynamics: a simplied tribo-elasto-multi-body analysis, in: Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), J. Multi-Body Dyn. Part K 214 (2000) 95110.
[4] S.V. Johnson, S.V. Hainsworth, Eect of DLC coatings on wear in automotive applications, Inst. Mater. Miner. Min. 21 (1) (2005)
6771.
[5] M. Teodorescu, V. Votsios, H. Rahnejat, Multi-physics analysis for the determination of valve train characteristics, in: Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, J. Automobile Eng. Part D 219 (9) (2005) 11091117.
[6] M. Teodorescu, S. Balakrishnan, H. Rahnejat, Integrated tribological analysis within a multi-physics approach to system dynamics,
in: 31st Leeds-Lyon Symposium: Life cycle Tribological analysis, Leeds, UK, September 2004.
[7] H. Hertz, On the contact of elastic solids, J. Reine Angew. Math. 92 (1881) 156157.
[8] M. Hannah, Contact stress determination in a thin elastic layer, Quart. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 4 (1951) 94105.
[9] K.L. Johnson, Contact Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985.
[10] T.C. OSullivan, R.B. King, Sliding contact stress eld due to a spherical indenter on a layered elastic half-space, Trans. ASME J.
Tribol. 110 (1988) 235240.
[11] M.J. Jaar, Asymptotic behaviour of thin elastic layers bonded and unbonded to a rigid foundation, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 31 (1989) 229.
[12] J.R. Barber, Contact problems for the thin elastic layer, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 32 (1990) 129132.
[13] G.R. Naghieh, H. Rahnejat, Z.M. Jin, Characteristics of frictionless contact of bonded elastic and viscoelastic layered solids, Wear
232 (1998) 243249.
[14] V. Votsios, Contact Mechanics and Impact Dynamics of Non-Conforming Elastic and Viscoelastic Semi-innite or Thin Bonded
Layered Solids, Ph.D. thesis, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK, 2003.
[15] K. Konvopoulos, Z.Q. Gong, Eect of surface patterning on contact deformation of elasticplastic layered media, Trans. ASME J.
Tribol. 125 (2003) 1624.
[16] T. Ovaert, J. Pan, Optimal design of layered structures under normal (frictionless) contact loading, Trans. ASME J. Tribol. 124 (2002)
438442.
[17] I.N. Sneddon, Fourier Transforms, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
[18] C.J. Hook, The behaviour of low-amplitude surface roughness under line contacts: non-Newtonian uids, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part
J: J. Tribol. Eng. 214 (2000) 253265.
[19] J.A. Greenwood, G.E. Morales-Espejel, The behaviour of transverse roughness in EHL contacts, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. J. Tribol.
Eng. 208 (1993) 121132.
[20] I.A. Polansky, L.M. Keer, A fast and accurate method for numerical analysis of elastic layered contacts, Trans. ASME J. Tribol. 122
(2000) 3035.
[21] S. Liu, Q. Wang, Studying contact stress elds caused by surface tractions with a discrete convolution and fast Fourier transform
algorithm, Trans. ASME J. Tribol. 124 (2002) 3645.
[22] M. Teodorescu, H. Rahnejat, R. Gohar, Harmonic analysis to determine contact characteristics of concentrated counterformal
contacts, in: Proc. 7th Biennial ASME Conference Engineering Systems Design and Analysis, Manchester, UK, July 1922, 2004.
[23] A.E.H. Love, A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Cambridge University Press, 1927.
[24] S.P. Timoshenko, J.N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951.
[25] M. Teodorescu, M. Kushwaha, H. Rahnejat, S. Rothberg, Integrated multi-body dynamics analysis and camtappet subsurface
contact stress prediction for a single cylinder IC engine, in: Proc. ASME 2005 International Design Engineering Technical Conference
and Computers and Information in Engineering, Long Beach, California, USA, September 2428, 2005.
[26] M. Teodorescu, D. Taraza, N.A. Henein, W. Bryzik, Simplied elasto-hydrodynamic friction model of the camtappet contact, SAE
2003 Trans. J. Eng. 2003-01-0985 (2003) 12711282.
[27] M. Teodorescu, D. Taraza, Numerical prediction and experimental investigation of cam- to at tappet lubricated contact with tappet
spin, in: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), J. Multi-Body Dyn. Part K 218 (3) (2004) 133142.