CASTING TECIINOLOGY

AND CAST ALLOYS

Formerly Professor
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur

Prentice ..Hall of India [l'iiil\II"I';;/i II .iilr;ii'lli~~G~@J

New Delhi-110001
2005
 Common Rules for
Casting Design

The physical and mechanical properties of cast alloys influence casting- design to a
considerable extent. Before discussing the common design rules, it would be appropriate to
review the relevance of these characteristics [1]. Data related to the physical characteristics
of common foundry alloys are given in Table 5.1. The physical properties of importance
are:
Fluid life
Solidification shrinkage
Type (eutectic, directional and equiaxed)
Volume (small, medium and large)
SlaglDross formation tendency
Similarly the important mechanical properties are:
Modulus of elasticity (the stiffness of the alloy itself)
Section modulus (the stiffness of the casting geometry)
These characteristics are discussed below in further details.

Fluid life (i.e. fluidity) affects the design characteristics of a casting, such as the minimum
section thickness that can be cast reliably, the maximum length of a thin section, the
fineness of cosmetic details (like lettering and logos) and the accuracy with which the alloy
fills the mould extremities.
Alloy Group
FERROUS
Grey iron Excellent Eutectic type Very small 1371-1427 Little
Ductile iron Good Eutectic Small 1371-1427C Some
directional
Carbon and Large
low alloy steel
High alloy
steels
NONFERROUS
Aluminium 356 Excellent Eutectic type Little 704-760C Moderate
Aluminium 206 Fair/Good Equiaxed Moderate/Large . 704-760C Large
Aluminium Fair Equiaxed Moderate/Large 1093-117rc Large
bronze
Silicon bronze Fair Eutectic type Li tt Ie 1038-1121C Large
Magnesium Excellent Directional Moderate 1300-1400F Little/
ZE43 (704-760C) Moderate
Yellow brass Poor/Fair Eutectic type Moderate 982-1066C Large
Titanium Very good Eutectic type Little 1760-1816C Very large
Zirconium Fair Eutectic type Little 1816-1871C Very large

Solidification Shrinkage
There are three distinct stages of shrinkage as molten metals solidify. These are-liquid
shrinkage, liquid-to-solid shrinkage and solid state shrinkage. Liquid shrinkage is the
contraction of the liquid metal before solidification begins; it is not an important design
consideration. Liquid-to-solid shrinkage is the shrinkage of the metal mass as it transforms
from the liquid state to the solid state. This shrinkage is usually compensated by flow of
liquid metal from the riser. Hence the casting design must facilitate riser feeding and is an
important consideration in casting design. Solid state shrinkage may be etlsily compensated.
by providing appropriate allowances on the pattern itself.

Type of Solidification

The tendency for the formation of porosity in casting depends to a large extent on the type
of solidification. A very high internal integrity can be ensured in a properly designed
directionally solidified casting. Well-planned geometry in a directionally solidifying alloy
can eliminate not only shrinkage but also the need for any supplemental heat transfer
techniques in the mould.
Eutectic-type solidification is tolerant of a wide variety of geometry. Most complex is
the equiaxed solidification. It requires ingenuity in the choice of geometry and may require
supplemental heat transfer through the mould.
II 78 II Casting Technology and Cast Alloys

Small castings solidify quickly and therefore their design does not present much problem.
Large castings, on the other hand, need careful design to-(i) minimize the development of
stress due to differential contraction of thin and thick sections, (ii) maintain adequate
pressure on the riser metal to eliminate localized shrinkage, (iii) avoid hot tearing in
junctions, (iv) avoid mould wall movement etc.

Slag/Dross Formation

Some molten metal alloys generate more slag/dross than others and are more prone to
contain small, round-shaped non-metallic inclusions trapped in the casting. Non-metallic
inclusions may reduce machinability and degrade the surface finish of castings. In certain
cases, non-metallic inclusions may be responsible for more serious problems. For example,
iron silicate rich slag entrapped in gray iron castings may react with the graphite flakes and
may generate carbon monoxide blow holes. Dross inclusions in ductile iron castings are very
often associated with minute shrinkage cavities and degenerate graphite particles. The best
way to avoid non-metallic inclusions is to inhibit their formation through good melting,
ladling, pouring and gating practices. Ceramic .filters are now widely used to eliminate non-
metallic inclusions. Vacuum melting and pouring are practiced in case of extremely dross
prone alloys like titanium. From the design point of view it is necessary to ensure that non-
metallic inclusions entering into the mould cavity have a reasonable chance to separate out
by floatation. The liquid metal also should enter the mould cavity with minimum turbulence
so that fresh dross does not form inside the mould.

The mechanical factors determine the tendency towards distortion/cracking of castings.

Modulus of elasticity of a particular metal or alloy is its intrinsic property and is usually
taken care of during alloy design. Section modulus, however, depends largely upon the
casting design. The modified design of ribs and brackets as illustrated in Fig. 5.6 in the next
section is obviously aimed at increasing the stiffness of components.
An important consideration in casting design is the provision of tolerance for draft, solid
state shrinkage, cleaning, heat treating and machining. The type of the moulding process and
the extent of mechanization have the greatest influence on the dimension of the casting. For
example, the mould for automobile cylinder blocks and heads have to be prepared using a high
pressure moulding machine. Turbine blades with numerous cooling passages are cast in zircon
sand investment moulds. There are numerous examples to illustrate the synergy among design,
manufacturing process and applications of cast components.
have been proven in service and assure soundness of section. Most metals and alloys shrink
when they solidify. Therefore, design should be such that all members of the parts increase
in dimension progressively to one or more suitable locations where feeder heads can be
placed to offset liquid shrinkage.
1. Always present a cooling surface and avoid sharp angles and corners.
Solidification of molten metal always proceeds from the mould face, forming unbalanced
crystal grains that penetrate into the mass at right angles to the plane of cooling surface. A
simple section presents uniform cooling and greatest freedom from mechanical weakness.
When two or more sections coinjoin, mechanical weakness is induced at the junction and
free cooling is interrupted, creating a "hot spot". (Fig. 5.1).

,'j.;
Hot spots arc the
most common defect
in casting design

: ..- .. .:.::.::,
,,:1 ",',. 1)
J ' I'

.
~l

.....
'

.'/':", ~
.'
.:.,;
/

( OJ
",.
',- '.
~ , , I

Illustrating advantages of rounded corners to avoid local

structural weakness

2. Design all sections as nearly uniform in thickness as possible.

Design on left caused defects as shown. Correct design shown in right (Fig. 5.2). Design of
all sections should be as nearly uniform in thickess as possible. Falling this, all heavy
sections should be accessible for feeding.

Porous patch ill bore Porous spots

Q
incorrect design weak foot
II 80" Casting Technology and Cast Alloys

The hydraulic coupling shown in Fig. 5.3 was originally designed with a 2" core
through the centre. This gave excessive metal and caused local porosity. Redesigning with
sections of reasonable uniformity of thickness corrected the difficulities, reduced the weight
of the casting and lowered the cost of manufacture.

3. Avoid abrupt section changes; eliminate sharp corners at adjoining sections.

The difference in the relative thickness of adjoining sections should be a minimum and not
exceed a ratio of 2 : 1. Where a greater difference is unavoidable, consider design with
detachable parts; for example, the ways of machine tool beds can be bloted, etc.
When a change of thickness is less than 2 : 1, it may take the form of a fillet; where
the difference is greater, the from recommended is that of a wedge.
Wedge-shaped changes in wall thickness are to be designated with a taper not
exceeding 1 in 4.
Where light and heavy sections are unavoidable, use proper fillets or tapering sections,
or both.
If blending is not permissible, use fillets of fairly large size junctions (Fig. 5.4).

I~~ r-- '- = 4(T - I) -1 T

 Common Rules for Casting Design II 81 II
4. Fillet all sharp angles.
Fillets have three functional purposes:
1. to reduce stress concentration in the casting in service.
2. to eliminate cracks, tears and draws at re-entry angles.
3. to make corners more mouldable and to eliminate hot spots.

Number of radii in filters in one pattern should be the minimum possible, preferably
only one. To fulfill engineering stress requirements and reduce stress concentration,
relatively large filters are used with radius equaling of exceeding casting section.
Where large fillets are required design as shown in Fig. 5.5(c).

Hot spot difficult Shrink or

to mould draw

Fillet too large causes shrinkage Correct uniform

or weak metal structure cooling rate obtained

Where this is not possible, consideration must be given as to whether the engineering
design or the foundry casting problem is most vital. From the Foundryman's viewpoint, too
large fillets are undesirable and the radius of the fillet should not exceed one-half the
thickness of the section joined [Fig. 5.5(c)j.

5. Design ribs and brackets for maximum effectiveness.

Ribs have two functions:
1. to increase stiffness,
2. to reduce weight.

If designed too shallow In depth, or too widely spaced they are ineffectual [Fig. 5.6(a)].

(i) Incorrect (ii) Incorrect

(Ribs too shallow) (Too widely spaced)
II 82 II Casting Technology and Cast Alloys

Correct rib depth and spacing is a matter of engineering design.

Design preference in average design is for ribs to have great~r depth than thickness.
Ribs in compression, in general. offer a greater factor of safety than ribs in tension.
However, castings having thin ribs or webs in compression may require design changes to
avoid buckling [Fig. S.6(b)J.
Thickness of ribs
~Id approximately
~8 ,,,,,., <h;".",

(i) Incorrect (ii) Incorrect (iii) Correct

Thin ribs should be avoided when As far as possible. junction between Ribs should solidify before the
joined to a heavy section. ribs and main casting should casting section they adjoin
Otherwise. they will lead to high prevent any local accumulation of
stresses and cracking metal
Thickness of ribs should eqllal 80% of casting thickness. Should be rounded at edge and correctly filleted.

T and N shaped ribbed design have the advantage of uniform

metal sections and hence uniform cooling

(i) Poor (ii) Improved

Metal section too heavy at bosses. Uniform metal section assures 'sound casting,
Difficult to feed solid. less weight, lower machining cost.
7. Proportion dimension of inner walls correctly.
Inner sections castings resulting from complex cores, cool much slower than outer sections and
cause variations in strength properties. A good rule is to reduce inner sections to 91l0ths of the
thickness of the outer wall. A void rapid section changes and sharp angles. Wherever complex
cores must be used, design for uniformity of section to avoid local heavy masses of metal
[Figs. 5.8(a) and (b)].

8. Cylinders and bushings.

The inside diameter of cylinders and bushings should exceed the wall thickness of castings
[Figs. 5.8(c) and (d)].
 When inside diameter of cylinder is less than the wall thickness of the casting, as
shown in fig. 5.8(d), it is better to cast solid. Holes can be produced by cheaper and safer
methods than by coring.
Most metals and alloys shrink when they solidify.
Therefore, design such that all members of the parts increase in dimension
progressively to one or more suitable locations where feeder heads can be placed to offset
liquid shrinbge.
The illustrations shown in fig. 5.9 portray correct and incorrect methods of design.
All of the rules set forth here have been proven in service and assure soundness of section.

Feeder
riser

Shrink
defect

Incorrect Incorrect
Heavy secliun Lighl section at top
cannol be fed prevenls feeding

) ncorrecl
RisL"rs 'II R wi" nol feed Y

I. Michael A. Gwyn, Modem Casting. 88(5), 1998, 32.

2. Lecture notes. Prof. James Leach, Coimbatore, 1965.