ARTICLE IN PRESS

Building and Environment 42 (2007) 325329

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Evaluating skid resistance of different asphalt concrete mixes

Ibrahim M. Asi
Department of Civil Engineering, Hashemite University, P.O. Box 150459, Zarqa 13115, Jordan
Received 24 June 2005; accepted 19 August 2005

Abstract

At all stages of pavement life, the highway surface should have some sort of roughness to facilitate friction between car wheels and
pavement surface. Skid resistance is a measure of the resistance of pavement surface to sliding or skidding of the vehicle. It is a
relationship between the vertical force and the horizontal force developed as a tire slides along the pavement surface. The texture of the
pavement surface and its ability to resist the polishing effect of trafc is of prime importance in providing skidding resistance. Polishing
of the aggregate is the reduction in microtexture, resulting in the smoothing and rounding of exposed aggregates. This process is caused
by particle wear on a microscopic scale. It is a common fact that the lower the skid resistance value, the higher the percentage of the
trafc accidents, especially during the wet seasons. Having a low skid resistance value at an asphalt concrete surface might be attributed
to one or more of the following reasons: (1) use of higher asphalt content than recommended by the mix design procedure, (2) the
Marshall mix design procedure itself, (3) used aggregate gradation, and (4) aggregate quality. To evaluate these factors, a comparative
study was performed to nd the British Pendulum Skid Resistance Number for a number of mixes. These mixes included, an asphalt
concrete mix using local aggregate at the optimum Marshall asphalt content, mixes with 0.5% and 1.0% asphalt contents higher than
Marshall optimum asphalt content, a mix designed using Superpave design procedure, a mix with steel slag to replace 30% of limestone
aggregate, and a mix with stone matrix aggregate gradation. It was found that the mix with 30% slag has the highest skid number
followed by Superpave, SMA, and Marshall mixes, respectively. It was also observed that increasing the asphalt content above the
optimal asphalt content value decreases the skid resistance of these mixes.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Skid resistance; British Pendulum; Skid number; Superpave; Stone matrix aggregate; Slag; Microtexture

1. Introduction In general, the highway surface should have some sort of

Worldwide, more than 1 million person is killed yearly
due to trafc accidents. Although high percentage of these
accidents is due to drivers errors, but highways have a
signicant effect on this high percentage of trafc
accidents. The most important factor in the highways
affecting trafc accident rates is the skid resistance.
Accident rates increase in the rainy season especially after
the initial rain showers. One of the main reasons for this
increase is attributed to the low skid resistance of the
highway surfaces. In addition, a number of the drivers do
not give much attention to the depth of the grooves in their
tires treads, and their driving habits do not change much
during the rain period.
Fax: +962 6 551 8867.
E-mail address: asi@hu.edu.jo.
roughness to facilitate friction between the car wheel and
pavement surface. Skid resistance is the force developed
when a tire that is prevented from rotating slides along the
pavement surface [1]. Skid resistance is a measure of the
resistance of the pavement surface to sliding or skidding of
the vehicle. It is a relationship between the vertical force
and the horizontal force developed as a tire slides along the
pavement surface. Therefore, the texture of the pavement
surface and its ability to resist the polishing effect of trafc
is of prime importance in providing skidding resistance.
Skid resistance is an important pavement evaluation
parameter because:
 Inadequate skid resistance will lead to higher incidences
of skid related accidents.
 Most agencies have an obligation to provide users with a
roadway that is reasonably safe.

0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.08.020
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
326 I.M. Asi / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 325329
 Skid resistance measurements can be used to evaluate
various types of materials and construction practices.
Skid resistance depends on a pavement surfaces micro-
texture and macrotexture [2]. Microtexture refers to the
small-scale texture of the pavement aggregate component
(which controls contact between the tire rubber and the
pavement surface); therefore, it is produced from the
coarse aggregate. Macrotexture refers to the large-scale
texture of the pavement as a whole due to the aggregate
particle arrangement (which controls the escape of water
under the tire and hence the loss of skid resistance at high
speeds) [1]. Therefore, macrotexture is controlled by the
shape, size, gap width, layout, and gradation of the coarse
aggregates [3]. Skid resistance changes over time. Typically,
it increases in the rst two years following construction as
the roadway is worn away by trafc and rough aggregate
surfaces become exposed, and then decreases over the
remaining pavement life as aggregates become more
polished. Skid resistance is also typically higher in the fall
and winter and lower in the spring and summer. This
seasonal variation is quite signicant and can severely skew
skid resistance data if not compensated for [1]. Bazlamit
and Reza [4] reported that skid resistance is also affected by
temperature, it decreases with increased temperature.
Polishing of the aggregate is the reduction in micro-
texture, resulting in the smoothing and rounding of
exposed aggregates. This process is caused by particle
wear on a microscopic scale and is difcult to quantify.
Low-speed friction measurements, such as the British
Portable Friction Tester, have been used in an attempt to
quantify polishing.
Coefcient of friction, m is calculated by dividing the
motion frictional resistance, F, by the load acting
perpendicular to the interface, L [2]. Therefore, m is
dependent on the pavement surface properties, wheel
properties, and loading conditions, in addition to factors
affecting those properties. Another factor which is usually
used is the friction factor, f which is equal to F/L. ASTM
in test method E274 introduced the skid number, SN which
is equal to 100*f.
Most skid resistance measuring techniques involve
measuring the force required to drag a non-rotating tire
over a wet pavement. One of the most popular procedures
which are used to evaluate the friction resistance of the
road surfaces is the Portable British Pendulum Tester. This
test procedure is standardized in ASTM E303 test method.
The British Pendulum Tester is a dynamic pendulum
impact type tester which is based on the energy loss
occurring when a rubber slider edge is propelled across a
test surface. The apparatus may be used for both
laboratory and eld tests on at surfaces, and also for
polished stone value (PSV) measurements on curved
laboratory specimens from accelerated polishing wheel
tests. The values measured are referred to as British
Pendulum (tester) numbers (BPN) for at surfaces, and
PSVs for specimens subjected to accelerated polishing.
Locked-wheel trailer methods are also used to evaluate
skid resistance of highway surfaces according to ASTM
E274 procedure. In this method, a bias-ply tire is towed at
40 mph. The wheel is locked and allowed to slide for a
certain distance. From the measured resistance force, the
skid number, SN, is calculated. Another skid resistance
evaluation procedure is by the use of the yaw mode system.
In this system, the wheels are turned at some angle to the
direction of motion. The side or cornering forces are
measured and transformed into skid numbers. In addition,
other measuring systems use surface texture analysis, like
the TRRL Texture meter, to evaluate skidding properties.
The Skid Number does not indicate the stopping
characteristics of the vehicle, driver, or climatic condition,
but it is a useful tool that can be used in evaluating the
surface friction properties depending on aggregate types,
asphalt mix design, and pavement construction methods.
Although higher Skid Numbers are preferable to lower
Skid Numbers, it is not possible to select a single value
which can be considered adequate for all sites and trafc
conditions [5].
Another variable which is used to evaluate aggregate
resistance against polishing is the PSV. PSV of aggregate
gives a measure of resistance to the polishing action of
vehicle tires under conditions similar to those occurring on
the surface of a road.
The PSV test is carried out in two stages, accelerated
polishing of test specimens followed by measurement of
their state of polish by a friction test. The PSV test is
standardized as a BS 812 test.
Some of the factors affecting road skidding resistance
properties are [2]:
1. surface porosity of the pavement layers,
2. surface wear due to studded tires and aggregate,
3. polishing of surface aggregate,
4. rutting due to compaction, lateral distortion or studded
tire wear,
5. bleeding and ushing of bituminous binder to the
surface,
6. contamination (rubber, oil, water, etc.).
Skidding resistance of roads can be improved by
mechanical methods of retexturing using high pressured
water jets which is analogous to sand blasting. It can also
be improved by milling and resurfacing. In addition, road
surface can be roughened or dressed by chipseal, overlay,
slurry seal or microsurface, or by making grooves in it [6,7].
2. Study objectives
This investigation was undertaken to compare the skid
resistance of different asphalt concrete mixes that included
an asphalt concrete mix using local aggregate at the
optimum Marshall asphalt content, mixes with 0.5% and
1.0% asphalt contents higher than Marshall optimum
asphalt content, a mix designed using Superpave design
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
I.M. Asi / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 325329 327

procedure, a mix with steel slag to replace 30% of ones to accept the 7 cm height samples. Plate 1 shows the
limestone aggregate, and a mix with stone matrix aggregate modied British Pendulum Tester.
gradation. ASTM E303-93 Standard Test Method for Measuring
Surface Frictional Properties Using the British Pendulum
Tester [8] test procedure was followed in performing the
3. Results and discussion comparison tests. Table 1 shows the suggested acceptable
minimum Skid Numbers for the different categories of
To study the effect of asphalt content and asphalt roads [9].
concrete mix type on the skid resistance properties, 15 cm Skid resistance of six different mixes was evaluated. The
diameter by 7 cm height samples were compacted using rst mix was an asphalt concrete mix using local limestone
Superpave Gyratory compactor. The gyratory compactor aggregate compacted at the required optimum Marshall
was used because it simulates eld compaction, it can asphalt content. The used gradation for this mix was the
compact samples of 15 cm diameter, and the sample height median recommended aggregate gradation by Jordan
can be controlled. 15 cm samples were used since the Ministry of Public Works and Housing (MPWs&H) for
recommended contact path for the British Pendulum shoe heavy trafc wearing course layer [10]. The used gradation
on the asphalt concrete surface is between 124 and 127 mm is shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen from this gure that the
[8]. Since the British Pendulum is just designed to test eld recommended gradation passes through the restricted zone.
asphalt concrete surfaces and not designed to test asphalt
concrete laboratory samples, its base was adjusted to Sieve Size, mm
accept 15 cm samples by constructing a special xture to #200 #30 #16 #8 #4 9.5 12.5 19 25
hold the samples rmly in place. In addition, the height 100
adjusting screws of the pendulum were replaced by longer 90
Heavy Traffic Wearing Course
Superpave Gradation
SMA Gradation
80 Restricted Zone
Control Points

70
Percent Passing, %

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Sieve Opening to Power 0.45, mm

Plate 1. Modied British Pendulum skid resistance tester. Fig. 1. Used gradations for the different asphalt concrete mixes.

Table 1
Suggested minimum values of skid resistance numbers (measured with the portable tester) [9]

Category Type of site Minimum skid resistance value (surface

wet)

A Difcult sites such as:

(i) Roundabouts 65
(ii) Bends with radius less than 150 m on unrestricted
(iii) Gradients, 1 in 20 or steeper, of lengths greater than 100 m
(iv) Approaches to trafc lights on unrestricted roads

B Motorways, trunk and class 1 roads and heavily trafcked roads in urban areas (carrying more 55
than 2000 vehicles per day)
C All other sites 45

Note: For category A and B sites where speed of trafc is high (in excess of 95 km/h) an additional requirement is a minimum texture depth of 0.65 mm.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
328 I.M. Asi / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 325329

Cominsky et al. and Brown et al. [11,12] found that mixes
passing through the restricted zone tend to be tender mixes,
and special precautions should be taken when compacting
such mixes. The optimum Marshall asphalt content for this
mix was found to be 5.4%.
Usually, the allowable asphalt content range is optimum
Marshall content 70.5%. Asphalt concrete construction
contractors prefer to use higher asphalt content percen-
tages than the allowable limit because the asphalt concrete
will be more workable, and it will be easier for them to
reach the required compaction degree. To test the effect of
increasing the asphalt content, two additional Marshall
mixes were prepared having 5.9% and 6.4% asphalt
contents.
Fig. 1 also shows the used gradation for the Superpave
mix. Two mixes were prepared according to Superpave mix
design procedure. The rst mix used locally available
limestone aggregate. In the second mix, 30% of the
limestone aggregate was replaced by steel slag. The asphalt
content for Superpave samples was found to be 5.4%.
The suggested requirements for SMA mixtures which
was developed by the FHWA sponsored SMA Technical
Working Group (TWG) in publication IS 118 [5] was
followed in preparing the SMA samples [13]. The used
SMA aggregate gradation is shown in Fig. 1. The used
asphalt content for the SMA mix was 6.9%. Details of
SMA mix design procedure can be found in another
publication [14].
Two samples from each mix were tested for skid
resistance evaluation. On each sample, the test was
repeated ve times. Table 2 and Fig. 2 show the obtained
Skid Number
skid resistance values [1517]. The high asphalt content of
SMA mixes, 6.9%, placed a high lm thickness around the
aggregate and was the main reason behind the low SN
values. However, due to the coarse gradation of SMA
mixes they will have high eld SN values. Still SMA-tested
samples were having higher SN values than Marshall
mixes.
Fig. 2 showed higher SN values than those usually
obtained in the eld. This might be because the samples are
non-trafcked, or because of the fact that the test is
performed on laboratory prepared samples. In spite of
these limitations, using the British pendulum on laboratory
prepared samples can aid in comparing the skid perfor-
mance of the different mixes, and can give an idea about
predicted skid resistance performance.
4. Concluding remarks
This investigation was undertaken with the primary
objective to compare the skid resistance of different mixes.
Based on the ndings of the experimental results, the
following main conclusions can be drawn:
1. Skid resistance of the asphalt concrete surfaces of the
roads should be checked during the service life of the
roads.
120
100

skid numbers for the different mixes. 80

From Fig. 2, it can be seen that for Marshall samples, 60
SN decreases with the increase of the asphalt cement 40
content. Samples designed according to Superpave proce- 20
dure, showed better skid resistance performance than both 0
Marshall and SMA samples. The highest SN values were Marshall @ Marshall @ Marshall @ Superpave S.M.A 30% Slag
OAC OAC + 0.5% OAC +1.0%
for the slag samples. Although SMA samples showed lower
Mix Type
SNs than Superpave and slag samples, but eld perfor-
mance of SMA mixtures proved that SMA mixes have high Fig. 2. Skid numbers for the different asphalt concrete mixes.

Table 2
Skid resistance evaluation results for the different mixes

Sample no. Trial no. Marshall Marshall+0.5% Marshall+1% Superpave SMA 30% slag

1 1 92 84 77 100 93 102
2 89 80 71 110 90 97
3 97 77 70 97 90 100
4 100 80 73 93 96 100
5 80 81 75 92 94 100
2 1 80 82 72 90 94 100
2 80 83 77 90 92 99
3 85 84 70 98 93 99
4 82 82 77 95 92 99
5 87 80 77 92 90 100
Average 87.2 81.3 73.9 95.7 92.4 99.6
Standard deviation 7.3 2.2 3.0 6.1 2.0 1.3
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
I.M. Asi / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 325329
2. A test to evaluate resistance of aggregate to polishing,
like PSV test, should be included in the highway
specications.
3. Asphalt concrete mixes containing 30% slag have the
highest skid number followed by Superpave, SMA, and
Marshall mixes, respectively.
4. Increasing the asphalt content above the optimal asphalt
content value decreases the skid resistance of these
mixes. Therefore, road construction contractors should
adhere to the specication limits of the asphalt content.
5. Mixes designed according to Superpave mix design
procedure have better skid numbers than those designed
using Marshall mix design procedure.
6. Addition of steel slag in asphalt concrete mixes and
using SMA mixes can be implemented to improve skid
resistance of road surfaces, especially at highway
intersections.
7. British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester can be used to
compare skid performance of the different mixes.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the support of the
Hashemite University for supporting this research study.
Thanks are extended to both Eng. Feras Elayan and Mr.
Ali Al-Omary for helping in performing the required
laboratory and eld measurements.
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