Dust explosion

A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air, often but not always
in an enclosed location. Dust explosions can occur where any dispersed powdered combustible
material is present in high enough concentrations in the atmosphere or other oxidizing gaseous
medium such as oxygen.

Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in underground coal mines, in grain elevators, and other
industrial environments. On the other hand, they are also commonly used by special effects artists,
filmmakers, and pyrotechnicians, given their spectacular appearance and ability to be safely
contained under certain carefully controlled conditions.

Contents Lab demonstration with

burning lycopodium powder
1 Terminology
2 Conditions required
2.1 Sources of dust
2.2 Concentration
2.3 Oxidant
2.4 Sources of ignition
3 Mechanism
4 Effects
5 Protection and mitigation
6 Notable incidents
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

Terminology
If rapid combustion occurs in a confined space, enormous overpressures can build up, causing major structural damage and flying shrapnel.
The sudden release of energy from a "detonation" can produce a shockwave, either in open air or in a confined space. If the spread of flame
is at subsonic speed, the phenomenon is sometimes called a d"eflagration", although looser usage calls both phenomena e"xplosions".

Dust explosions may be classified as being either "primary" or "secondary" in nature. Primary dust explosions may occur inside process
equipment or similar enclosures, and are generally controlled by pressure relief through purpose-built ducting to the external atmosphere.
Secondary dust explosions are the result of dust accumulation inside a building being disturbed and ignited by the primary explosion,
resulting in a much more dangerous uncontrolled explosion inside the workplace. Historically, fatalities from dust explosions have largely
been the result of secondary dust explosions.

Conditions required
[1]
There are four necessary conditions for a dust explosion:

A combustible dust
The dust is suspended in the air at a sufficiently high concentration
There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen)
There is an ignition source
In some traditional analyses of dust explosions, confinement is considered to be a fifth
requirement; this is not an essential condition, but can greatly aggravate the physical
damage that results.

Sources of dust
Many common materials which are known to burn can generate a dust explosion, such as
coal and sawdust. In addition, many otherwise mundane organic materials can also be
dispersed into a dangerous dust cloud, such as grain, flour, starch, sugar, powdered milk,
cocoa, coffee, and pollen. Powdered metals (such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium)
can form explosive suspensions in air, if finely divided.
This traditional diagram showsfive
Explosive dust can arise from activities such as transporting grain, and grain silos have requirements for a dust explosion,
often been demolished violently. Mining of coal leads to coal dust, and flour mills likewise though only four are technically
required; see text
have large amounts of flour dust as a result of milling. A gigantic explosion of flour dust
destroyed a mill in Minnesota on May 2, 1878, killing 14 workers at the Washburn A Mill
and another four in adjacent buildings.[2] A similar problem occurs in sawmills and other
places dedicated to woodworking.

Since the advent of industrial productionscalemetal powderbased additive manufacturing

(AM) in the 2010s, there is growing need for more information and experience with
preventing dust explosions and fires from the traces of excess metal powder sometimes left
over after laser sintering or other fusion methods.[3] For example, in machining operations
downstream of the AM build, excess powder liberated from porosities in the support
1878 stereograph rendering of the
structures can be exposed to sparks from the cutting interface.[3] Efforts are underway not
Great Mill Disaster
only to build this knowledgebase within the industry but also to share it with local fire
departments, who do periodic fire-safety inspections of businesses in their districts and who
can expect to answer alarms at shops or plants where AM is now part of the production
mix.[3]

Although not strictly a dust, paper particles emitted during processing - especially rolling,
unrolling, calendaring/slitting, and sheet-cutting - are also known to pose an explosion
hazard. Enclosed paper mill areas subject to such dangers commonly maintain very high air
humidities to reduce the chance of airborne paper dust explosions.

In special effects pyrotechnics, lycopodium powder and non-dairy creamer[4] are two
Mount Mulligan mine disasterin
common means of producing safe, controlled fire effects. Thermobaric weapons, depending Australia 1921. These cable drums
upon their fuel, are also a potential and intentional source of dust. were blown 50 feet (15 m) from their
foundations following acoal dust
To support rapid combustion, the dust must consist of very small particles with a high explosion.
surface area to volume ratio, thereby making the collective or combined surface area of all
the particles very large in comparison to a dust of larger particles. Dust is defined as
powders with particles less than about 500 micrometres in diameter, but finer dust will
present a much greater hazard than coarse particles by virtue of the larger total surface area
of all the particles.

Concentration
Below a certain value, the lower explosive limit (LEL),[5] there is simply insufficient dust
to support the combustion at the rate required for an explosion. A combustible Aftermath of 2008 explosion at
concentration at or below 25% of the LEL is considered safe.[6] Similarly, if the fuel/air Imperial Sugar in Port Wentworth,
ratio increases above the upper explosive limit (UEL), there is insufficient oxidant to permit Georgia, US
combustion to continue at the necessary rate.
Oxidant
Typically, normal atmospheric oxygen can be sufficient to support a dust explosion if the other necessary conditions are also present. High-
oxygen or pure oxygen environments are considered to be especially hazardous, as are strong oxidizing gases such as chlorine and fluorine.
Also, particulate suspensions of compounds with a high oxidative potential, such as peroxides, chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and
dichromates, can increase risk of an explosion if combustible materials are also present.

Sources of ignition
There are many sources of ignition, and a naked flame need not be the only one: over one half of the dust explosions in Germany in 2005
were from non-flame sources.[5] Common sources of ignition include:

electrostatic discharge (e.g. an improperly installedconveyor belt, which can act like a Van de Graaff generator)
friction
electrical arcing from machinery or other equipment
hot surfaces (e.g. overheatedbearings)
fire
self-ignition
However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of ignition when investigating after an explosion. When a source cannot be found,
ignition will often be attributed to static electricity. Static charges can be generated by external sources, or can be internally generated by
friction at the surfaces of particles themselves as they collide or move past one another
.

Mechanism
Dusts have a very large surface area compared to their mass. Since burning can only occur at the surface of a solid or liquid, where it can
react with oxygen, this causes dusts to be much more flammable than bulk materials. For example, a 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) sphere of a
combustible material with a density of 1 g/cm3 would be about 12.4 centimetres (4.9 in) in diameter, and have a surface area of 0.048 square
metres (0.52 sq ft). However, if it were broken up into spherical dust particles 50 m in diameter (about the size of flour particles) it would
have a surface area of 120 square metres (1,300 sq ft). This greatly-increased surface area allows the material to burn much faster, and the
extremely small mass of each particle allows them to catch on fire with much less energy than the bulk material, as there is no heat loss to
conduction within the material.

When this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse or silo, a significant increase in pressure is
created, often more than sufficient to demolish the structure. Even materials that are traditionally thought of as nonflammable (such as
aluminum), or slow burning (such as wood), can produce a powerful explosion when finely divided, and can be ignited by even a small
spark.

Demonstration of an open-air dust explosion

 Experimental setup Finely-ground flour is Cloud of flour is ignited Fireball spreads rapidly
dispersed

Intense radiant heat has Fireball and superheated Aftermath of explosion,

nothing to ignite here gases rise with unburned flour on the
ground

Effects
A dust explosion can cause major damage to structures, equipment, and personnel from violent overpressure or shockwave effects. Flying
objects and debris can cause further damage. Intense radiant heat from a fireball can ignite the surroundings, or cause severe skin burns in
unprotected persons. In a tightly enclosed space, the sudden depletion of oxygen can cause
asphyxiation.

Protection and mitigation

Much research has been carried out in Europe and elsewhere to understand how to control these
dangers, but dust explosions still occur. The alternatives for making processes and plants safer
depend on the industry.

In the coal mining industry, a methane explosion can initiate a coal dust explosion, which can then
engulf an entire mine pit. As a precaution, incombustible stone dust may be spread along mine
roadways, or stored in trays hanging from the roof, to dilute the coal dust stirred up by a shockwave
to the point where it cannot burn. Mines may also be sprayed with water to inhibit ignition.

Some industries exclude oxygen from dust-raising processes, a precaution known as "inerting".
Typically this uses nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or argon, which are incombustible gases which can
displace oxygen. The same method is also used in large storage tanks where flammable vapors can
accumulate. However, use of oxygen-free gases brings a risk of asphyxiation of the workers. Workers
who need illumination in enclosed spaces where a dust explosion is a high risk often use lamps
This American poster during
designed for underwater divers, as they have no risk of producing an open spark due to their sealed World War I warned about
waterproof design. grain dust explosions

Good housekeeping practices, such as eliminating build-up of combustible dust deposits that could be
disturbed and lead to a secondary explosion, also help mitigate the problem.

Best engineering control measures which can be found in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Combustible Dust Standards[7]
include:

Wetting
Oxidant concentration reduction
Deflagration venting
 Deflagration pressure containment
Deflagration suppression
Deflagration venting through a dust retention and flame-arresting device

Notable incidents
Dust clouds are a common source of explosions, causing an estimated 2,000 explosions annually in Europe.[8] The table lists notable
incidents worldwide.
 Source
Event Date Location Country Fatalities Injuries Notes
material
Destroyed
the largest
grain mill in
the world
and leveled
five other
mills,
effectively
reducing the
milling
capacity of
Washburn "A" Minneapolis, United Minneapolis
May 2, 1878 grain dust 22
Mill explosion Minnesota States by one-third
to one-half.
Prompted
mills
throughout
the country
to install
better
ventilation
systems to
prevent dust
build-up.
The series of
coal dust
explosions
within a mine
Mount rocked the
Mount Mulligan
September 19, 1921 Mulligan, coal dust 75 close-knit
mine disaster Australia
Queensland township and
was audible
as far as 30
kilometres
(19 mi) away.
34% of the
miners
working that
Benxihu day were
Benxi, Manchukuo coal dust
Colliery April 26, 1942 1,549 killed. This is
Liaoning (now and gas
explosion the world's
China) worst-ever
coal-mining
accident.
Westwego
Westwego, United [9]
grain elevator December 22, 1977 grain dust 36 13
Louisiana States
explosion
Galveston
Galveston, United [9]
grain elevator December 27, 1977 grain dust 20
Texas States
explosion
Bird's Custard
United [8][10]
factory November 18, 1981 Banbury corn starch 9
Kingdom
explosion
Metz malt
factory October 18, 1982 Metz France barley dust 12 1 [11]
explosion
Harbin textile
factory March 17, 1987 Harbin China flax dust 58 177 [12]
explosion
Blaye grain August 1997 Blaye France grain dust 11 1 Explosion in
explosion a grain
storage
facility at the
Socit
 dExploitation
Maritime
Blayaise
killed 11
people in
nearby
offices and
injured
one.[8]
West
Kinston,
Pharmaceutical United polyethylene
January 29, 2003 North 6 38
Services States dust
Carolina
explosion
Port
Imperial Sugar United [8]
February 7, 2008 Wentworth, sugar dust 14 42
explosion States
Georgia
2014 Kunshan China metal
August 2, 2014 Kunshan 146 114
explosion powder
Explosion
when Holi-
like colored
powder was
Formosa Fun colored released at
Coast June 27, 2015 New Taipei Taiwan starch 15 498 an outdoor
explosion powder music and
color festival
at the
Formosa Fun
Coast.
Bosley Wood
Bosley, United [13][14]
flour mill July 17, 2015 wood flour 4 4
Cheshire Kingdom
explosion

See also
Air to fuel ratio
Flour bomb

References
1. [1] (http://esf.uvm.edu/sirippt/prevdustex/index.htm)Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20050921011158/http://esf.uvm.
edu/sirippt/prevdustex/index.htm)September 21, 2005, at theWayback Machine.
2. http://www.mnopedia.org/event/1878-washburn-mill-explosion
3. Simpson, Timothy W. (2017-08-17), "Will My AM Part Explode? Not if you're careful. Parts built from metallic powder
require extra precautions"(https://www.mmsonline.com/columns/will-my-am-part-explode), Modern Machine Shop.
4. "Detonation Films - Why Coffee Creamer?" (http://www.detonationfilms.com/Fireball_demo.htm). Retrieved March 20,
2011.
5. !StaubEx_0805_e.pdf (http://bartec.de/homepage/eng/downloads/produkte/staubexschutz/Dust_Ex.pdf)
6. NFPA 69 8.3.1
7. http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards
8. Hought, Julian (28 February 2011)."Dust to Dust" (http://www.hazardexonthenet.net/article/40288/Dust-to-Dust.aspx).
Retrieved 2015-07-02.
9. "Explosion suits settled".The Day. New London, Connecticut. 24 April 1980. p. 26.
10. "Corn Starch Dust Explosion at General Foods Ltd, Banbury, Oxfordshire 18th November 1981". Great Britain: January
1983. Occupational Health & Safety Information Service, UK.ISBN 0-11-883673-0
11. Explosion dans un silo d'une malterie(http://www.aria.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/accident/8781/)(in French)
12. "47 Die, 179 Injured in Blast at Linen Mill in Northeast China"(http://articles.latimes.com/1987-03-17/news/mn-12499_1_lin
en-mill). Los Angeles Times. March 17, 1987. Retrieved 2015-07-02.
13. "Bosley explosion: Four missing in Wood Flour Mills blast" (http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-33566064). July 17,
2015. Retrieved 2015-12-02.
14. "Bosley Wood flour mill explosion: Fourth body found in wreckage of building gutted by blast"(http://www.mirror.co.uk/new
s/uk-news/bosley-wood-flour-mill-explosion-6150258) . July 27, 2015. Retrieved 2015-12-02.

John Barton (ed.): Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection (A Practical Guide)Institution of Chemical Engineers, Rugby
2002, ISBN 0-85295-410-7.
Rolf K. Eckhoff: Dust Explosions in the Process Industries, 2nd ed. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford 1997,ISBN 0-7506-
3270-4.

External links
Incidents in France and the US:

Combustible dust explosion investigation productsfrom the Chemical Safety Board

Combustible Dust Policy Institute-ATEX
OSHA case studies of dust explosions
Protecting process plant and grain handling facilities from the risk of dust hazard explosions:

Dust Explosions - The Dangers, and The Precautions Needed oTAvoid Them
Hazard Monitoring Equipment - Selection, Installation and Maintenance
Seminars for Combustible Dust Safety
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg103.htm- HSE (UK) advice on safe handling of combustible dust.

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