l6 r-ruro TRANSIENTS

I-7 Scope and Range of Problems in Unsteady FIow CHAPTER

steady-oscillatory problems may be solved by .tiansient-llow

in
equations, but the
the analysis and
TWO
corlverse is not practical. Unstady-flow protlems arising
(e'g'' tlow in a large hydro
design of tiuid systems *uy quite unrelated BASIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS FOR
"pp"ui in an oil-hydraulic
.y.i!r" *,.ompored *itt., t'f,e *t..to*tn.. effects apparent
TRANSIENT FLOW
in fuel injection system)' The same methods
lift tor u larm tractor or tlow a diesel
o[analysisapply,however,anditisthepurposeo[thistreatmenttopresentof
rhose merhods that are oi the most valul in dealing
with a wide variety
of transients in a system'
applications. Straight analysis ol a system, .correction
are all considered.,The digital-computer
..ir .rign to avJid bad transients
Where feasible, experi-
rnethods are examined because o[ their many advantages.
mental evidence of the accuracy of the methods is included'

Problems
]vnfu nruoli[ri"slzfnino
l-l DeriveEq.(l-l)iorcolpletestoPpageo[velocitylzsbyuscofthecontrolvoluneapproach' !NGENIERO CIVIL
so that the ow increases from clP.11367S
l-2 A valve at the downstrerm end o[ a pipe is opened suddenly
2 to ?.2. m/s. For.: 1,100 m/s what is the headchang upstream?

l-SForProblcml.2whatwouldbethepercentdifferenceinheadifthemoreexactlormulation
were used'l '
l.4Whutthicknessotal.inlDsteelpipeisneededtr:withstandl.00psipressure?Allowable In this chapter the differential equations ol motion and continuity are developed
maxinum tesile stess is 10,000 psi' t, = ' for use in iater chapters. These two equations' in general, are sirnpler ltran the
ft in diameter' For an overload
l-5 A penstock near the power plant has a liead of35O i1.1nd is 16 allowablc slress : l0'000 psi' lnomentum and continuity equations for developing algebraic finite djfference
of 100 percent what thickness-of ii"tf pipt wall is reqtrirerl'l Maximum
equations for solving translent problems. One special case of a highly deformable
continuity equationls also worled out. The general wave equation solutions ere
Ll .
-
l-A2-nldianrererpilre,e:2Ornnr,lastlowo[wateratlrn/sunderaheadofl00mForsteelpipe'
given, as *"ti as seyeral special formulas for wavespeeds under various wall con-
\E =701 GPa) tor sudden valve closure, delermine:
(o) The wave speed ( K : 2,070 M Pa) for the lhree cases oI constraint
(/ = 0'3)' :
itions. The subscripts .x and t denote partial diflerentiation (i'e', p, 0p/0'x),
and a
pipe circumferential stess before and fter closure' dot over a dependent variable indicates the total derivative with respect to time'
lb) the
(c) the adrlitional pipe areir and its percEntage clrange. _
l-7 A stcl pipe -1,000 [t long antl 6 [t in dianreter'
g:.i in' E: ](10]? psi' L = 3(10] psi. tt tr,rs
how much Borv enters 2-1 Equation of Motion
w;rter Ilowing ilt _1 [t/s. For".a." r restraint arrd sulden
vrlve clo.sure.

the pipe after closure? How is this volttle distributerj between ayt, a#., and a{'l
slice of gas in a pipe segment by The equation olmotion is derived for liquid flow through a conical tube s well
l-E Develop Eq. ll-19c1 by consirlerilrg a slie'e of liquid next to a p(I,f)
ihe continuity equotion. Neglect expansion of the pipe and as for a cylindrical tube. The equation is in terms o[ centerline pressure
use oI rhe rnomenrum .quu,ion an<l
the hydraulic
Poisson ratio effects and average velocity lz(.x,t). It is then converted to a form using

t-9 Fintt the wavespeed in a pipeline containing water with 2

rtmospheric condilions
l-10 At a pressure ol
equal lo the speed oI sorrnd in ir alone'l
percent air content Assune standrd grade line H(.r, ) sometimes called fhe piezttnteffc head, or in short, fhe lrcut)-
tt sea level' in most of this treatment H and the discharge Q(.r,r) are the prel'erred dependent
produce a wavespced
I MPa in a pipeline' what air content in water *ould variables. ,r and r are tlle independent variables.'
Figure 2-1 shows a free body of fluid of cros sectional area A and thickness
dx. The area A is, in general, a function oi x, which is the coordinate distauce
along the axis of the tube lrom an arbitrary origin. The tube is inclined with the
horiiontat at an angle d, positive when the elevation increases in the + x direction'
The forces on the free body in the .t direction are the surface contact normrl
pressures on the transverse faces, and shear and presure components on the
periphery. In addition gravity, the body force, has an -r component' The shear

,l
 BAsrc Du.FERENTIAL E(JuATIoNS FoR TRANSENT nlow 19
l8 r.luP TRANSIENTS

by eliminating Ap. The absolute value sign on the velocity term in Eq. (2-2)
ensures that the shear stres. always opposes the direction ol the velocity.
$rF The acceleratior term lz in Eq. (2-l) is for a particle of fluid (the slice) having

/-"' ,"" i velocity Iz, hence

i
. V:VV,+Vt (2-5)
H-z
By use of Eqs. (2-2) and (2-5), Eq. (2-l) takes the [orm

p4199:9- =- la + vv,t +t v,
.' +st-'sin cr * [!Y] : o (2-6)
P 2D

valid lor converging or diverging pipe ow also. The piezometric head H

wl-rich is
6',
(or elevation oi hydraulic grade line above an arbitrary datum) may replace p.
$ * p, %)A'
From Fig.2-l
p: pg(H - z)

where is the elevation of centerline of pipe at x. Then

7 6.r p*: p{l(H* - :..): pglH* - sin a) l2-'1)

Dturn
This partial differentiation corsidered p to be substantially contirnt, as compared
Figurr 2-l Freeborly tliagram for application ofequulion oI motion' with H or :. Equation (2-6) is valid lor gases, but Eq. \2-7) is restricted to
liquids. Substitution into Eq. (2-6) yields
f VIVI
force rs is considered to act in the -x diiection. With reference to the figure
the gH*+VV.*\ t!r-)-t:0 (2-8)

summation o[lorces on the slice o[ fluid is ecr.rated to its mass times its acceleration:
also restricted to liquid llow. The hydraulic grade iine form ol the equation is
/ x\
rszDx - 1'4<)'xsinr : somewhat simpler, as the slope of the pipelitre drops out. Although I/2 lriction
pA * lpA+ (p,tr)'ixl + (r + 0,"))':'a'- pAbxV
was used in deriving the equations! an exponential law may be substituted, e'g.,
By clropping out the sniall quantity containing (t)-x)2 and simplilying it r : 1.85 in a power law, then / Izl Vll2D may be replaced by
Lll
p,A * runD * PglA sin a + PAV : 0 (2-l) AVIV^- D'
the shear stress rs is cousidered to be the srme ,,? are determined to fit the formula desired.
l, and
ln transient llow calculations ,1.,

as il tfie velocity were steady, so in terms o[ the Darcy-Weisbac[ lriction

factor since Eq. (z-8) must hold for steady flow, a special case of unsteady flow,
by setting 4 : 0 and 4 : 0, it becomes
./lo'
__ ptvlvl LH: -' I Lxvlvl
to:--g e-21
d ./T\-------
This equation is developed lrom the Darcy-Weisbarch equation whichistheDarcy-weisbachequation. U#lVA'|,#R0AYALABIliR
C,i). 11379
ol L
tp: o V'2

z
(2-3)
2-2 Continuity Equation
with L the length of lrorizontal pipe, and from a force balance on the PiPe in In this section a derivation of tlre continuity equation developed by T. P. Propson
steaily flow (private communication) is presented. It is quite general and has the advantage
ol portraying tfie various total derivttives, i.e., derivatives with respect to the
Lp+ : tottDL (2-+
motiou. Two come directly into thc continuity equation; (1) differentirtion with
20 t-LUrD TRANsTENTS BAStc DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIoNS FoR TRANsfENT -Low 2l

respect to the axial motion of the pipe, and (2) differentiation with respect to a Additional expansion oI Eq. (2- I 2), using Eq. (2- t0) yields
particle of fluid mass. The third total derivative is differentiation with respect to *
the acoustic wave motion which arises from the characteristics method developed
(pAV), - (pA),u pAu* + u(pA), + (pA), * pAu,: $

in Chapter 3. or by simplifying
With relerence to Fig. 2-2 a moving control volume of length d-t at time
may be considered to be fixed relative to the pipe-it moves and stretches only
(-p AV\, + (p A), : 0 (2-13)

as the irside surface of the pipe moves and stretches. The conservation of mass which may now be written as
law may be stated that the time rate of mass inllow into this control volume is
iust equll to the time rate of increase of mass within the control volltme, or
pAV* * V(pA), + lpA),: Q

The last two terms represent the derivative of p,4 with respect to motion of a mass
-lpA(t'- u)l,d.x : fiOou*l (2-e) particle, or
ID
Let the upstream face be at ,r, and is the velocity oi the pipe wall at x. The
p a@l * v*: s (2-14)
total derivative with respect to the axial motion of the pipe is given by
D'AA in which
(2-10)
:u*+A DAA (2- l s)
and the time rate of increase oilength .r of the control volume is given by
-:v-+-
Dt 0x At

This total derivative is also indicated by a dot over the dependent variable, so
4.: ,-* (2-1 l)
Dt
+ + v,: o
By partial expansion of Eq. (2-9) with use of Eq. (2:1 l) fi,,; iA)

(pAV), - lpAul, +
fitll * pAu*: Q (2-t2)
A V*: O (2-t6)
Ap
-*1*

This equation holds for converging or diverging tubes as well as cylindrical pipes,
It is also valid for very flexible tubes, or lor gas flow, as no simplifying assumptions
have been required. Chapter 17, Sec. I deals with non-prismatic conduits. The
rest of this chapter deals with prismatic conduits.
It is informative. to again introdupe the effect T Poisson's ratio on wave-
speeds for the three cases handled in Chapter 1. With reference to Eq. (2-16)

p__ p
(2-t7)
pK
I
from the definition ol bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid (Eq. l-6). The pipe
wall expansion per unit of area per unit tirne iA is
pA\?
"-i)
A _pp.p.=p2:*-
(2- l 8)
A 2eE2 A eE

with terms defined as in Chapter l. From Poisson's ratio relations

: l,
Figure 2-2 Cortrol vohlme for continuity equatiorr. lr: \oz --ltct) (2- r e)

)
!2 rlulo TRANSIENTS BASIC' DIFFERENTIAL E()UA'I'IONS FOR RANSTENT NIOW 23

{iter use of Eqs. (2-17), (2-18), and (2-i9)in Eq. (2-16) If the pipe has no transverse motion, :, : 0, and &s :, : sin a, Eq. (2-23) becomes
)i) ,t2
(2-20) VH,+H,-Vsina+:V":0 (2-28)
;@,-Ftt*k+v,:o 0
which is a convenient form ol the continuity equation with tr/ and H as dependent
Ihe transverse, or circumferential, tensiou is related to pressure by
variables, and with .x and t the iridependent variables. Through a2 the fluid and wall
or: pDl(2e) properties are included.

r: pDlQe) (2-2t) 2-3 Wavespeeds in Special Conduits

In addition to wavespeeds given for the previolrsly discussed thin-walled pipe,
which holds for all three support conditions of Chapter l. D changes so little with
we shall present here wavespeeds lor a few special conduits.
time, as compared to p in transient tlow that it is considered constant for this
Jifferentiation.
Thick-walled elastic pipeline For pipes in which the walls are relatively thick in
The axial rate ol change ol tensile stress is given for the three cases as
comparison with the diameter, the stress in the walls is not uniformly distributed
.bAiD
(rr) or: throughout the walls. In this condition, as when the ratio D/e is less than
nOe: 4e approximately 25, the following coefficientsrT should be used.
:
(b) o, to2 (2-22)
Case a The pipeline is anchored at upstream end only, and
(c) r:0
,r-- 2e.
D (,4\
D(l +.l*
(2-2e)
Equation (2-20) through substitution of Eqs. (2-21) aud (2-22) may be written D*r\r-r)
o-
p
* n'u,: o (2-23)
Cas The pipeline is anchored against longitudinal movement, and

2e .- (l - p')
in wl'rich c':r(l+p)+-D+7 (2-30)

Klp
tlz : (2-24)
Cas e The pipeline has expansionjoints throughout its length, and
t + l(KlE\(Dle))ct
2eD
with c1 defined for each case c,:D(l+)n o+, (2-31)

(a) ct:l-1

In the thick-walled pipeline the type ol constraint has little effect on the wave-
speed.It can be noted that as the thipkness e becomes small, each coefficient
() ct=l-Pl (2-zsl approaches the corresponding c1 for the thin-walled pipeline.
(c) rr:l
Circular tunnels By allowing the thickness e in the equations tbr thick-walled
In Eq. (2-13) r2 is considel'ed to be fl constirnt that is a collection o[ properttes pipes to become larger and larger, cr, approaches the value (2elD)(I *p)- Sub-
ol the lluicl, the pipe. and its uleans o[ support, atrd so lrr has beeu given no stituting this value of r'r into Eq. (l-16) yields
nreuniug relating it to acotrstic speed-
Ttr piezonretric tiead miry be introdttced into Eq. (2-23); lrom Fg'2-2 Klp (2-32\
p: (2-26) I +(?KlE,a)(t + p)
pg(H - zl
This equation enables the wavespeed in a conduit through solid roCk or concrete
rnd to be calculated. E ad /r represent the modulus ol rigidity and Poisson's ratio
i: pg(Ii - il : pJlVH, + H, - V:, - =,)
(2-27\ ol the tunnel rnarterial, respectively.

)
24 FLUTD TRANSIENTS BASIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIoNS FoR TRANSIENT FLow 25

with
Lined circular tunnels A steel liner in contact with the tunnel material increases
the wavespeed to more than that which would exist in the tunnel alone. If
^._t+(DlB)3
Poisson's ratio effects are neglected in both the sieel and tunnel material, a simple I+DIB
expressionrT can be presented Ior the coefficient c in Eq. {l-16):
Thorley and Guymerrl2 have studied thick-walled rectangular conduits
2Ee including shear deformation as well rs tension and bending. The shear and tension
cr = (2-33)
E*D + ZEe terms comprise l0*12 percent olthe area change lor a width to thickness ratio of
15. The terms become negligible for large ratios, say 100.
in reinlorced concrete pipe
Reinforced concrete pipe The pressure-pulse velocity
can be estimated by replacing the actual pipe with an "equivalent" steel pipe Example 2-l A 75O-mm-diameter pipe is filled with wrrer. K :2.2 Gpa and p : 998.2 kg/nrr
whose wall thickness is based upon the concrete thickness and the reinforcing io 20'C.
(o) Ifthe pipeline were considered completely rigid, the wavespeed would
bars in the pipe. The ratio ol the moduli of concrete to steel multiplied by the be

concrete thickness yields an equivalent steel-pipe thickness. An allowance can be

made for the probable cracking o[the concrete pipe.
,,= ,/Klp = ,/ri;tElsst,:: 1484.6 m/s

Equationi including Poisson's ratio effect can be developed tor lined tunnels;37 ib) Consjder the three conditions of restraint on a steel pipeiine (e: 6.J5 mm, :0,J,
E = 207 CPa, aad KDIEe: 1.255).
in most cases, however, additional accuracy for this one lactor is not warranted,
since other uncertainties are tikely to be equally important. Items which may be Cuse u

of some importance but which have not been considered include the rionlinear . u 1484.6
nature of the bulk modulus of the uid, a nonperfect circular section, the nonlinear
(' = I -;=U.) d= :: 1032.7tn/s
. Jl+1.255x0.85
nature of some pipe materials, and frictional, viscoelastic, and hysteretic losses. Cuse b

Plastic pipes The formulrs iis developed for metal pipes are satisfactory [or cr : I - p2 :o.et r: lol4.4m/s
calculating plastic tubing wavespeeds if the appropriate bulk moduli and Poisson's
-----l1L-:
Jl+1.255x0.9t
ratio are used.rrl Case c

Reetangular and other noncircular cross sections For cross sections other than cr : I ni/s
": -y-:988.6
/l + 1.255
circular, theoretical wavespeeds may be calculated [rom Eq' (1-7) if the term (c) Consider the three conditions olrestraint on a steel thick-walled pipeline of the same
L,AI(ALp\ can be evaluated. Jenkner+s has calculated values for both the square inlernal diameter. = 50 mm, KDIEe :0.t594.
and rectangular cases.
Cuse u
For the square conduit of sides B and thickness o[ material
2x 0.05 - 0.75 / 0.3 \
LA _ Bl- B' .' : + 0..1) +
(2-34) l;-lr o-frlns(.l - '-2
/
= 0e70
ALp eE' l5e3E
,,:-__-]1s-:1381.6m/s
The first term on the right side is due to the tension elongation ol the sides and ,/t+o.tsl+ro"lzo
the second term is due to bending o the sides. In general the first term may be Ctt.sc h
neglected.
For the rectangular cross section of width B and depth D, neglecting area
'
cr :0.173 *3 * 0.91 : t.ozo ,,:
" $:
increase due to tension.
0.80 .,/l ,_ otss , t.ozo
1i76.3 m/s

*,:#
in which R is a "rectangular factor" given by
(2-1s)
C.is a

cr :0.173 *
ffi:
(d) Consider a 750-mm tunnel through
, ,, a : ,--:
a
1484.6

Jt+0.1591x t.|
a concrete dam- E r :
1368.4 nr/s

2O.l GPa and :

ll 0.1

*:u i'".;(*)'[, - ,.(#)'] (r::=l3l4.lm/s 1484.6

Jt +2 ^ (2.2/20.?)(r +0.3)
 BASIC' DIFFEI{T,:NTIAL EOIJATIONS FOR I'RANSIENI TTOW 27
FL(JID TRANSIENl'S

(c) Consider a 12.5-lnnl steel liner inside I concretc tunnel' the irlside diameter remaininB |( - xla) are entirely arbitrary and may be selected to satisfy the conditions
750 nim. imposed at the ends of the conduit. The function
?x2,O'1 x l0rrx 0.0125

zrl ro* , O.zs ) x 2.07 x l0rt x 0.0125

= 0.25

.
tl'\ * I)
ol
fiD 2'2 x lOq x 0'75
- a.ar,
may be interpreted as a wave moving in the -x direction;that is, holding F
r.:uoz'to'ixool25
constant, as , incre&ses, x must decrease at the rate ar. This is called an F wave,
,, - - ,- = ri78.7 r/s which one can set up by altering conditions at the downstream end of the pipe.
v'
--14t1'6
I r O3ll x 025 Similarly
1./)Considerasquaresteelcotlduitl00lntonlside'witlrthickness5rnm.FromEq'(2-]4) /x\
a.4 ol
- / 9.1 \' f
=
p o-oos; xlz ' ro' \0005/ 15 x 107 x l0'
=1.6?3xlo-q
\'-;)
may be interpreted as a wave moving in the +.x direction. Hence, ilan alteration
Then fronr Eq' (t-7)
in ead is made at the upstream end ol the conduit, it is transmitted as an /
( = +- 56rn/s wave downstream in unchanging form.
,1 +22;W "2673 x tO-e ' Equation (2-39), when integrated, becomes

4 Forms of the Equations for Special Purposes v - vo : - Zl,(,. ;) -r(, - :)] (2-41\

itrticularsolutionsofthepartialdifferentialequationsaretrbtained[orvarious
of fhe equations is discussed in this u and the signs have been introduced to make the solution satisfy
mptilying assumptions. Olfy cl"t *fution
The constant gf
tt" general equations of wave mechanics' the mixed equations in Iz and H, Eqs. (2-36) and (2-37). Equations (2-40) and
rapter; this is the ,otrtion t oU'uin
(2-41) are sometimes utilized directly in the arithmetic method, although they
leneral wave equato Equation (2-28)
with the first and third terms neglected are not needed for that purpose. They may be used in deriving the graphical
waterhammer equations.
v, + H,: o
,!-
Q-36)
Equatiom used for the characteristics method This method permits the nonlinear
as well as the term lzlz' in the terms to remain in the differential equations. The equation of motion is written,
nd Eq. (2-8) with the lriction term neglected'
/ term, from Eq. (2-8)

H. +L v,: o (2-37\ Lt = gH, + VV, + r, n l#l /l : 0 (2-42)

g

may be solved. By taking the partial The term L1 is just a label for the equation, and is used in Chapter 3 in the
ield two linear differential equations that
to f and the second with respect to x' derivations.
lerivative ofthe first equation with respect The continuity Eq. (2-28) takes the form
)ne may eliminate lz, which Yields
H, : 02 H,- (2-38)
Lz: H, +L
,t2
v* + vH, - I/ sin a: 0 (2-43)
giving s
In a similrr man'er H may be eliminated'
V,, : ti V* (2-3e)
Equations rsed for the impedance method The impedance method is developed in
be shown to be
this treatment for the steady-oscillatory case mainly-the characteristics method
The general solution of Eq' (2-38) may is more suitable for the transient case. It is necessary to linearize the friction term,
and other small terms are dropped from the equations. It is also convenient to
H-Ho:n(,+t.r(-i) (2-40)
develop these equations with the discharge Q and elevation o[ hydraulic grade
line Il as the dependent variables.
by differentiation and substitution into
Eq' (2-38)' The lunctions F{r + 'x/a) and
 BAstc DIFFERENTTAL EeuATroNs FoR TRANSTENT rlow 29
28 FLUID TRANSILNTS

After eliminrting e in the last two equations,

Equation (2-8) becomes
I^JQ' nr2 r
,.o:-,Ae,+ffi-o Q-44\
#:^'; (2-5r)

generalized to This equation can be expressed

where ,4 is the cross-sectional area and the term I/2 has been
(Ql A)". ln this equation the tertn VQ*IU A has been dropped'
'-'
it. continuity equation Eq. (l-ZSl with the first and third terms dropped,
becomes
h:(?)',,; (2-s2\

in which
o-+4H,=ot"
t2-15)
,: y!
9t'o
(2-53t

equations'
These equations are used in Chapter 12 to derive the impedance By taking the derivative ot Eq. (2-52) with respect to tinre,

-t-
2pui-
:I l,r)'1, - ,'"',n t-)
,,) \2-s4)
'\'/ \'
2-5 The Continuity Equafion for Highly Deformable Tubes Alter defining,
tubes the effect o[ density change is unimporttrnt, so the
with highly deformable
liquid niay be considered incompressible. By further making the assumption
allows
that
only
.(;):(+)'('-z.r) (2-55)

thl tube ii tethered, i.e., held so that its length does not change, one
the first and last terms of Eq. (2-16) to enter the'equation' Thus And, by use of I: ptJH, the continuity equation becomes
A

)+v,:o (2-46) *a'of + v-:o (2-s6)

The equation ol motion, Eq. (2-8), is valid for highly deformable tubes.
Since I : rcrz , the equation may be written
The basic differential equations derived in this chapter are utilized in the
?! * u,:o (2-41) following chapters in developing solutions to the various types ol unsteady-flow
r problems. In the next chapter, the characteristics method ofsolution is developed.

For highly deformable tubes, there are many ways to define

the relation
between stress and strain.r25 For this treatment

' olL\:
E
t (2-48)
Problems
\e/ r
E is constant, 2-l Obtain the equation of motion, Eq. (2-8), by writing the unsteady-momentum equation for a
istaken rs the strrin relirtionship. For the linerr elastic case in which conlrol volume of length D-r. (Suggestion: multiply the continuity equation by V md subtraot it
this ecluation can be iutegrated, which yields from the momentum eqtration.]
p,' t 2-2 A noncircular closed conduit deforms iu such a manner that A increases by 0.5 percent when
:ln (2-4e) the prssure increases by 50 psi. For case c support, with water the liquid, estimate the wirvespeed.
eE 16
lnsrver; 850 [t/s.
2-3 By substitution ofEq. (2-41) into Eq. (2-39), prove that it is the solution.
with radius ol unstressed tube. For rubber and other substances having a
16 tl're 2-4 Show that with F andl'rhe same in Eqs. (2-40) and (2-41) the constants in Eq. (2-11) are needcd
constant during
Poisson's ratio of about 0.5, the volume of wall material remains to satisfy Eqs. (2-36) and (2-37).
deformation, and the rvall continuity relation is 2-5 Sketch the manner in which r varies with the ratio D/e for water in steel pipes. E:3(10)7 psl
(2-s0) and K = 3(10)5 psi. Assume that the pipe is anchored t one end only. p = .3.
e6l:

)
II FLIJID TRANSIENl.S
CHAPTER
.shtrwgrophicilllytheilectofthemodulusoiehsticily'ofthepipemateriatuponthewavespeed.
rssume the lluid to be water J't;;;;;/;= poinrs for the following:
70' tnclude THREE
Modulus oI elosticitY SOLUTION BY CHARACTERISTICS METHOD
vlutcriitl Ex 10-6 Psi GPa

30.0 ?07.0
iteel
10.3
70.0
{luninuln
120.0
Copper 17.6
r6.0 I r0.0
Cast iron
3.4 23.0
Ira nsite
a.2 1.4
Plastic
0.01 0.07
Rubber-

[or thin-walted tubing' and com- @*-,'^sHt!#$i*tlu*

2_7 C.lCulote the wavespeeds
in Exarnple 2-lc. using the..equation
si';' tiil"';l-wrrlted-conditon'
pure the results with hose
pipeline' mm thick' with a
300-mm-diameter rubbr
2-B Compare the wavespeed in a water-filled at one
pipeline, ?0 *II1 ;;;;
thick-walled
: li cp' ll : 0'45' ssume the'pipe to be anchored
'
problem 2-E if it were
whar the wavespeed would be- in rhe rhin-waned pipeline in
i]i ll"tlrn,"
^So' K = l'586 GPa'
frlled with oil. Specific gravity'= nD{ r, r, :
: tr Ir cPa
tunnel through sotid rock. En
01' A numerical solution of the equations that govern unsteady-lluid llow in pipelines
2-10 Find th wave verocity in a S-m-diameter
is developed in this chapter. A general solution to the partial differential -equrttions
2.|lCalculatethewvespeedinwater-nlledcoppeltubeinstrtledwithoutlongitudinillfestflint. is not aviilrble, however, the partial differential equation may be translormed by
;;:;;,;t-o'7rmiE: rtoGPa;P=o'3' I

the method of characteristics into particulIr total differential equations. These

latter equations may then be integrated to yield finite difference equatiors which
are conveniently handled numerically'
The equations in their simplest [orm, not including the smaller terms' aIe
first organized for numerical computations. Various boundary conditions are
presented, and simple examples are solved. The equations are presentd in forms
ior direct substitution into a computer compiler language. Basic programs for the
solution of unsteady-fluid llow problems are presented in FORTRAN. Exmples
of experimental confirmation of the calculations are incltded.
The method o[charcteristics is also applid to the nonsimplified equations.
Comple.r systems are handled, ind some oIthe distinctive features olthis particular
method of analysis are covefed. This includes the handling of high friction systems,
the inclusion of minor losses, ancl the alternative characteristics grid approach.

3-l Characteristics Equations

The continu (2-8) and (2-28) rof
rtial dilTerential ations in terms o[ two
t var
r orornary
this section.

3l

)
 SOLUTION BY CHARACTERTSTTCS t'lrHOO 33

32 ruuto TRANSIENTS

in order to provide
are omitted fronr the equations
the terms o,esser importance in a single pipeline' Sec' 3-7
the theory
rhe sirnplest possible it;;;t;;"
to
solution ol the complete equatrons'
Jroft *lif.r the as L' and
The simplifie,r oi ind continuity are identified
"quuiion' 'notion
L: (from Eqs. 2-8 and 2-28) 1il.'i136"i9

S Vlvl:o
(3-l)
L1: sH. + v, +
x Figure 3-l Characteristic lines in the .\r plane

L":H,*iy,=o Q-2\
U
for the negative,l. The substitution of these values o[,1. into Eq. (3-6) leads to two
using an unknown multiplier pairs of equations which are grouped and identified as C' and C- equations'
These equations are combined linearly
'1'

,[r, n* ,,)+ - n]* t'Vl : o (3-3) dHL ---

ru ---' dV l----J---l:
f VlVl (3-e)
r= L, +
^12: [r.'r t adt dt 2D
CN
of the
again yield two equations in terms
Any two real, distinct values of '1 will
dx
equivalent of Eqs' +a (3- l0)
two dependent variables H ad V
that are in every way the
ot"1-leads trr
--
tlt
(3-t) and t-zl. npproptJtJ'"ftoio".ol,t*:-pariicular lul'u,tt of vlvl :o
simplification or
gq' Iill rn gencral both varibles Iz and H are functions _s-{1 *,tv_ * (3-1 1)
f
is permitted to be a function of t' then adt dt 2D
x and t. If the indepenini 'oliutt -x
from calculus
n\:
-lt r'xtlt *' --'
- n.L) n, 4!:
dt
v.# * n (3'4)
rl-t
at: -u l. (3- 12)

Thus the two real values of ,1 have been used to convert the original two partial
that if differential equations to two total differential equations, Eqs. (3-9) and (3-ll),
with Eqs' (3-4) in mind' it can be noted
Now, by examination of Eq' (3-3)
each with the restriction that it is valid only when the respective Eqs. (3-10) and
dr _g (3-5) (3-12) are valid.
-)'a2
dt)"U It is convenient to visualize the solution as it develops on the independent
difl'erential equatlon variable plane, i.e., the xr plane. Inasmuch as a is generally constant for a given
Eq. (3-3) becomes the ordinary pipe, Eq. (3-10) plots as a straight line on the xr plane; and similarly Eq' (3-12)
, fv)ll -
dH .)v *- (3-6) ptts a. a different straight line (Fig. 3-1). These lines on the -xt plane are the
^
^ln d, 2D--"" "characteristic" lines along which Eqs. (3-9) and (3-11)are valid. The latter equa-
tions are referred fo as compatibility equations, each one being valid only on the
The splution otEq. (3-5) yields the
two particular values of tr:
appropriate characteristic line"
'- No mathematical
0 (3-7) approximations have been made in this translormation of
),: +"-
LI theoriginal partial differential equations. Thus, every solution oithis set will be a
in solution of the original system given by Eqs. (3-l) and (3-2).
back into Eq' (3-5)' the pilrticulirr munner
By substituting these values ol I
wirich .r'atrtl r are reluted is given'
3-2 Finitedifference Equations
d'*: +r (3-8)
A pipeline is divided into N equal reaches, erch A.r- in length as shown in Fig.
lt
3-2. A time-step size is computed, Lt -- Lxla, and Eq. (3-10) is satisfied by a
Tlrisshowsthechangeinpositiono[a.wavere.latedtothechIlgeintimebythe (3-5)' positively sloped diirgonul ol the grid, shown by the lne .4P. lt the dependet
the positiv-e vrltre of 7" is trsed in Eq'
Wheu variablei V and H are known at A,then Eq. (3-9), which is valid along the C*
wave propagation '"tocit! r' similrr parallelism exists
rrre posirive varue o[,1 ;;il
i.'rr"i i.'Eq.(i-6). A
 .. soLUToN BY cHARAcrERlsrtc METHoD 35
34 ruuo rRANlENTs
These equations must hold tor steady ilow, which is a special case of unsteady
flow. For stiady conditions the flows are equal, Q : Qp: Qs, and nQ^lQ^l
is the steady-state friction head loss over the reach A.x. If an exponential friction
formula is preferred the last term of Eq. (3-16), lor example, would become
R'\rlQ.nl with n the exponent in the flriction loss equation and R'the
"1
Illtl irril IVAl\l ARTURO AYALA BIZARRO
INGENIERO CIVIL coefficient.
:AT ffi itlll'
ctP.113S7S
The solution to a problem in liquid transients usually begins with steady-
i i I tp I I
state conditions at time zero, so that H and Q are known initial values at each
computing section, Fig.3-2, for r : 0. The solution consists of finding H and Q
for ech giid point along r : A, then proceeding to t :2 Lt, etc., until the desired
^t Figure 3-2 sr gri for solving single-pipe
=0 problenrs. time duration has been covered. At any interior grid intersection point, section i,
the two compatibility equations are solved simultaneously for the unknowns
line, carr be integrated between the limits '4
and P and thereby be written in 0n, and Hp,. Equarions (3-16) and
(3-17) may be written in a simple form, namely
Equation (3-11) is satisfied
re.ns of unknown ,uriuii"r-1, "nd H at point P. C+: Hp.= Cr
- BQr, (3- 18)
gria, sho.1n by BP Integration of the C-
iv'. ,*rir"fy sloped .liaglnal ot tlre known at B and
compatibility equation ;;*nf',h. tinJS,.with cnditions C-: Hr: Cu * BQp, (3-19)
terms of the same two unknown
unknown at P, leads to u ,"-"ond equation in
conditions at the particular time in which Cp and Ca are always known contants when the equations are applied:
variables at p. A simuttaneous sorutlon yields
and position in the -xr plane designated by.
point P' Cp: H-t * BQ-, - ROt-t l0t-,1 (3-20)
By mulriplyine Eq. :lilirtrJ:'d*let, and
by introducing the pipeline
in place of velocity' the equation Cm : H*, - BQ* * R0*, I 0,* t (3-2 1 )
area to write lhe.quution in'teim, oit"t'ot"
I

be placed in o lorm t;i; for integtion

along the C* characteristic' By first eliminating Qr in Eqs. (3-18) and (3-19)
may
Fig. 3-2. Hp.:(Cp+CMllz (3-22)
ft"
| u+ hl::do+#l'^ntrlrrr: o rr- r 3) Then Qr, may be found directly from either Eq. (3-18) or (3-19). The subscript
Jn^ notatidn'used in the above equations, which is convenient for computer calcula'
0 with -x under the integral in tJre last
The variation oi
term is unknown tions, is shown in Fig. 3-2. It may be noted that section i refers to any grid
this evaluation' A first-order intersection point in the.r direction. Subscripted values of H and Q at each
u prktri, so arl approx;;;;"" i' int'otitlce in all except the class of
approxirnation i. sotirfacio,y for rnost problems
(in lact for section ut. ,,I*oyt available for the preceding time step, either as giveu initial
as discussed in Sec. 3'6)' The conditions or as the results of a previous stage of the calculations. The new
problems in which ,h. f.i.ion term ominates,
along the c- characteristic heads and ows at the current time during the transient have the letter P appended
inregration of Eq. (3-13),'il; ,i*il*r integration
between I and P, Yields to the variables.
Examination of the grid in Fig. 3-2 shows that the end points of the system
+ L,te, - + : o (3-1 4) begin influencing the interior points after the frrst time step. Therefore, in order to
H, - H
^
Q.t)
# Q-olQ.ol
complete the solution to any desired time, it is necessary to introduce the
appropriate boundary conditions. f)---:.,-\-----l
:o
";i" )
(3- r.5)
Ho- Hu- k*n,- Qa\- #o,loal
3-3 Basic Boundary Conditions
$tt'=
'v.,----'.--,,-
Theselwoconrpatibilityequationsarebasic.algebraicrelrtionsthat.describethe
pi"tt"tt fttad and flow in a pipeline' By solving for Hp'
pi"palation f At either end o[ a single pipe only one o[ the compatibility equations is rvtilable
"-,**,
these equations miIY be written in the two variables. For the upstram end (Fig. 3-3rr), Eq. (3-19) holds along the
Hp: H;t - B(Qo * - RQulQul (3- 1 6) C- characteristic, and for the downstream boundary (Fig. 3-3b), Eq. (3-18) is valid
C* ; Qn)
(3-t7)
along the c+ characteristic. These are linear equations in Qp and Hp: erch
C- : Hp : Hr * B\Qt'- 0a) + RQaIQl to their respective boundaries the complete behavior and response of the
"on*yr
lluicl in the pipetine during the transient. An auxiliary equation is needed in each
in which fi: ulgA and R:./'A-t l(?1DA2l'

)
36 rluro TRANSTENTS soLtJTloN By cHARAcrERts-rcs urru<p 37

an:rlysis by defining the pump characteristic curve. In a computer program this

may be accomplished by storing tabular data to describe the curve, or by using an
equation to relate the variables. If the pump is supplying llow from a suction
reservoir, whose surface elevation is used as the reference datum for the hydraulic
grade line, an equation of the lollowing form may be used

Hr,: Hs * Qp,@, * azQp,) (3-26)

A
in which /s is the shutoff head, and n1 &nd 2 are constants to describe the
N NS=N+ I
,I characteristic curve. Equation (3-2) provides an analytical relationship between
(d) () !-igure 3-] Characteristics at boundaries. the two variables which must be solved simultaneousty with Eq. (3-19). The
:'l
solution is

case that specifies Qy Hy, or some relation between them. That is, the auxiliary
equation must convey information on the behavior olthe boundary to the pipeline.
o,,: *rB - u, - JW - a)' l4ttz(Cu - Hs)] (3-21\

Each boundary condition is solved independently of the other boundary, and

With 0p, known, Hr, can be obtained from either Eq. (3-19) or (3-26).
independently olthe interior point calculations. A few simple boundary conditions
are now considered. t
,
t Dead end at downstream end of pipe The downstream end of a pipeline that is
Reervoir at upstream end with elevation specified At a large upstream rservoir
rl
tt divided into N reaches is at section Ns : N + l, Fig. 3-3b. It the pipeline conrains
x
the elevation of the hydraulic grade line normally can be assumed coostant a closed end, then 0r"_:0, and Hp.. is obtained directly from either Eq. (3-16)
during a short duration transient. This boundary condition is described, Hp, : or (3- l8).
H*, in which H, is the elevation of the reseryoir surface above the reference
datum. II the reservoir level changes in a known manner, say as a sine wave, fil Valve at downstream end of pipe If the datum for elevation of hydraulic grade
&t
the boundary condition is line is taken at the valve, the orifice equation lor steady-state tlow through the
valve is
Hp,= Hn * AII sin cur (3-23) fil

in which a is the circular frequency and AIJ is the amplitude o[ the wave. At
Il (CdAdo JZgHu
Qo: (3-28)
each time step in either o[the above cases Hpr is known, and Qe, is determined
fl in which Qo is the steady-state flow, H6 the steady-state head loss across the
by a direct solution of Eq. (3-19)
valve, nd (CAdo the area oI valve opening times the discharge coefficient. For
Qr,: (Ho, - Cu\lB (3-24) another opening, in general,
The subscript I relers to the upstream sectiou, Fig. 3-34; C,r is a variable in the : CAc r/Zu LH (3-2e)
computational procedure but is dependent only upon known values from the Qr
previous time step, in this case from section 2. in which AH is the instantaneous drop in hydraulic grade line across the valve.
Aftcr defining the dimensionless valve opening as
Discharge as a specified function of time at upstream end The flow delivered
' CAc
lrom a positive displacement pump may be expressed as an explicit function of
: (3-30)
fl ' r,ar)o
time, for example,
{t and dividing Eq. (3-29) by Eq. (3-28)
Qe,: Qo + AQ lsin or I
(3-2s)
o,,
With 0p, known at any instant, Eq (3-19) is applied directly to find Hr, at each Qp: -+_t,iA.H (3-3 I)
Hu
time step. '/
For steady ow, r: l, and for no llow with the valve in the closed position.
Centrifugal pump at the upstream end with the head{ischarge curve known The r : 0. The value o[ r may be larger than Lrnity if the valve is opened from the
response of a centrifugal pump operating at constant speed may be included in an steady-state position. When the subscript for the downstrerm section, NS, is

)
 soLUTroN By cHARAcTERs-rlcs rernon 39
38 FLLIID-I.RANSIENTS

(3-18) and (3-31) are ill wilich r" is the time of closure. The initit valve opening (z = t] is specied by a value of
appended to the variables Q and Hpl,ft: Hrn")' and Eqs' (C.4c)o in Eq. (3-28). The input data for the problem are: L= 600 m, r = l'200 m/s, D = 0'5 m'
solved simultaueouslY /=0.018,i=150m,.=2.1s,7".=4.3s,8^-|.5,otrc)o=0.009,s:9.806m/s2,N=5.
Figure 3-5 presents a computsr program, written in ths FORTRAN compiler language, to
e,,, : - BC" + JTlcf + 2c,c,
(3-32 solve for the pressure head and Bow response as a result of the specified valve closure. The
input data are listed at he end o[ the program. One additional piece of input data is shown
in which C,= (Qot12 l2Ho. The correspontling value of ffpn, can be determined as well rs all of the dota listsd above. This is a printout control parameter, IPR, whch conlrols

lron cither Eq. (3-18)or (3-31). _

the numberoftime increments betweeneuch printout oIcalculated results. Steady-tlte discharge
primarily is calculated in the program to balance thc friction and valve losses with the energy available
The tryaruiic characteristics of valves differ. greatly dependiug in the reservcir-
of the llow path through the valve opening. The steady-
upon the conliguration . The compursr output is shown in Fig. 3-, and a graphcul display oI head at the volve,
state loss coellicients, as a function ol valve position, for a lew different valve
discharge at the reservoir, and valve posilion as a function of time are shown in Fig. 3'7.
types are provided in Appendix B.8a'rr3r

orifice st downstream end of pipe The same equations are used

for the fixed
II,E
orifice as for the valve with the simplificntion that r: I' 'l
2
l
CO P
c sic tltEfiHl8 P80GRll. BESEVOIR tt UPSTSt EIIn )l PrPErnClff,*'
c |I[!fE DOgts?Stlt EfD. llGL Dfull l1 rLY!. DrBCr rsISBlCf,
rID
A c R, E ^T rlfrrL YIL0E oF vLYE CDr'sqnl(oott/(2fG'llCll Gf!ll lf Dtrt'
Drnersror Hp(l 1t.qP(1t), (11,0(lll
6 t{[!rELs./!rN/t , L,D,P, G,flR,CDr.rC, Elt, lllx, l,r8f,
3-t Single-pipeline Applications 7
I
10 REID (5.0I[.8D-99)
!S=tl+1
involves a i(
The procedure to solve a transient lluid-flow problern numerically
9 R.F.AL/ Q..G.Drrsl.7U!rt..2r?10f,1(X -+ IE
t0 6rtl(3..?85r.o.D) N
program to a problm or.ill ([Lt +'----:'-l
nur.. of repetitious calculations.. A computer solve- 1t (r.rLor
cA.[?3Ho
involving a single pipe leading from t reservoir to a valve, Fig. 3-4, has the 12
'tl ' 'r'D;;:$ii"siiil.;i*,1*,:i?ll,Hiill.:i$l','^1i,..,.,,
Do C l=1,sS
-+ o-- -
following elements:
1c
15 rr('*dr-rr-1rrtr.QoiQ0 Ho = He.- {uol
t6
11 " 3J1.91*.ootttdsty' zXv*
L Rerd in vrlues of data that describe the system and the character of the 18
.19
?=0-
X'0
20 Tl U.l.
particular transient. 21 rE {6,?5} r, t,,0,r, fl B. 8(Xsl,QO, CDl, tC.El,G, ?f ,Df,8, [, tP8
values of D, P=r,2?8.1,2F8.t/t Ae. fl7. 0 'r,2!8-2.?8.3/
25 FCnlt[!(r r.- lL.i,316.7,
2. Calculte constants and initial steady-state conditions, store initial 72
z) Z. cDr, tc, " c.rrf, ,Dt,E.r, P8.1,88. 1,2?S. l/' [, lPi",
r: ztt izluli ror iro olsclEcEs rloc t[E pteB.//1 llll l/L.
Q, and H for 0. 25 r0. .2 ,0 .6 -8 l. tur)
3. Print out vrlttes of Q anci H at each section,
plus print out time and valve 26 3o rRltE (6,15)r, ([(Il,I.l.S],Tru,(l()''1.rSl
27 !5 onrr-tinO,ri..Stl ,,6s9.2,?1.X/10r,38 Q.,618.1)
opening. 2A q0 r!T+Df
to rF (r.c.r6rx 60 10 t0
4. Iircrenient the time by At and calculate the interior points Qp, to QPn, '[P,
29
30 f:frl
3t c coPuTl"Il0x 0l lxtEIo8 PCTHTS
Hp-, and then calcutite the boundary values Qp,, Hr,, Qr,", H,n,' 32 Do 50 I32. I
ll cp-H(r-1|.Q lI- ! ) I fB-8.8S (q(r- ll I I
5. Store all values of Qo,, Hr,in Q, H, respectively' ll cr { ( 'l}-O (!' 1 ) ' (B-lr rE5 (il 11' l} | I
(No. 4) and B9 lI) -.5.(cp.:nl
6. Transfer back to ttr irini statJent {No. 3, or to increment time
l5
36 50 QP(I)=ltP(Il-clll/E
check to.see i[ 7*,* has been exceeded. lf not, continue with the calcultions' t',
l8
c Botr[Dtf:orDtllcls
rP lll ' tl8
39 Op trl =O (2 . (ltP (l) -ll (21 -8.0 (2l.rEs (Q 12 I I /B
3'l is given by the
q0 rE (r-rc) 55,50.60
Ex:rnrple 3-l The vrlve closure relntiotlship ttrr the
pipelire slown in Fig' l1 55 TrU=ll.-rlTCl .El'
{2 c Yr 1l u.!t o rcvP
equatioll tt3 co to ,0
q{ 60 tl U=0.
\., {5 c{ =0. IVAl\l ARIIJRO AYALA iATRO

[,' --lt,! rt6 70 cp=fl([) r0tllt.(8-.r8s(Q(x)l INGENIETiO CIVIL

'= {7 QP f ilSt
I
:-CV.8r:Onl (cvt:v.8.4+cvacP'2.) clP- 11367
{8 ilP (S) :CP'8+ilP (XS)
49 D0 80 I=1, Ns
50 H(rr=tlP(ll
51 80 0(I)*lP(t|
52 IF lXlrP8rrP8-() 40,30, rt0
53 99 S?Op

I
5t ETI D
55 lDrfl
Hr 56 60r N A. 12t1. . xL=6C0,,D=. 5, r=, O 18,c:9. 806,(8.r50.,;Dl -0. 009.
S'', tc=. 1, !rr.5,Tnx= [.].I.9, IPI =1, AEXD

3-{ Single PiPeline. !-igure3-5 Basic liquid trttlsietlt progrrln in FORTRAN.

Figure

)
 SOLUTION DY C'HARACTERISTICS METHOD 4I
A, X!, D, P= 120J.0 600'O O.5000 0'0130
HF, tlo, )O = 150'C0 183.q9 0.!17
:Di, TC, Er- c.Dl9 2.150 1.509
G,IItX,OT,8' 9'916 c.l C'100 23'2c): 300
[, I&R= 5 I
'ii;;i;i=---'i.---
IEiDS AO D5CIDGES LOXG THE PI?!
.u . .6 .9.
1rJ,{9
1, ltu
r.001
o.o<i i= l50'00 tc0.70 tc?'qo 1{6'c9 lcq'79
o.{77 - 9.'cll 1 c.c77
d= i.utt ra8.?00.q77 0.411 1q6'19
o.1oc li= 15.0 1{?.co l{''9
o.4l? -9:cl] 0.c60
5c.28 , .929 \
= . .rrr o.\71 0.c77 1u'c9 155'il 165.79 1.81
o.2oo i= lii.oc 1rr8.7o lc7-qo E 200
i= .rir 0.c77 g'c7? 156'7',
o,lo0 ;= t50.co tu8-r0 1q7-to
o'c?? .9:u9! 0. c2
157')l 178.08 l.?9c o^ \
= o-q7f o.q?? 1.q?? 0'460 0'442 'I c. c22 t.124
o-loo = ri.oc rqu.ro 158.05 16{'20 1'e'il 9r.11
" n.,{lu o'{7? 169.1 o.{60 0.4c2 192'2 o'4?? 0. 401
).
,).5oo i" r;.ccl 159.10 180'cc 20{.91 65
a= o.lr o.c6o 0.(q2 191'lJ 0'c2l !:u!] 0.!79 l.
,6c0 i. rio.cc r:o' 18r'56 O.i2'
2J5'99 1?.q6
O'r01 9:189 0. J56
60q
E too
a= ,Llq C.c!
0.700 i" 150.?0 172.21 190'c5 207'15 220'-? 2lc.7l 1,54q
0.406 0.c02 O'l0 215.-',J
O= O.l? ',l73.S1 0:11] 0.132
1.48?
| - tt"l'
c.8oo n-. 150.C0 19?.! 221.49 25.6{
a= O'la9 O.J68 0.36 o'15? 0:l]l I . 3C'l
t_ SE
0.900 H-" 150.Jc 175.! 200.83 225'22 23f ib 261 ,1'l 1.4.t2
a= 0.128 0.J27 o.l2l 0.117 9:196 0. 81
l,179
I

r.0oo i= ls'o rzz.ol 201.9) 210'97 25?'i1 8q.'19 I ;o

0= n.91 0.drl 0.280 235- O'27u 0'b5 0,255 l.l2l 0 >tr
1.100 ;= 1so:30 17s.;6 zo?.oc O'2?9 18 26l-1? 28{.3?
O: 0.10 O.:19 0.235 219'52 252'6 0.221
!:?! 2e3.51
1.200 ;= 150.OO 180.02 209'94 c.2B I 0123
o: 0.19:. 0.19t 0.188 o'132 ll1?1 c.'188 0.21i
1,300 -= rsO.CO 18t.37 212'59 277'15 o'1q!
259'37- 279.10
c.15?
Time. s
1= 0-143 0.Ir2 O.1ll -!'151 2'l ).1c
1.c00 i.j= ls.lo 182.57 208.59 J2'65 25c'c7 0.19
c.oCr o.oe0 O.oe8 o'116 2\b'1q )'116 c.127
.151 Figure 3-7 Response in single pipeline due to valve closure.
1.500
'--' i= lio.c 117-22 202-63 223'92 o.c7d
2 6q.C0 c

a= .0a o.cu7 .0s0 1..011 c. 0q9

0.115
r.600 i- ri.ic 'l?o.o-l 1et.56
o'01e
21b'13 l3'21 2 52.E1
o.ols 0-074
a= .oou o.oob 1'J51 0. 081
t.rco i= l50.9o 16?.1 1d.11 20c.91 222.82 2J1.5 Downstream boundary:
i= -o.oz -o.o2o -o-01? 0.0q1 00'2 0-051
1.800 i= l50.lC tq-11 17?.69 -0'027 190'26 -9:011 21ti.8C 0. 0::,
/ A.r
1- -o.osz -0.0'{9 -o.o1 9. 01
9'011 196.{5 0.029 C,-- H, + BQn - ffi,Q,lQ,l
l.sOO i= 150.)C 160'16 170'20 179'00 166'9
1- -.olz -0-ort9 -0.059 -0'011 -0'523 1 0.015 0.0'!0
1 50.Jo tso.1O !61.6a 166.21
i= :.s 169'2c ?0.20
2.000 :j= c.0c5 0r,=
-0.082 -o'071 'o'051 -J'u27 0,000
2.100 ii= lSo.rO 1:1.12 152'1rr 151'9J 150'16 1 92.2.,
Hrn:Cr- B8',:C'
= -C.O9t -o.087 -0.075 -0'055 -3'J2'' 0. 000
2.200 i= 1 50-10 lcb.15 -O'07?1{1'59 l16'08 lJ0'96 1lJ-q8 0. 000
" -O.O.S -0.085 -0'0qs 'l'08 0.000
2.lOO fr- tSO.lO 10.2? 1.10.01 -o'occ12rr'6{ l]9:ll l17.6ti 0.000 Example3-3 Acentrifugal pumpisdelivering0.tm3/swatertoa0.25-rn-diameterpipelineata
i= -.itl -c.07{ -0.05c -l'021 0. 000 pressure head of 50 m. The pump strutoff is 70 rr. [n this operating zone ihc head-discharie
l:0.:o 111.1 r23.3J tll.lu 107.]q r 05.15 c.000
2.400 i- :l'017 curve can be describecl by an equation o[ the form of Eq. (3-26) in which or = 0. At the
J= -0.058 -O'05l -O"Qrt6 -0'0J2
l0'0 !9:i? )1.02
0. 010
0.0c0
z.5oo i'i= ls.ro 133.96 tl7:11 -0.0'19 -0.c1J 0.000 downstream cnd of the 400-n-horizontal lne, the valve setting suddeoly chlnges front r = I
1= -0.02? -0.011 -0.026 lol.25 0.cc0 to r : 0.5 at time I.. The valve is discharging into the atmosphere. With values of ./ and a
2.600 i- lSO.o 131,1 1!.?? -0'0)l !5:l? 91.22
-l'0)2 0.0c0
1. -o.olu -0-000 -C.o0l known, writc the necessary equations to handle the boundary conditions in u computer ptogram.
34 Out:lut liom liquitl tlansient progrtm' For the pump boundary condition at the upstrem end, the constints in Eq. (3-26) for thE
Figure
characteristic curve of the pump must be evaluated'first. Then use Eqs. (3-27) and (3-26).
ils = 70
Erunrple 3-2 Consitler a single horizorrtal prpeline as shown in Fig. 3-4 with
the valve
rt (lre dowtlslteirrn cnd. Assutne a series oI sintsoidll wves Pitsses over tlre reservoir
sutfirce lt
^closed
50-70
the pipe inlet. so Hr, : Hs + I0 sin zr. Write the complete equatiolls for both boundary ctlndi'
.
'= (0.1 )
-1.000
tiotis so they or" ,",,dy to be progrtrmnred [or computer solutitln. /Ar
B= -=
luA R: -i-
Upstrealn boundarY: 2qDA'
B = ultt.4 Cu:flz-BQr+RQrlQrl
IAr
L'u=Ht-BQ+ffi,Q,10.1 B_ iBl+4ulCu-Hs\
Qu: 7,t1
Hr,-Ha+l0sinnr
IIn,=H5+urQi,
Qt,:lHo,-CullB

40

)
 SOLUTION BY CHARAC'TERISTTCS METHOD 43

FLUID TRANSTENTS

rlre valve must be

Ftlrtlrvalveboundarycor<lition,lheinitillsteady.statelreaddropat
evaluated
/ \
: '" rL Zttl.
a

When r < t.
Ho 50
D
t' \
100
I
When t > t.
Hr-,=

Cr= Hn+BQx-B0,l0nl
Ho Qt*,= Qo

,t
,/
Reserv,

\
r lread A
o
(0.58o)l IiVAI,J RTLIRO AYALA BIARRO
ii'rEi,ilERC CIVIL u
,/ /
2Ho lJ[)

= - ac, + -ac,f + zc"c

L-iP.1136?9 T;

t
,,
L uJo"n,., l
/
Q",, " I \,

L r
Hrn": C, - BQrn,

Experimental results compaed with the solution

by the method of character- Cr )mputed
U
istics have appeared in tt . iit.ruture and the

is a 3_in-diameter horizon-tui pipill"., io rt

"*riri..;lie
flange of a reciprocating putp"ff.r" iriplex
valitlity o[ the solution is well
,oo.,o+ o"".^r*pr" is presented in Fig. 3-8.106 The test pipeline
in length, connected to the. suction
pump operating at a speed of 95'9
rpm, was modeled by ; ;;;;ifi" tto*-ti*t't"lalionship
in the characteristics
I
was a reservoir. Calculated
method anirlysis. r. up.ir'.o* boundary
conditidn 40
0 2 4 6 8 l0 l2
andrneasuredpressuresatthesuctiofiflangerreillustratedinFig.3-8.The
Time, s

100 Figure 3-9 Mersured and crlculirtcd head-tirl curve.

'Compu ted
T \ /}' d
L
-\ \
60
\
t t I t /\ I computed points are lrom a characteristics method prograln; the solid line is the
pressure trace from a "dynisco" transducer,
Experimental data from 4,000 ft of 0.95-in ID copper tubing in the C. G.
oi
o
( ( o
I Brown Fluids Engineering Laboratory ol the University o[ Michiganr06 have
b o
=40 also been corapared with calculated results using the Inethod of characteristics.

\i
o
o \ J" \' t In this case a poeumatic servo-controlled valve was used at the downstream end'
620 \ \ and'a constant-head reservoir at the upstream end. Sterdy-state friction-drop
measLlrements were taken and used as tabular data in the program lor the lriction-
a ""1 \
\o
R\
r"1. loss ternr in the chrracteristics equations. The measured wavespeed in the copper
tuhirrg was 2,550 tt/s. Tire valve was adjttsted with a uniform red-uction in r in
Exper men tll
8 seconds to reduce the initial llow from 1.2 ttls to tr rosition whrch would yield
-20 0.1 ft/s. Tlte experirnental and computed restllts are shown in Fig' 3-9. It may
I

Po = 75 Psi
I be oted that this is a high-friction case with iln initial llead clrop ir.r the systern o[
-00 b 0. I o:--5--?- o.s 0.6 o-7 0.8 0.9 1.0
over 40 tt. The agreement is not perlect, but this is felt to be the restrlt of the
0 1085
inability to attain a uniform r-motion olthe vrlve in the experiment. This means
PumP Periods (= s)
the cornputed results, which are bsed upon a unilorm vlve motion, are for l
on rt single PiPc colrllected to a
Figure 3{ ComPartson of experimenttl rrd clculrted results slightly different problem.
reciprocating PumP.

)
4.1 TLUID TRANSTENTS SoLUTIoN BY CHARACTERISTcs urHoo 45

3-5 Complex Systems

The basic waterhammer program lor a single pipeline provides the funda-
mental elements that are necessrry for the treatment of more complex piping
systems. Different types ol boundary conditions may be introduced by changing
only the part o[ the program that deals with the particular end condition. when
the system contains more than one pipelinq the interior sections o[ each pipe-
line are treated independently of other parts of the system rt each instant of time.
The end conditions of each pipeline must interface with adjoining pipelines or Figue 3-10 Series.junction. Figure 3-l I Pipeline junction.
with other boundary elements. Again each boundary condition is treated indepen-
dently of other parts of the system. The explicit nature of the solution procedure the following [orm, a summation provides a simple $olution for the common
is one of its strongest attributes. Additional boundary conditions and multipipe head, Hp;
systems are treated in this section.
At a connection of pipelines of different properties, the continuity equation
Ho = Ho,,n": Hpz*: Hpr.r- Hr,.,
must be satisfied at each instant of time, that is, there is no storage capacity at ^ Hp Cp.
VPr,*r=- Br* B,
the junction. Also, a common hydraulic-grade-line elevation is normally assumed
at the junction at each instant of time. The latter asumption is the same as H, cp,
saying that there are no minor losses at the connection and that the velocity
r\
vPz- -E- , B,
head terms may be negJected. This is not necessary as will be demonstrated
later, but it is an acceptable procedure in most cases.
When a large number of pipelines are included in a system it is necessary L' : -Ho +C*,
-o. ''t B.r 83
either to use double-subscript notation, or to ue continuous sectioning in the
entire system. In the double-subscript scheme, the first subscript refers to the
pipe number and the second refers to the pipe section number, as in the single
-QP,.,: - !t*.t
pipe. t , Cp,
-rt +, Cr,
-" r, Cu, ,Cu.
"'u +--
ZO":0:
-Yr--- -H"IJ-
"r"8.;;---
Series connection This type ofjunction, although shown in Fig. 3'10 a a diameter
8.. B_
change, applies equally well to a sinflediameter pipe with a change in roughness,
thickness, or constraint condition, or any combination ol these possible variables.
7r:CpJBt
+ crLBz:-C-y-JBt + crJso
At the junction (Fig. 3-10), Eq. (3-18) is available lor pipe I' and Eq. (3-19) is (3-35)
available for pipe 2. The continuity expression and the condition of a common
hydraulic-grade-line elevation provide two equations as follows, when written in
in which the summation applies over all the pipes in the junction. The com-
double-subscript notation.
patibility equations then yield the flow in each pipe. This method may be applied
to any number of pipes, including the series connection.
Q.p,.n": Qpr., HP,.r": Hrr., (3-33)
'By Parallel pipelinc and networks Since networks and looped pipes consist of series
solving tlrese equations simultaneously with Eqs. (3-18) and (3-19) and branching connections, no new boundary conditions are needed to develop
^ Cr,-Cu, (3-34)
a solution procedure to handle complicated network configurations.
VFr.r: Bn
Sectioning for piping systems In dealing witl'r complex piping systems of two or
The other unknowns can be {etermined directly from the appropriate equation. more pipes, it is necessary that the time increment, be taken equal for all pipes.
This involves a certain amount o[ care in the selection of At and the number
Branch connection For a branching junction (Fig. 3-ll) the continuity equation ofreaches N, in each of,"/ pipes. In each pipe it is required that
is used, a common head is assumed when minor effects are neglected, and the
compatibility equations are needed in each pipe: Eq. (3-18) for pipes I and 2, L,
----i- (3-3)
and Eq. (3-l9) for pipes 3 and 4. ff the compatibility equations are written in ^r: {.1 N

)
FLUfD TRANSIENTS soLUTroN By clfARACTERrslcs uerHoo 47

which N is an integer. It is quickly realized that this relation probably cannot
exactly hrllled in most systems. Inasmuch as the wavespeed is probably not
,own wlth great accuracy, it may be permissible !o adjust itl c12,..., slightly, so
at integers N,, N:,. . ., may be lotrnd' In equation form this may be expressed
in which ,4" is the equivalent area, sized so the mass ofl fluid in length A-r has
the same momentum as the fluid in the corresponding portion of the actual system.
In Eqs. (3-16) to (3-21) the equivalent characteristic impedance (A) of the reach is
defined by use ol Eqs. (3-38) and (3-39),

A+
L," (3-31)
^' -- cr(l Xt)Nt
which ry'; is a permissible variation in the wavespeed, always less than some
ximum limit o say 0.15. By starting with a short pipe, one can generally
tisiy Eq. (3-37). In general, a slight modification in wavespeed is more preferable
an any-alteration in pipe length to satisfy the requirement ola common time-
:p size.
Alternatives exist [or the treatment of mLrltipipe ystems in which it is difflcult
satisfy Eq. (3-37), but most of the other procedures are not totally satislactory.
disproportionltely short pipe in a system may be particularly troublesore
rsmuch as the use of ar derermined by its lengtli in Eq. (3-17) would give
I uneconomically small A from a computing standpoint. It may be
possible to
]at suclt a short pipe as if the lluid were incompressible, that is, as a lumped
:ntent. This option is disctlssed in Chapter 5. The interpolurtion scheme, discussed
Sec. 3-7, is also an alternative to ease the constaint of Eq. (3-36). However,
e numerical solution quickly loses accuracy for large linear interpolations.
pproximation to variable-property series system A system with numerous minor
D. u", I ,(L jl A j)
o'': (3-40)
gA.,: ,.Glrr,)
u
The same head loss in steady llow is maintained in the two systems. An equivalent
esistance coefficient lor the ith reach is defined:
*",:_ffi,:r(#h) (3-41)
The "equivalent" system does n<t allow lor prtial rellections at the physical
discontinuities in the actual system, nor does it maintain the correct distribution
of inertial or frictional lorces, nor elastic effects. However, when used wilh full
knowiedge and understanding ol the assumptions, it is often a satisfactory
approximation in systems with minor discontinuities.
Example 3-4 The series system in Fig. 3-l2b is to be analyzed by use of an "equivalenr" model
using three reaches with a comnron time step. Determine the reach lengths, and equivalent
values ol 8" and R. in each reach. The data are shown in Table 3-t.
The slrpes of the ctual characteristic Iines are shown in Fig. 3-I.,20. For lhree reaches
the tirne for the wve to travel the length of the system must be divided into three equal values
of Al as shown.

anges ln properties may be approximated by use ol an ''equivalent" unilorm LL,lu, 2.103

changes in pipeline properties, o, = -i---l: :0.76';i s
ach length thitt spans minor discontinuities. II the 3
ch as pipe-wall thickness, diameter, etc., are minor, the transient llorv respose By referring to Fig. 3-12, and using Eq. (3-38), each reach length may be determined. Temporary
edicted by use oi this approxirnation is likely to be quite satisfactory for partial lengths rre identified lor convenience in the calculation.
,gineering pr.rrposes. The procedure involves the use of variable reach lengths A.r : a, L :767.7 m Zt : Lt - A.\r - 232.3 m
J,rg tne ryri"*, with mean properties used in eacl reach such that the numerical
quiremet of a common time step is rnaintained.rs The wave travel time of the ,.=(o,-a),,,=66e2m Lxr= 7t + Z, = 99.5n1
iysical system is maintair.ed by using the actual total system length (E A.t',
: - " \ ' tt)

rcl rrn equivalent wave propagation velocity a.. given by

zz:Lt-Zr:80.8m A.x. : 7, + L3 + L4 = 1080.8 m

il
:'(i) (3-38)
Values of B" and R. are computed by usc of Eqs. (3-a0) and (3-41

I .r,
l,=---:50.99 R..
'' =
jr--
f, A-r,
-:
)

0.092
2qD,Ai
this ecuation A.r irn<I r,. refer to the ith rech legth lnd equivalerlt wave-
eerJ, respectively, und l, and a, refer to tl're actual pipeline characteristics for
e portions of the systein included in rerch i. The momentum llux weighed Table 3-I
,er tlre entire system pQVL,x: pQlL,xJA". also is maintained in the two
Pipe . m a, mls 1, ml
stems.?o Inasmuch as the actual system length is maintained in the approximate
odel, tlre cross-sectional area is determined by I 1000 1000 2.0 0.0r5
? 750 1250 1.9 0.0r5
l 250 1400 1.8 0.01 5
(3-3e) 750
?:,(?) ,l r.rl0 1.6 0.014
 .soLUTroN B)' cHARAcrERtsrtcs urrnoo 49
48 FLUTD TRANSENTS

_ax,l -axr{ Ax
-----7
\ /l t'l
-' I
tt,"
I
,". I
I +X Valve l-igure 3-13 Valve-in-line
'. I

in which H6 is the steady-state drop in hydraulic grade line across the valve
with a flow ol Qe when r : 1. When combined with Eq. (3-18) for pipe I and
Eq. (3-19) for pipe 2, a quadratic equation results which may be solved to yield:

Qp,n,: -c,(Br+ 82) + M (3-43)

in which C : Q3r2lzHs. For flow in the negative direction the orifice equation is
"
n : - Qo' [u
er,., : 0e,,,,
I
)< H,,., - Hr,.n" (3-44)
ftJ
-
and when combinod with Eqs. (3-18) and (3-19) the solution is:
L,--l L,l-t,-1
:,-F- (a)
Qr,,n"= c,(8r + U* Jc'z,@r* Bz)'-?.cu(cp,-Cu) (3-45)

An examination of the equations shows that a negative flow is possible only il

Cr, - C,r, < 0. Thus Eq. (3-a3) is used il Cp, - C,u, 2 0, and Eq. (3-45) is used
ru
I (l) (2) i[Cp, - CM,<0. Once the flow is known, Eqs. (3-18) and (3-19) are used to find
(41 the hydraulic grade line.
\i/ Figure 3-12 Approximltion to
(b, variable-property series system
If the kinetic energy is a significant part o[ the
Kinetic energy and minor loss
total energy, or if a minor loss is important at a boundary in a system, it is,
necessary to use the energy equation. The pipe ontrance condition at a reservoir
B. =!(7i##):u,,, -.,,=L(#,.ffi):o'u, is used as an example. The energy and hydraulic grade lines are shown in
Fig. 3-14 for llow in either direction at the reservoir. If the pipe entrance loss
R _t (zrlAz t Lt/Ar + L41.14):
g\ Ztlu, * Ltlr:' + Ln/un /
ro.o, .., :
;(ffi o t#, * o *b) -_ o,,u
T KVi
EGL
The wavespeeds and areas in the equivalent system are easily conputed by use of Eqs
(3-38) HCL
and t3-19). Figure 3-12 shows the rectangular grid and characteristic lines in dashed lines Energy grade line
-_=_____ Hydraulic grade line
Valve-in-line If a valve or orifice is located within a given pipe, or is located
between two diff'erent pipetines, the orifice equation must be treated simultaneously
with the end couditions ol each pipe, and should rllow [or the opportunity ol
llow reversal. Use o[ the sterdy-state orifice equatior neglects any inertilrl efl'ects
in accelerating or decelerating llow through the valve openig and also implies
that there is no opportunity tor a change in the volume of uid stored in the valve
body. For positive flow, Fig. 3-ll, the orifice equation is

- I *,, (3-42)
Qp,., 0p,,"
ffi"'er* Figure 3-14 Minor loss and kinetic encrgy.
[) rluro'TRANSIENTS soLUTIoN BY cHARACTERIsTICS METHoD 5l

oefficient is K, the energy equation is If the pump is operating directly from a suction reservoir, the equation may be
simplified by the elimination ol the c+ compatibility equation in the suction
Qi,
II: Hp, r 1t + K)
f,ft
(3-46\ pipeline.

equation results Example 3-5 Prepare the equations to handle the pump boundary condition shown in Fig. 3-16.
vhen this equirtion is combinel with Eq. (3-19) a'quadratic The pump is to be sttrrted with'a linear speetJ rise to rated speed in r, stconds. The undamped
rhich yields ttre positive llow into the pipe' For reverse flow' Fig' 3-14' all
check valve permirs tlow in the positive direction only. When partially or fully open it is assumed
inetic energy is lost and the boundnry equatlon ls to have negligible head loss. Assume the check valve opens instantaneously when the pump has
developcd enough head to exceed Hc, the initial static head on the downstream side oI the
Hr,: H* (1-47)
valve, Fig. 3-16.
The equations for the boundary condition are
t direct solution for Qp, is possibte by use of Eq (3-19)'
lt
8=-
rA

pump and motor come C*=H--O,f8-RlO,)

)entrifugat pumpstart-up During a pump start-u^p' if the
influence of the speed change can easily be ftlt" I s r,
rp to sp-eed in a known monnerltlre
ncluded in a boundary relationship by using homologous conditions' The ll t>t.
romologous conditions for a turbomachine of fixed size are Il a.2 Hs < Hc

9: Qr:0 nd Hr = Cu
1:.on.,
ct' d
const
lld2Hs> Hc

pump and a is the speed ratio, normalized "'' {, - [t

4d:(d'zH - cM]lr'r]
n which I{ is the hed rise &cros the o" ='. 7u,
be assumed to vary l' L' (8 - oa)2 ) )
)y use o[ the rated sPeed. For PumP start-up a olten may
curve for the pr-rmp in Fig' 3-15 IIr='ng''
iom 0 to I linearlY. lrr homologous lorm ttre
akes the form
(3-48)
An experimental result from a system containing a concentrated minor loss
Hp,., - Hp,,,, : e2Hs + tlc:Qp,.n,* ctzQi,.., is compared with results calculated using the method of characteristics in Fig.
3-l7.zo Experiments were conducted in 40 ft of copper tubing, 0.5-in ID' with
Eq. (3-a8) is similar in form to the parabolic r-elation in Eq' (3-36)' If the speed

were constant at rated condition (a

: l) Eq. (3-48) reduces to Eq' (3-26)' When
(3-19) the ciischarge may be determined
Eq. i-+ailt."mbined *itn e qr. 1:-t8 and Experimental
:l 'Iheoreticaj

B,+ B=- uraf, +ur(o'Hr-+'t- {r-,1-1"'l - Head causilrg flow HO

vr,,,--
-
z;-l'-L'
-[, - ,rffiJ i (3-4e)

o 300
Static head

I
I

+++++*+j
:
3
E l0o

g
L\ I '^rLJ Minor loss
,'.,/l
-/Ltt
I

I & loo l_!

I

a",
.1-::t
NS^l
I

@ " htmP
0 :0 40 0 80
Time, m/s
100 120 140

Figure 3-16 PumP rrnd check vllve Figure ,}17 Experimenttl vcrsus lheoreticl results in minor loss experiment-2)
!-igure 3-15 Cerrtrilugll :urnP.
52 FLUTD TRANSIENTS SoLUTICJN BY CHARAC.TERISTCS METHoD 53

Exrmple }.6 Solve Eqs. (3-51) and (3-52) for the variables
three orifices concentrated at the midpoint between the reservoir and valve, A e, and, Hp at a pipeline interior
sectio. The soluion can be accomplisfied by us of Newton's ;ethod. By
solenoid valve was used to initiate the pressure pulse. The pressure transducer ,ubtro.iing Eq. (3-52)
from Eq. (3-51) the totlowing function of Q is obrained.
was located 10 ft lrom the vrlve. Additional comparisons between experimental
and cornputed results appear elsewhere in this treatise, for example, in Chapters
P - He - llt + Bl2Qp - e - etl +
9, I I, 13, and 14. R

Other boundary conditions, most o[ them more complicated, are treated in HQ, + QillQ.,+ Q,l+ lZu+ QptlQ, + 0,ll = 0 (3-sl)

Chapters 5,6,7,8, and 10. Newton's method begins with an estimaed valuc for the variable
Qp at each time step, and
s"ccessively corrects il by applying a correction in an iterative procedure
arbitrarily close to zero. The correction is found from the relationship
f
until the function is

dF
3-6 High Friction and Attenuation F+-^O=0
tlQ, - l3-54)

In unsteady flow situations in which energy losses due to viscous effects are in which
very important, the treatment ol the frictional term by a first-order approxima- FR
tion, as in Sec. 3-2, is inadequate. This happens in long oil pipelines, in short ul,='u * T(18^ + 0'l + IQB + QPD (3-55)

small-diameter highly viscous flows, or in cases of very high flow velocities, as At each iteration the new value of Q, is found by adding the correction to the previous
examples. The result o[ using the first-order nrodel of Sec. 3-2 in cases where it Qr + A'Q. The magnitude of the correcrion becomes smaller as the value of ihe function F
v:rlue,

shouldn't be used is generally an incorrect answer or, in extreme case, an
instability in the solution. Of course, the latter can be recognized in an analysis
and therefore can be rejected, but the appearance o[ inaccurate results may be
much more subtle.
Since the problem arisesdue to an inaccurate integration of the lriction term
it can be helped by changing the discretization by reducing the time-step size.
Thus, in cases in which doubt as to accuracy may arise, it may be checked by
decreasing the time step in a second analysis. If the same response is generated,
it can be accepted with confidence. A stability criteria for the rst-order model
may be developed which shows a necessary limit in discretization in order to have
a stable solution6s
.l'LtQ - . lnasmuch as the ow is onry partiafly stopped with the passage of 'the
(3-so)
4i=t
in which Q is an average tiow. This can be used only as a guide as even with it
satisfied inaccurate osults may be generated. Fortunately'in all but the very
high lriction cases the left hand side of Eq. (3-50) is considerably less than unity
and the accuracy o[the first-order integration is rever in doubt.
In higlr-friction cases the accuracy o[ the solution may be greatly improved,
ernd stability guaranteed, by use of ir second-order integration of the friction term
in Eq. (3-13). This second-order integration along the C+ characteristic between
z4 and P, and a similar integration along the C- characteristic between I and
P, yields (see Problem 3-12)
approaches zero. The lirst estimate of
0f at each time step may be obtained by use of a,
linear extrapolation from the two previous varues. once
ep has been determined, either Eq.
(3-51) or (3-52) may be used to find Hr.
Atfenua-tion and line pack The initial upsurge following Uow stoppage,
crVofg, is
olten referred to as rhe poreriul surge.In short pipelinesivith tow iiictin
closue of a valve causes the upstream flow to be brought to rest
a sudden
as the com-
pression wave moves at acoustic speed through the line. in lo,g pipelines,
and in
shorter high friction cases, the drop in hydraulic grade line ri ti," initial llow
may be much rnore than the potential surge. [n thiJ case the passage of the com-
pression wave does not bring the flow to rest. The magnitude oi
the potential,
surge reduces as it travels upstream. This reduction is called attettuation.6o
com-
pression wavg yet it is totally stopped at the valve, an increasi
occurs in the
volume stored, which is called line packing. The pressure continues to rise,
pipe wall expands, and the liquid is compressed.
the
This total process can be visualized by referring to Fig. 3-tg. If it is first
llGl (Steady state)

Hp - Hu + BlQp - Qi +ftO.., * QillQu+ Ql = 0 (3-s l )

H, - H, - B(Qp - Qd - f,W, n QnlQr+ 0rl : o (3-s2)

Figurc 3-18 Iucorrect hydraulic grade line for long pipeline.

)
 ffislEE sr6ftL'
BIBLIOTECA
soLUTroN By cHARAcrERls'rrcs METHoD 55
5.l rluro TRANSIENIS
il The characteristics method, with proper treatment of the friction term as
fl shown in Eqs. (3-51) and (3-52), incorporates all the properties of the potential
surge, attenuation, and line packing. Figure 3-204e shows the computer results
ola sudden valve closure in a 125 mile long,30-in-diameter pipeline. The initial
--T- Ijt steady-state velocity was 4.25 f1/s and the wavespeed was 3,300 ft/s. At 200 sec
after valve closure, the attenuated wave reaches the upstream boundary and
HG (Sterly state) rH
l*o ,1
is rellected. The dashed lines indicate the extent of the pipeline inlluenced by the

Wve location at / = l0 s
t, fl
il
il
reflected wave as the grade line continues to rise. At 9 min after valve closure,
the hydraulic grade line has reached its maximum level and the forward velocity
has been reduced to zero. The adverse grade line produces flow in the opposite
$ direction. The surging condition continues until friction losses in the system cause
Iiigurc 3-19 Attenuation in long pipeline' the flow to come to rest.

iuraginetl that the initial head rise at the valve merely rises up the original #gt
hydraulic grade line rs shown, it can be seen that the same slope of the hydraulic .fr
grade line exisrs iollowing the passage o[ the wave. Thus, the flow has been
3-7 The Characteristics Method with Interpolations

completely stopped at the valve, but it cannot remain stationary upstream from In Sec. 3-1, simplified forms of continuity and of the equation of motion were
the valve because of the identical, but elevated, hydraulic grade line. Since the used. Although this is almost always adequate for transierrts in relatively stiff
change in velocity at the wavefront is less than I/e the head rise is less, i.e., fl pipes, cases might arise with other rnore flexible materials in which it might be
the potential surge is attenuated. desirable to use the basic equatiolls in their entirety. These more general solutions
Figure 3-18 is actually incorrect; attenuation of the wavefront and rise in #, are developed in this section.
pressure behinri the wavefront are more correctly displayed in Fig. 3-19. The Thegeneral Eqs. (2-8) and (2-28), when combined with the unknown multiplier
potential surge resulting from an abrupt llow stoppage is qr-rite often a srnall ,1, yield
percentage of the final maximum head rise. The locus o[ the head rise at the
r[r"(r. ['.(, .+^). r] -
)*. r,] .
wavelront is shown as a dashed line in Fig.3-19 and is seen to approach the L, + iLz:
original hydraulic grade line asymptotically in the infinitely long line.

1,600 ,t/sina *tnYl:o (3-56

___-9--
'----7--

E Time I rfter valve closuie. min I

t,400

1,200 o
il
d'r
tlt - u *!:)t y *4q t (3-5 7)
'\o- o
I,000
Locus of pressure /,/ tr
then Eq. (3-56J becomes the ordinary differential equation,
rse rt wave Iront
800 $
t- ttH+ ttv lV sin a * "--=+
Ivlvl
Original hydrau lic
>\- __I
,z "'-=- 600
!
{
.
).
-tlt --
clt - 2D
- 0 (3-58)

grade line t 400

= In this case the rnLrltiplier ,l takes the values
Potential fl
.l
^: t;
\ surge (3-5e
200 $
3Gin. pipel tne Valve=.-
0
as in Sec. 3-1. However, Eqs. (3-57) become
t?5 100 '7 5 50 25
d.x
Distance lront downstream end, miles :Vtu (3-60)

Figurc 3-20 Rcsults ofcomputer solution ofvrlve closLre in long pipeline
5 nuuro TRANSTENTS soLUTtoN By cHARAcrERfst"lcs Irlrrgoo 57

which represents the conditions imposed upon Eq. (3-58). The four characteristic either Q or r varies considerably with .r and r, as in the case ol highly deformable
tubes or very compressible fluids, the grid of characteristics
equations are: lnay be preferred lor
!r!!*,tV ,t fvlvl_O reasons of improved computational accuracy. This method is discussed in the
a tlt E_!Vsino +"_h_ (3-6 r ) next section.
In the method of speoified time intervals, with conditions known at A, B,
4!=v*n and c (Fig. 3-21), a linear inrerpolation can be used to find
1.. (3-62)
B and S. From Fig. 3-21,
e and H at points
dt
xc-.x:Qc-Qn
-'a#* #*e v rin. +{!#: o (3-63)
xc -.x Qc - Q^
(3-6e)

rf.r
--:V-u
d l. (3-64)
By use olEq. (3-66), recognizing

Q^:
that.xr:
Qc-(n(Qc-Q;)
-yc, and -x. -.y: A_r,

(3-70)
The C'* and C- characteristics described by Eqs. (3-62) and (3-64) now appear
in general as curved lines on the xr plane (Fig. 3-21), inasmuch as V: V(x,t).
t+(Qc*e.e)
By multiplying each of Eqs. (3-61) to (3-64) by d, and using a first-order
Similarly, interpolated values are obtained for 0s, H, and ff5
approximation in the integration, the nite difference form o[the equations are:

on(Ie- rn) r,no-+ a'f n -Qr-k(Qc-Qa)

gt:
Hr- H^+4@r-o^)--
L^'! r^): o --0 (3-7 1 )
(JA A -'-- -' ffiQ*lQ*l(rr - t- o(Qc-Qa)
(3-6s)

-rp -,ra : (VR + rr)(rp - t) (3-66) Ha: Hc (++ e*)rn - a,r (3-12)

H, - H, - fr,n, - en - &S !1,i, o ;* oile,l(t,- ,s) : o

Hs: Hc . (T - r,)ra, - a,t (3-73)
(3-67) In these equations 0 is the grid-mesh ratio
yp
- -rs : (Vt - s)(tp - 15) (3-68)
- L,t
H:- (3-74\
The pipeline cross-sectional area has been introduced in the two compatibility A.r
equations.
and
These four equations are writtenin terms ol lour unknowns x, lp, Il, and
Two to obtain a numerical solution:33'5e use of
--Lt
Qo. approaches are possible
grid of characteristics and use of specied time intervals. The latter method as L=-t--Ad (3-7s)
A-x
used in Sec. l-2 olTers some advantages in most lluid transient problems, since
and rp are assigned definite values throughout the computation. The-procedure
,rp lrt
ln using the defined grid with interpolations it is necessary ro solve six
enables a very orderly solution to be carried forward in a system. However, il .; eqrrations in turn to find Qp and Hp for ary interior section in a pipeline. They
are Eqs. (3-70) to (3-73), and Eqs, (3-65) and (3-67). The lauer two equations
it
may be written in the same lorm as Eqs. (3-18) and (3-19) with new definitions
a-**l-*., for C, and Ca.

Cp : H** s^(u- +
f -
P
sin
" ffirc^t) (3-76)

,/
("- Cu : rrs- rr(r" f r," " - ffitut)
-- t3-77)

I
C B Figure 3-21 Method of specilied tirne
intervals. Equation (3-22) provides rhe solution for Hp.
I t LutD TRANSIENTS
An important limitation must be recognized in the selection of the grid-mesh
tio. To be assured oI stability the Courant condition33'5e must always be
tised
Lt(V + rr) < A.t (3-78)
rus the characteristics through P, C", and C-, must not lall outside the line
gment ,4B (Fig. 3-21).
The convective acceleration terms in the original partial differential equations
V_, and V H .,have the inf'luence of changing the slope o[ the characteristic lines to
i a. If the convective effects are small (i.e., if lz << rt), as is generally the case
most transient problems in pipelines, the slope ol the characteristics can be
rproximarted as +, by dropping the velocity. The interpolation equations are
en simplified to
Qa: Qc- (n(Qc - Qu) (3-7e)
Qs: Qc - k(Qc - Qr) (3-80)
H a: f{c - in(Hc - Hi (3-8 l
Hs:Hc-(s(Hc-Hr) (3-82)
re vrlue of (, Eq. (3-75), can now be interpreted as a meaure of the amount of
terpolation. In compliance with the Couraut condition it must lie in the range
<(< l.
It was emphasized in Sec. 3.2 that the compatibility equations must be valid
r steady flow. It may be noted that Eqs. (3-65) and (3-67) Ire not satisfied in
:ady state when the pipeline is on a slope, i.e., sin a # 0. In steady state the
tange in hydraulic-grade-line elevation should just equal the energy loss due to
ctin. Exirnination of Eqs. (3-65)and (3-67) shows that thre will be a maximum
rbalance of I/Ar for a vertical pipe. This is normally a small quantity com-
rred with other terms in the equations during the transiert problem so it is not
,nsidered a serious deficiency. It is, however, an annoyalrce since a computer
,ogram will not hold steady-state conditions prior to the initiation of the transient.
re discrepancy is probably c4used by dropping small terms in the development
the basic diftbrential equations.
terpolation errors One of the dvantages of the interpolalion method is that it
rables one to satisfy the requirernent of a common time increment in a multi-
pe system without adjusting the wavespeeds or pipe letgths. The major dis-
lvanttge is that interpolations introduce nn artificial numericill damping to the
lution.
The nanner in which the danrping enters the solution can be visuitlized by
exrnination of a single pipeline with lrictionless liow, Fig. 3-22. I[ Lr sharp
irnsient is introduced tt point B in the "xt plane, thel its effect should be lelt at
e other end ol the pipeline at point D. However, if two reach lengths are
ied in the pipe, Fig. 3-221a), and ln extrene interpolntion of 50 percent is used
STOLUTION BY CHARAC]'ERISfICS tvlg'fHOO 59
I F+x
+
(a) bl
Figurc 3-22 lnterpolation error. .rf plane.
in the numerical solution (( : 0.5), it can be seen that 50 percent of the change will
)
be transferred to point s and therefore be transmitted to point u at tire ar.
Ftrthermore 50 percent of this change will be transferred to point l/ and there-
fore will be transmitted to pont Y. Thus 25 percent of the original disturbance
will arrive at the other end of the pipeline ahead of time and also will be
retlected back to the source in advance ol the physical wave, thereby dampening
the transient.
This situation can be greatly improved by usirrg a larger number of reaches
as shown inFig.3-22(b). wirh lour reaches the disturbance reaches the other end
at the same time but its magnitude has been reduced. Additional reaches give
greater improvements. A smaller interpolation (i.e., ( close to l) is equally effective
in reducing the numerical error.
Higher order interpolations are also possible rnd, for smooth transients,
they generally produce improved results. For the step function, which is typical
of waterhammer problems, a higher order interpolation can introduce extra[eous
tluctuations; a situation which may be more undesirrble than the more excessive
mathem&tical damping provided by the linear interpolation.
Vardytrau has developed a procedure which, ior a given Af. uses n times as
many reaches. Calculations are made for each sectiol, increasing computing costs
by about the laclor n. The characteristic lines cut across more than a single reach,
which reduces the interpolation distance, resulting in improved accuracy.
The best udvice is to avoid interpolations whenever possible. lf it is not
possikrle, ts is sometines the case, a large number olrerches should be used, and'
the size ol interpolations should be kept to r minimuur (( less than but close to
unity.