Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol. 38, June 2013, pp. 126-131

Geometrical parameters of yarn cross-section in plain woven fabric

Siavash Afrashteh1,a, Ali Akbar Merati2 & Ali Asghar Asgharian Jeddi3
1
Department of Textile Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2
Advanced Textile Materials and Technology Research Institute, 3Department of Textile Engineering,
Amirkabir University of Technology, 424 Hafez Ave., Tehran, Iran

Received 14 November 2011; revised received and accepted 1 May 2012

To study the effect of yarn twist on the geometrical parameters of yarn in a plain woven fabric such as its cross-sectional
shape, the samples with various twist levels of warp and weft yarns have been woven and the yarn cross-section parameters
are measured using their images obtained by Projectina microscope. The image processing analyses show that the shape of
yarn cross-section in the fabric is affected by the twist level. The statistical analysis shows that the increase in yarn twist
factor (tex) from 0 to 4600 changes the yarn cross-section shape into a lens shape and then elliptical shape and finally
circular-like shape. The major diameter of the elliptical shape of the yarn cross-section decreases as the yarn twist increases,
while the minor diameter of the elliptical shape of yarn cross- section increases as the yarn twist increases. The results also
show that the twist of one group of yarns (warp) affects the cross-sectional shape of other group of yarns (weft). The
ellipticity ratio of the yarns (minor diameter divided by major diameter) increases from 0.35 to 0.86 as the yarn twist factor
increases from 0 to 4600.

Keywords: Ellipticity ratio, Fabric structure, Plain fabric, Twist level, Weaving, Yarn cross-section

1 Introduction fabric is mainly determined by the form of crimp

The geometrical parameters of yarn inside a fabric
play an important role in the fabric geometry and
some physical properties of fabric such as handle and
appearance. Fabric geometry is a very complex
structural parameter that depends on the component
materials and the manufacturing process as well as the
weave design1. It has considerable effect on fabric
behaviour and its physical and mechanical properties.
The yarn geometry in the fabric determines the fabric
thickness, comfort, thermal, and draping properties1.
The geometry of the fabric cannot be described by a
simple mathematical forms based on basic geometry,
but efforts are needed to idealize the fabric geometry to
explain it. To represent the configuration of yarn in
woven fabrics, many different forms of geometry have
been put forward by textile researchers1-11.
In conventional approaches, the general characters
of fabrics were idealized into simple geometrical
forms. These studies were often based on the
assumption of arbitrary geometrical models for the
wave crimp and yarn cross-sectional shapes. The
researchers treated the micromechanics of fabrics on
the basis of the unite cell. The yarn configuration in
_________
a
Corresponding author.
E-mail: afrashteh57@yahoo.com
waves and the cross-sectional shape of yarns in given
position. Numerous models have been developed for
yarn and fabric structures and their behaviours. In the
case of yarn structure in woven fabric, several
approaches have been used to describe the shape of
the yarn path along the fabric (sine curves, straight
lines, elastica forms, etc.) and the yarn cross-sectional
shape (circular, elliptical, lens, etc.)2-11.
The configuration of the spun yarns inside the
woven fabric cannot be the same throughout the
whole fabric. Hence, the cross-sectional geometry of
the spun yarns inside the woven fabric cannot be only
circular, elliptical or of any other shape. In other
words, the assumption of yarns having invariable
cross-sectional shape inside the woven fabric needs
more attention and consideration4.
Yarn flattening during the weaving process
demands extensive attention in understanding the
geometry of fabric structure as the cross-sectional
dimensions of yarn and the changes in yarn structure
significantly affect the thickness, comfort, thermal
and draping properties of the final cloth5.
Hofstee and Keulen6 stated that 3D fabric geometry
is frequently defined by sweeping a constant cross-
section along the centre line, which implies parallel
fibre paths. To this effect, a variable fibre bundle
 AFRASHTEH et al.: GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF YARN CROSS-SECTION IN PLAIN WOVEN FABRIC
cross-section was introduced in their study. Jiang and
Chen7 also emphasized the gap in the definition of
yarn cross-section shape to create more realistic and
flexible geometric fabric models. They introduced
irregular cross-sections of yarns created with
variability in both shape and size along the yarn path.
In all various studies1-11, researchers assume a
constant uniform yarn configuration throughout the
whole fabric. The common aspect in prior researches
is that the theoretical configuration of one unit cell is
extended to the whole fabric, giving the image of a
woven fabric that is composed of thousands of
uniform cells8.
Gong and Ozgen11 found that an ellipse model of
yarn cross-section in plain woven fabric is a suitable
approach to generate realistic 3D yarn images. They
found that the attention on variable cross-sectional
shape of the yarn along the yarn path gives a more
realistic representation of yarn appearance in the
woven fabric.
Alamdar-yazdi and Heppler11 studied the
cross-sectional shapes of the yarn in cotton gray
woven fabric in weaving process and in relaxed
fabric. They found that the cross-sectional shapes of
the yarns at the early stage of weaving are circular,
elliptical, or a combination of two circles or an
asymmetric elliptical. The deformation of yarn
cross-section at the contact point in the fabric is
highly dependent upon the yarn twist and the surface
contour of the crossing yarn. In this research, the yarn
twist range was limited because the fabric samples
were made of staple cotton yarn.
The geometry of any textile fabric can be
represented in a generic way by specifying yarn
path and yarn cross-sections independently.
Characterisation of fabric geometry is difficult due to
the large variability observed in measurement of
fabric parameters. However, by given accurate input
measurements, an accurate geometric model of the
fabric can be created.. A number of assumptions about
the path and shape of the cross-sections were made
for 2D woven fabrics in general and validated against
four different fabrics. TexEng Software Ltd have
developed two products named TechText CAD and
Weave Engineer12. TechText CAD is software aimed
at transferring academic work on the structural
mechanics of textiles into a CAD package that is easy
to use and directed at industrial needs. In TexGen, the
algorithms were implemented to create 2D woven
fabric geometric models using these assumptions with
minimal input data.
127
In this research, filament yarn is used to expand the
yarn twist range, and the effect of twist of both group
of yarns (weft and warp) on their cross-sectional
geometry in the woven fabric has been studied. The
interactional effect of twist levels of two groups of
yarn on the yarn geometry is also investigated.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Yarn and Fabric Production
The polyester filament yarns of 300 denier/96 mono
filament/flat were used to twist at various twist levels
and then to weave into a plain fabric of 25 ends/cm
and 23 picks/cm. The polyester filaments were dull
with a solid circular cross-section. For a given yarn
count, the spinning twist is the most important factor
influencing yarn thickness and compressibility under
the various extensional and compression forces in the
fabric. To study the geometry of the yarns in the
fabric and its variation affected by the twist, the
polyester multi-filaments were twisted at different
twist factors (tex) of 1150, 2300, 3450 and 4600 and
then used in warp and weft of the fabric samples. The
polyester yarns of 1150, 2300, 3450 and 4600 tex
twist factors were used in warp while yarns of
0, 1150, 2300, 3450 and 4600 tex twist factors were
used in the weft of the fabric. These levels of twist
were chosen, since they gave considerably different
yarn compactness to the produced yarn sample.
The yarns were twisted on a two-for-one (RAPPI)
twisting system. In order to achieve more suitable
packages that contained enough stability of yarn to
use in weaving, yarns were heat set on special
steaming fixation machine (OBEM). After the yarn
winding process, the cones were conditioned at 20C
and 75% humidity for 4 h. They were then left in the
conditioning box for 24 h. This was followed by
weaving. For this purpose, the CCI sample sizing and
weaving machine was used, although the yarns were
not sized during this process. The fabrics were then
woven on a CCI weaving machine with eight heald
frames. Finally, twenty plain fabrics of different
yarn twist levels were woven on the CCI sample
sizing and weaving machine with a weft insertion
speed of 45 picks/min.
2.2 Measuring the Yarn Cross- section Shape
In this study, the fabrics woven by the yarns of
various twist levels were examined. In sample
selection, it should be noted that the areas of fabric
near the selvage do not have a good sample
qualification condition and hence the samples should
not be selected from these areas.
128 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., JUNE 2013

To measure the geometry of the yarn cross-section

in the fabric, the fabric samples were selected
randomly and then immersed in a liquid resin under a
relax condition inside a special designed metallic
mold. The resin is a mixture of polyester,
methyl-ethyl-ketone-peroxide as hardener and cobalt
octoate as catalyser and drier. The hardener in the
resin makes it hard while the fabric sample is inside.
The metallic mold inner dimensions were 15 cm
length, 8 cm wide and 2 cm depth. Therefore, the
hardened samples were a solid body of 1582 cm
with fabric sample inside. The prepared solid bodies
were then cut in pieces of 2 mm thickness in a manner
that the cutter is perpendicular to the fabric surface
and one group of either warp or weft ends to cut them
vertically. Then the cut pieces were polished carefully
to smoothen their surface and to achieve clear images.
Ten pieces of hardened samples of 420.2 cm for
each direction of warp and weft were prepared and
then photographed using a Projectina microscope Fig. 1 Measuring method of yarn cross-section shape
(20 magnification) equipped with a digital camera. (A) photograph of yarn cross-section in the fabric, and
The photographs of yarn cross-section were saved on (B) measuring method
a computer and then processed using image
processing toolbox of MATLAB software. Figure 3 shows the effect of yarn twist on major
Regarding the weave density of the fabrics, each diameter of yarn cross-section. Obviously, the major
piece of cut and polished samples of 420.2 cm diameter of warp yarn cross-section decreases as the
includes 100 and 92 cross-sections of warp and weft warp yarn twist increases (Fig. 3a). Similarly, the
respectively. Twenty images in warp direction and major diameter of weft yarn cross-section decreases
20 images in weft direction were captured and saved as the weft yarn twist increases (Fig. 3b). Also, it is
(Fig. 1A). To obtain the shape of the yarn obvious that the minor diameter of warp yarn
cross-section, we measured the major diameter a in cross-section increases as the warp yarn twist
the plane approximately parallel to the fabric surface increases (Fig. 3a). Similarly, the minor diameter of
and minor diameter b in the plane approximately weft yarn cross-section increases as the weft yarn
perpendicular to the fabric surface of the elliptical twist increases (Fig. 3b). These results show that the
yarn cross section in each image (Fig. 1B). yarns of lower twist deform easily by compression
forces in the contact point of weft and warp yarns in
3 Results and Discussion the fabric.
The results of microscopic examination of the
The greater deformation of yarns of lower twist is
shape of the yarn cross-section are given in Fig. 2.
because of their loose structure. Therefore, because of
The cross-section of the yarns of high twist remains
bigger major diameter of low twist yarns in the fabric,
approximately in circle form in the woven fabric
these yarns cover more area of fabric surface and
(Fig. 2d) and it changes into an ellipse when the yarn
make it softer.
twist decreases (Fig. 2a). To investigate the effect of
twist on yarn cross-section, the major and minor Figures 3 and 4 also show that the twist of warp or
diameters of elliptical shape of the each yarn cross- weft yarns affect on the cross-section shapes of each
section were measured as shown in Fig. 1. other at the contact point. These results show that the
One should note that the highest twisted yarns render effect of tightness of one group of yarn on the cross-
the roundest cross-sectional shapes (close to a circle) sectional parameters such as major and minor
with low contact area, whereas the lowest twisted yarns diameters of another group of yarn is significant.
result in a symmetrical or asymmetrical ellipse or The major diameter of warp yarn cross-section
amygdaloidal with relatively higher contact area. decreases as the weft yarn twist increases (Fig. 3a).
 AFRASHTEH et al.: GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF YARN CROSS-SECTION IN PLAIN WOVEN FABRIC
Fig. 2 Typical photograph of warp yarn cross-section in the
fabric with various twist levels (a) warp and weft twist factor
1150, (b) warp twist factor 1150, weft twist factor 2300, (c) warp
twist factor 1150, weft twist factor 3450, and (d) warp twist factor
1150, weft twist factor 4600 (magnification 20)
Similarly, the major diameter of weft yarn cross-
section decreases as the warp yarn twist increases
(Fig. 3b). On the contrary, the minor diameter of warp
yarn cross-section increases as the weft yarn twist
increases (Fig. 4a). Similarly, the minor diameter of
weft yarn cross-section increases as the warp yarn
twist increases (Fig. 4b).
129
Fig. 3 Effect of yarn twist on major diameter of (a) warp and
(b) weft yarns cross-section
As Figure 3 shows, at the contact point of warp
and weft yarns, the major diameter of group of
yarns (warp or weft) decreases due to the increase in
twist of other group of yarns. This is because
of the bigger minor diameter of the higher twist yarns.
When the twist of one group of yarns (warp)
increases, their minor diameters increase and this
causes the decrease in free space for expansion of
major diameter of weft yarns.
This phenomenon also explains the bigger minor
diameter of warp yarns at higher twist of crossed weft
yarns. The statistical analyses show the differences in
the major diameter of one group of yarns, e.g. warp in
the fabrics of various weft twists is significant at the
5% level. The same statistical results are also obtained
for minor diameter.
130 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., JUNE 2013
Fig. 4 Effect of yarn twist on minor diameter of (a) warp and
(b) weft yarns cross-section
To consider the effect of yarn twist on the
cross-sectional geometry of yarns in the fabric, the
ratio of minor diameter to major diameter (ellipticity
ratio) of both warp and weft cross-sections was
calculated (Fig. 5). The figure shows the ellipticity
(b/a ratio) of warp and weft cross-sections in a plain
fabric. The ellipticity ratio changes between 0 and 1.
The bigger the ellipticity ratio, the closer is the
circular-like cross section. The ellipticity of warp yarn
increases as the warp yarn twist increases (Fig. 5a).
Similarly, the ellipticity of weft yarn cross-section
increases as the weft yarn twist increases (Fig. 5b).
Figure 5 also shows that the twist of one group of
yarns such as warp does significantly affect the
ellipticity of another group.
The statistical analyses show that the differences in
the ellipticity of the warp yarns of various twists are
statistically significant at the 5% level. Similarly, the
differences in the ellipticity of the weft yarns of
various twists are statistically significant at the
5% level. Also, the differences in the ellipticity of
the warp yarns in the fabrics of various weft twist
levels are statistically significant at the 5% level.
Fig. 5 Effect of yarn twist on ellipticity shape (b/a ratio) of (a)
warp and (b) weft yarns cross-section
Similarly, the differences in the ellipticity of the weft
yarns in the fabrics of various warp twist levels are
statistically significant at the 5% level.
The results show that the elliptical shape of one
group of yarns (warp or weft) in the fabric depends
not only on their own twist but also on the twist of
other group of yarns (warp or weft).
The above finding may help to consider the effect
of yarn twist on fabric structural parameters such
as its thickness. The thickness of the fabric was
measured according to ASTM D 1777 using a digital
tester (KARDOTEC Co). The yarn twist affects the
yarn cross-sectional dimensions such as yarn minor
and major diameter. Obviously, the fabric thickness
is the measurable dimensional parameter of fabric
and is a function of yarn diameter particularly
the yarn minor diameter. Theoretically, the fabric
thickness is equal to the sum of the minor diameter of
 AFRASHTEH et al.: GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF YARN CROSS-SECTION IN PLAIN WOVEN FABRIC
Fig. 6 Relationship between the (a) weft and (b) warp yarns
minor diameter and fabric thickness
the crossed yarns. Therefore, the changes in yarn
minor diameter in the fabric by the yarn twist may
have an obvious effect on fabric thickness. The results
of measuring the fabric thickness show that there is a
linear relationship between the fabric thickness and
the minor diameters of the constituent yarns (Fig. 6).
The experimental results also show that the fabric
thickness is approximately equal to the sum of the
minor diameter of the warp and weft yarns.
4 Conclusion
To study the effect of yarn twist on the geometrical
shape of yarn cross-section in the fabric, the plain
fabric samples were woven using polyester filaments
of various twist levels in warp and weft. The results of
131
measuring the yarn cross-sectional deformation in the
fabric show that the shape of yarn cross-section in the
fabric is affected by the twist level. The major and
minor diameters of yarns are greatly affected by their
own twist levels while the twist level of one group of
yarns (warp or weft) shows a significant effect on
major and minor diameters of another group of yarns.
Increasing the twist factor from 0 to 4600 makes
the yarn cross-section shape into a lens shape and
then elliptical shape and finally circular-like shape.
The major diameter of the elliptical shape of the yarn
cross-section decreases as the yarn twist increases,
while the minor diameter of the elliptical shape of
yarn cross-section increases as the yarn twist
increases. The ellipticity ratio of the yarns (minor
diameter divided by major diameter) increases
from 0.35 to 0.86 as the yarn twist factor increases
from 0 to 4600.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Yazdbaf Textile Co. for
their help and efforts in weaving fabric samples.
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