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1
 GENERAL MARITIME
CHAPTER 1: TERRESTIAL AND CELESTIAL

1.1. FUNDAMENTALS
1.1.1. The shape and dimensions of the Earth.
+ The Shape of the Earth
The topographic surface is the actual surface of the Earth, upon which geodetic
measurements are made. These measurements are then reduced to the geoid. Marine navigation
measurements are made on the ocean surface which approximates the geoid.
The geoid is a surface along which gravity is always equal and to which the direction of
gravity is always perpendicular. The latter point is particularly significant because optical
instruments containing leveling devices are commonly used to make geodetic measurements. When
properly adjusted, the vertical axis of the instrument coincides exactly with the direction of
gravity and is by definition perpendicular to the geoid. See Figure 1.1.
The geoid is that surface to which the oceans would conform over the entire Earth if free to
adjust to the combined effect of the Earths mass attraction and the centrifugal force of the
Earths rotation. Uneven distribution of the Earths mass makes the geoidal surface irregular.
The geoid refers to the actual size and shape of the Earth, but such an irregular surface has
serious limitations as a mathematical Earth model because:
It has no complete mathematical expression;

Small variations in surface shape over time introduce small errors in measurement.
The irregularity of the surface would necessitate a prohibitive amount of computations.

The surface of the geoid, with some exceptions, tends to rise under mountains and to dip
above ocean basins.
For geodetic, mapping, and charting purposes, it is necessary to use a regular or geometric

Figure 1.1. Geoid, ellipsoid, and topographic surface of the Earth, and deflection of
the vertical due to differences in mass.
shape which closely approximates the shape of the geoid either on a local or global scale and
which has a specific mathematical expression. This shape is called the ellipsoid.
The separations of the geoid and ellipsoid are called geoidal heights, geoidal undulations,
or geoidal separations.
Natural irregularities in density and depths of the material making up the upper crust of the
Earth also result in slight alterations of the direction of gravity. These alterations are reflected in
the irregular shape of the geoid, the surface that is perpendicular to a plumb line.
Since the Earth is in fact flattened slightly at the poles and bulges somewhat at the equator,
the geometric figure used in geodesy to most nearly approximate the shape of the Earth is the oblate
spheroid or ellipsoid of revolution. This is the three dimensional shape obtained by rotating an
ellipse about its minor axis.
Where a mass deficiency exists, the Geoid will dip below the mean ellipsoid. Conversely,
where a mass surplus exists, the Geoid will rise above the mean ellipsoid. These influences cause
the Geoid to deviate from a mean ellipsoidal shape by up to +/- 100 meters. The biggest presently
known undulations are the minimum in the Indian Ocean with N = -100 meters and the maximum in
the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean with N = +70 meters (figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2. Deviations (undulations) between the Geoid and the WGS84 ellipsoid.
+ The Ellipsoid
a. Defining the Ellipsoid
We have defined a physical surface, the Geoid, as a reference surface for heights. We also
need a reference surface for the description of the horizontal coordinates (i.e. geographic
coordinates) of points of interest. Since we will later project these horizontal coordinates onto a
mapping plane, the reference surface for horizontal coordinates requires a mathematical definition
and description. The most convenient geometric reference is the oblate ellipsoid (figure 1.2). It
provides a relatively simple figure which fits the Geoid to a first order approximation, though for
small scale mapping purposes a sphere may be used. An ellipsoid is formed when an ellipse is
rotated about its minor axis. This ellipse which defines an ellipsoid or spheroid is called a meridian
ellipse (notice that ellipsoid and spheroid are used here as equivalent and interchangeable words).
3
 The shape of an ellipsoid may be defined in a number of ways, but in geodetic practice the
definition is usually by its semi-major axis a and
flattening. Flattening f is dependent on both
the semi-major axis a and the semi-minor
axis b.

The ellipsoid may also be defined by its

semi-major axis a and Figure 1.3. An oblate ellipse, used to represent eccentricity e, which
the Earth surface, defined by its the semi-major
is given by: axis a and semi-minor axis b.

( )

b. Local and global ellipsoids

Many different ellipsoids have been defined in the world. Local ellipsoids have been
established to fit the Geoid (mean sea level) well over an area of local interest, which in the past
was never larger than a continent. This meant that the differences between the Geoid and the
reference ellipsoid could effectively be ignored, allowing accurate maps to be drawn in the vicinity
of the datum (figure 1.3).
With increasing demands for global
surveying, work is underway to
develop global reference ellipsoids. In contrast
to local ellipsoids, which apply only to a
specific country or localized area of the Earths
surface, global
ellipsoids approximate the Geoid as a mean
Earth ellipsoid. The Figure 1.4. The Geoid, a globally best fitting International Union
for Geodesy and ellipsoid for it, and a regionally best fitting Geophysics (IUGG)
ellipsoid for it, for a chosen region.
plays a central role in establishing these
reference figures.

1.1.2. Coordinates of the earth

+ Major point, line and plane on the earth

4
 The Earth is an irregular oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the poles). Measurements of
its dimensions and the amount of its flattening are subjects of geodesy. However, for most
navigational purposes, assuming a spherical Earth introduces insignificant error. The Earths axis
of rotation is the line connecting the north and south geographic poles.
The term meridian is usually applied to the upper branch of the half-circle from pole to

Figure 1.5. Major lines and plane on the earth

pole which passes through a given point. The opposite half is called the lower branch. All meridians
are halves of great ellipses (often improperly called great circles), which converge at the north and
south poles.
A line passing near the Royal Observatory, Greenwich (near London in the UK) has been chosen as
the international zero-longitude reference line, the Prime Meridian. Places to the east are in the
eastern hemisphere, and places to the west are in the western hemisphere.
A parallel or parallel of latitude is a circle on the surface of the Earth parallel to the
plane of the equator. It connects all points of equal latitude. The equator is a great circle at
latitude 0o. The poles are single points at latitude 90o. The equator divides the globe into Northern
and Southern Hemispheres. All other parallels are small circles. They are known as parallels of
latitude.
+ Coordinates on the earth
a. Geographic coordinates (; )
The 2D geographic coordinates (; ):
The most widely used global coordinate system consists of lines of geographic latitude
longitude. They form circles on the surface of the ellipsoid. Lines of equal longitude are
called meridians and they form ellipses (meridian ellipses) on the ellipsoid. Both lines form
the graticule when projected onto a map plane. Note that the concept of geographic coordinates can
also be applied to a sphere as the reference surface.
The latitude of a point P (Figure 1.8) is the angle between the ellipsoidal normal
through P' and the equatorial plane. Latitude is zero on the equator ( = 0), and increases towards
the two poles to maximum values of = +90 (90N) at the North Pole and = - 90 (90S) at the
South Pole.

5
 The longitude is the
angle between the meridian
ellipse which passes through
Greenwich and the meridian
ellipse containing the point
in question. It is measured in
the equatorial plane from the
meridian of Greenwich =
0) either eastwards
through = + 180 (180E)
or westwards through = -
180 (180W).
Latitude and longitude
represent the geographic
coordinates , of a point P'
with respect to the selected Figure 1.6. The latitude and longitude angles
reference surface. They are represent the 2D geographic coordinate system.
also called geodetic
coordinates or ellipsoidal coordinates when an ellipsoid is used to approximate the shape of the
Earth. Geographic coordinates are always given in angular units. An example, the coordinates for
the City hall in Enschede are:
= 52 13' 26.2" N, = 6 53' 32.1" E.
There are several formats for the angular units of geographic coordinates. The
Degrees:Minutes:Seconds (4930'00"N, 12330'00"W) is the most common format, another the
Decimal Degrees (49.5000, -123.5000), generally with 4-6 decimal numbers.

Figure 1.7. Three different latitudes: the geodetic (or geographic)

latitude ( ), the astronomic latitude () and the geocentric
latitude (' ).
1.1.3. Datums
+ Definitions

6
 A datum is defined as any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such quantities
which serves as a reference point from which to measure other quantities.
In geodesy, cartography, and navigation, two general types of datums must be considered:
horizontal datum and vertical datum. The horizontal datum forms the basis for computations of
horizontal position. The vertical datum provides the reference to measure heights or depths, and may
be one of two types: Vertical geodetic datum is the reference used by surveyors to measure heights of
topographic features, and by cartographers to portray them. This should not be confused with the
various types of tidal datums, which are by definition vertical datums (and having no horizontal
component), used to define the heights and depths of hydrographic features, such as water depths
or bridge clearances. The vertical geodetic datum is derived from its mathematical expression, while
the tidal datum is derived from actual tidal data.
For navigational purposes, vertical geodetic datums are quite unimportant, while horizontal
geodetic datums and tidal datums are vital.
A horizontal datum may be defined at an origin point on the ellipsoid (local datum) such that the
center of the ellipsoid coincides with the Earths center of mass (geocentric datum). The coordinates
for points in specific geodetic surveys and triangulation networks are computed from certain initial
quantities, or datums.
+ Development of the World Geodetic System
Many countries have developed national datums which differ from those of their neighbors.
Accordingly, national maps and charts often do not agree along national borders.
And we have the following table of ellipsoids defined in modern geodetic history.
By the late 1950s Efforts of the Army, Navy, and Air Force were combined, leading to the
development of the DoD World Geodetic System of 1960 (WGS 60).
In January 1966, a World Geodetic System Committee produced WGS 66 which served DoD
needs following its implementation in 1967.
The same World Geodetic System Committee began work in 1970 to develop a replacement
for WGS 66. After an extensive effort extending over a period of approximately three years, the
Committee completed the development of the Department of Defense World Geodetic System
1972 (WGS 72).
Further refinement of WGS 72 resulted in the new World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84),
now referred to as simply WGS. For surface navigation, WGS 60, 66, 72 and the new WGS 84 are
essentially the same, so that positions computed on any WGS coordinates can be plotted directly on
the others without correction.
The WGS system is not based on a single point, but many points, fixed with extreme
precision by satellite fixes and statistical methods. The result is an ellipsoid which fits the real
surface of the Earth, or geoid, far more accurately than any other. The WGS system is applicable
worldwide. All regional datums can be referenced to WGS once a survey tie has been made.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) has transformed the science of surveying, enabling
the establishment of precise ties to WGS in areas previously found to be too remote to survey
7
to modern standards. As a result, new charts are increasingly precise as to position of features.
The more recent a charts date of publishing, the more likely it is that it will be accurate as to
positions. Navigators should always refer to the title block of a chart to determine the date of the
chart, the date of the surveys and sources used to compile it, and the datum on which it is based.

Bessel (1841) 6377397.155

Clarke (1866) 6378206.4
Clarke (1880)

298.25

6378145.

+ Datum Shift
One of the most serious impacts of different datums on navigation occurs when a navigation
system provides a fix based on a datum different from that used for the nautical chart. The
resulting plotted position may be different from the actual location on that chart. This difference is
known as a datum shift.
Table 1.1. Major Arguments of Terrestrial Ellipsoids
Modern electronic navigation systems have software installed that can output positions in a
variety of datums, eliminating the necessity for applying corrections. All electronic charts produced
by NIMA are compiled on WGS and are not subject to datum shift problems as long as the GPS
receiver is outputting WGS position data to the display system.
The amount of datum shift between two different datums is not linear. That is, the amount of
shift is a function of the position of the observer, which must be specified for the shift to be
computed. Varying differences of latitude and longitude between two different datums will be
noted as ones location changes.

8
 There are still a few NIMA-produced paper charts, and a number of charts from other
countries, based on datums other than WGS. If the datum of these charts is noted in the title block of
the chart, the WRN-6 and most other GPS receivers can be set to output position data in that
datum, eliminating the datum shift problem. If the datum is not listed, extreme caution is necessary.
An offset can sometimes be established if the ships actual position can be determined with
sufficient accuracy, and this offset applied to GPS positions in the local area. But remember that
since a datum shift is not linear, this offset is only applicable locally.
Another effect on navigation occurs when shifting between charts that have been compiled
using different datums. If a position is replotted on a chart of another datum using latitude and
longitude, the newly plotted position will not match with respect to other charted features. The datum
shift may be avoided by transferring positions using bearings and ranges to common points. If
datum shift conversion notes for the applicable datums are given on the charts, positions defined by
latitude and longitude may be replotted after applying the noted correction.
The positions given for chart corrections in the Notice to Mariners reflect the proper datum for
each specific chart and edition number. Due to conversion of charts based on old datums to more
modern ones, and the use of many different datums throughout the world, chart corrections intended
for one edition of a chart may not be safely plotted on any other.
As noted, datum shifts are not constant throughout a given region, but vary according to
how the differing datums fit together.
Most charts show a datum note. This note is usually found in the title block or in the
upper left margin of the chart. According to the year of the chart edition, the scale, and policy at
the time of production, the note may say World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS- 84). A datum
note for a chart for which satellite positions can be plotted without correction will read:
Positions obtained from satellite navigation systems referred to (Reference Datum) can be plotted
directly on this chart.
Reproductions of foreign charts will usually be in the datum or reference system of the
producing country. In these cases a conversion factor is given in the following format: Positions
obtained from satellite navigation systems referred to the (Reference Datum) must be moved
minutes (Northward/Southward) and X.XX minutes (Eastward/ Westward) to agree with this
chart.
Some charts cannot be tied in to WGS because of lack of recent surveys. Currently issued
charts of some areas are based on surveys or use data obtained in the age of sailing ships. The lack
of surveyed control points means that they cannot be properly referenced to modern geodetic
systems. In this case there may be a note that says: Adjustments to WGS cannot be determined for
this chart.
A few charts may have no datum note at all, but may carry a note which says: From
various sources to (year). In these cases there is no way for the navigator to determine the
mathematical difference between the local datum and WGS positions. However, if a radar or
visual fix can be accurately determined, and an offset established as noted above. This offset can
then be programmed into the GPS receiver.

9
 To minimize problems caused by differing datums:
Plot chart corrections only on the specific charts and editions for which they are intended. Each
chart correction is specific to only one edition of a chart. When the same correction is made on two charts
based on different datums, the positions for the same feature may differ slightly. This difference is
equal to the datum shift be- tween the two datums for that area.
Try to determine the source and datum of positions of temporary features, such as drill rigs. In
general they are given in the datum used in the area in question. Since these are precisely positioned
using satellites, WGS is the normal datum. A datum correction, if needed, might be found on a chart of
the area.
Remember that if the datum of a plotted feature is not known, position inaccuracies may result.
It is wise to allow a margin of error if there is any doubt about the datum.
Know how the datum of the positioning system you are using (Loran, GPS, etc.) relates to
your chart. GPS and other modern positioning systems use WGS datum. If your chart is on any
other datum, you must program the system to use the charts datum, or apply a datum correction
when plotting GPS positions on the chart.

1.1.4. Popular nautical measuring units

+ Length along the graticule of the ellipsoid
Length Dp of the parallel line with latitude F between the meridians L 1 and L 2 :

( ) ( )

Length Dm of the parallel line between the meridians F 1 and F 2 :

( )
( )
[ ]
Surface area F of geographical quadrangle buonded by the parallels F 1 and F 2, as well as the
meridians L 1 and L 2 :

( ) (

( )
) ( )

+ The nautical mile

A nautical mile (symbol M, NM or nmi) is a unit of distance that is approximately one minute
of arc (1') measured along the meridian in the latitude of the position. This is illustrated in Fig 1.15.
If M is the place on the Earth's surface and C the centre of curvature at M and AMB is an arc of the
meridian subtending an angle of 1' at C, then AMB is the length of the sea mile at M.
10
 It is a non-SI unit (although accepted for use in the International System of Units by
the BIPM) used especially by navigators in the shipping and aviation industries, and also in polar
exploration. It is commonly used in international law and treaties, especially regarding the limits of
territorial waters. It developed from the sea mile and the related geographical mile.
The nautical mile remains in use by sea and air navigators worldwide because of its
convenience when working with charts. Most nautical charts use the Mercator projection whose
scale varies by about a factor of six from the equator to 80 latitude, so charts covering large areas
cannot use a single linear scale.The nautical mile is nearly equal to a minute of latitude on a chart,
so a distance measured with a chart divider can be roughly converted to nautical miles using the
chart's latitude scale.
For any latitude, the length of one minute of latitude at that latitude. It varies from about
1,842.9 metres at the equator to about 1,861.7 metres at the poles, with a mean value of 1,852.3
metres These figures can be obtained multiplying the equivalent in radians of 1 minute by the radius
of curvature of the meridian at the given latitudes in the International (1924) Spheroid.
The international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary
Hydrographic Conference, Monaco (1929) as exactly 1,852 metres at latitude 48. This is the only
definition in widespread current use, and is the one accepted by the International Hydrographic
Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Distances given in
the Admiralty Distance Tables and in Ocean Passages of the World are in international nautical
miles.
+ Some popular nautical measuring units
The knot:
In navigation, it is convenient to have a fixed or standard unit for measuring speed. This unit
is one international nautical mile (1852 m) per hour and is called a knot, abbreviated to kn.
In normal practice, the errors arising from using international nautical miles instead of sea
miles are very small (less thun 0.5%). Sometimes, however, it is necessary to determine the error.
Table 1.2. Serveral nautical measuring units

Abbrev. Metric Table Information

Inch in or " 2.54 cm 12 inches = 1 foot

foot ft or ' 30.48 cm 12 inches = 1 foot

3 feet = 1 yard

Yard Yd 91.44 cm 3 feet = 1 yard

fathom 1.83 m fathom

15 fathom = 1 shackle

11
 shackle 27.43 m 15 fathom = 1 shackle
30 yards = 1 shackle

cable 185.32 m 608 feet = 1 cable

10 cables = 1 nautical mile

nautical mile 1.85 km 6080 feet = 1 nautical mile

10 cables = 1 nautical mile

1.2. The principle of determining the directions and bearing at sea

1.2.1. The plane of true horizon
Plane of true horizon at point A is a plane which is perpendiculars to the plumb line of point
A (Z is the zenith of the observer).
1.2.2. Identify four major directions
The observers meridional plane is the one containing the earths axis passing through the
position of the observer (A). This meridional plane cut the earth's surface by a large circle called the
meridian circle. Half a meridian circle from the North Pole (N) to South Pole (S) passing observers
position named observers meridian.
Observers meridian plane cuts horizon plane by an intersection called the North-South line
(NS).

Figure 3.1 Determining main directions on the true

horizon plane

Plane containing point O and being perpendicular to the meridian observer called the original
vertical plane. This plane cut the sphere in a circle called an original vertical ring or East-West
(EW) ring. Intersection of original vertical plane horizon and horizon plane is named EW line.

12
 The horizon plane is divided into four parts by NS and EW lines named Northeast (NE),
southeast (SE), Southwest (SW), Northwestern (NW), where NS line is basic one used to determine
direction at sea. Direction of the North-South (NS) line from the observers position (A) being
toward the closer Earths Pole is name of that Pole. In Figure 3.1, pole being near the north-south
line is PN, thus, facing to PN North. As be agreed, on the true horizon plane, facing to North (N),
back is the South (S), East (E) is on the right hand and West (W) is on the left.

1.3. Charts fundamentals

1.3.1 Definitions
A nautical chart represents part of the spherical earth on a plane surface. It shows water
depth, the shoreline of adjacent land, prominent topographic features, aids to navigation, and other
navigational information. It is a work area on which the navigator plots courses, ascertains
positions, and views the relationship of the ship to the surrounding area. It assists the navigator
in avoiding dangers and arriving safely at his destination.
Originally hand-drawn on sheepskin, traditional nautical charts have for generations been
printed on paper. Electronic charts consisting of a digital data base and a display system are in
use and are replacing paper charts aboard many vessels. An electronic chart is not simply a
digital version of a paper chart; it introduces a new navigation methodology with capabilities and
limitations very different from paper charts. The electronic chart is the legal equivalent of the paper
chart if it meets certain International Maritime Organization specifications.
Should a marine accident occur, the nautical chart in use at the time takes on legal
significance. In cases of grounding, collision, and other accidents, charts become critical records
for reconstructing the event and assigning liability. Charts used in reconstructing the incident can
also have tremendous training value.
1.3.2 Chart scale
The scale of a chart is the ratio of a given distance on the chart to the actual distance which it
represents on the earth. It may be expressed in various ways. The most common are:
- A simple ratio or fraction, known as the representative fraction. For example, 1:80,000 or
1/80,000 means that one unit (such as a meter) on the chart represents 80,000 of the same
unit on the surface of the earth. This scale is sometimes called the natural or fractional scale.
- A statement that a given distance on the earth equals a given measure on the chart, or vice
versa. For example, 30 miles to the inch means that 1 inch on the chart represents 30 miles
of the earths surface. Similarly, 2 inches to a mile indicates that 2 inches on the chart
represent 1 mile on the earth. This is sometimes called the numerical scale.
- A line or bar called a graphic scale may be drawn at a convenient place on the chart and
subdivided into nautical miles, meters, etc. All charts vary somewhat in scale from point to
point, and in some projections the scale is not the same in all directions about a single point. A
single subdivided line or bar for use over an entire chart is shown only when the chart is of
such scale and projection that the scale varies a negligible amount over the chart, usually one
of about 1:75,000 or larger. Since 1 minute of latitude is very nearly equal to 1 nautical mile,
13
 the latitude scale serves as an approximate graphic scale. On most nautical charts the east and
west borders are subdivided to facilitate distance measurements.
On a Mercator chart the scale varies with the latitude. This is noticeable on a chart covering a
relatively large distance in a north-south direction. On such a chart the border scale near the latitude
in question should be used for measuring distances.
Of the various methods of indicating scale, the graphical method is normally available in some
form on the chart. In addition, the scale is customarily stated on charts on which the scale does
not change appreciably over the chart.
The ways of expressing the scale of a chart are readily interchangeable. For instance, in a
nautical mile there are about 72,913.39 inches. If the natural scale of a chart is 1:80,000, one
inch of the chart represents 80,000 inches of the earth, or a little more than a mile. To find the
exact amount, divide the scale by the number of inches in a mile, or 80,000/72,913.39 = 1.097.
Thus, a scale of 1:80,000 is the same as a scale of 1.097 (or approximately 1.1) miles to an inch.
Stated another way, there are: 72,913.39/80,000 = 0.911 (approximately 0.9) inch to a mile.
Similarly, if the scale is 60 nautical miles to an inch, the representative fraction is 1:(60 x 72,913.39)
= 1:4,374,803.
A chart covering a relatively large area is called a small-scale chart and one covering a
relatively small area is called a large-scale chart. Since the terms are relative, there is no sharp
division between the two. Thus, a chart of scale 1:100,000 is large scale when compared with a chart
of 1:1,000,000 but small scale when compared with one of 1:25,000.
As scale decreases, the amount of detail which can be shown decreases also. Cartographers
selectively decrease the detail in a process called generalization when producing small scale charts
using large scale charts as sources. The amount of detail shown depends on several factors,
among them the coverage of the area at larger scales and the intended use of the chart.
1.3.3 Distortion of Ellipse in projections
A map projection without distortions would correctly represent shapes, angles, areas,
distances and directions, everywhere on the map. Unfortunately, any map projection is associated
with scale distortions. There is simply no way to flatten out a piece of ellipsoidal or spherical
surface without stretching some parts of the surface more than others (figure below). The amount
and which kind of distortions a map will have depends largely - next to size of the area being
mapped - on the type of the map projection that has been selected.

14
 Figure 2.1. Scale distortions after flattening a piece of the ellipsoidal or spherical reference
surface.
Since there is no map projection that maintains correct scale all over the map, it may be
important to know the extent to which the scale varies on a map. On a world map, the scale
variations are evident where landmasses are wrongly sized or out of shape and the meridians and
parallels do not intersect at right angles or are not spaced uniformly. These maps may have a scale
reduction diagram to indicate the map scale at different locations, helping the map-reader to
become aware of the distortions. On maps at larger scales, maps of countries or even city maps, the
distortions are not evident to the eye. However, the map user should be aware of the distortions if he
or she computes distances, areas or angles on the basis of measurements taken from these maps.
Scale distortions can be measured and shown on a map by ellipses of distortion. The ellipse of
distortion, also known as Tissot's Indicatrix, shows the shape of an infinite small circle with a fixed
scale on the Earth as it appears when plotted on the map. Every circle is plotted as circle or an
ellipse or, in extreme cases, as a straight line. The size and shape of the ellipse shows how much the
scale is changed and in what direction.
The indicatrices on the map in the figure below have a varying degrees of flattening, but the
areas of the indicatrices everywhere on the map are the same, which means that areas are
represented correctly on the map. The distortion property of the map projection is therefore equal-
area (or equivalent).

Figure 2.2. The ellipses of distortion plotted on the cylindrical equal-area projection. The
flattening of the ellipses towards the polar regions shows that shape distortions increase towards
the polar regions.

15
 When the indicatrices are circles everywhere on the map, the angles and consequently shapes
(of small areas) are shown correctly on the map. The distortion property of the map projection is
therefore conformal (e.g. the Mercator projection).
Scale distortions on a map can also be shown by means of a scale factor (ratio of the scale at a
given point to the true scale). Scale distortions exist at locations where the scale factor is smaller or
larger than 1. E.g. a scale factor at a given point on the map is equal to 0.99960 signifies that 1000
metres on the reference surface of the Earth will actually measure 999.6 metres on the map. This is
a contraction of 40 centimetre per kilometre.
The nominal map scale (given map scale) divided by the scale factor will give the actual
scale. E.g. a scale factor of 0.99960 at a given point on a map with a nominal scale of 1:10,000 (one
to ten thousand) will give a scale of 1:10,004 (10,000 divided by 0.99960) at the given point. This is
a smaller scale than the nominal map scale. A scale factor of 2 at a given point on a map with a
nominal scale of 1:10M (one to ten million) will give a scale of 1:5M (10 million divided by 2) at
the given point. This is a larger scale than the nominal map scale.
Scale distortions for both, tangent and secant map surfaces, are illustrated in the figures
below. Distortions increase as the distance from the central point (tangent plane) or closed line(s) of
intersection increases.

Figure 2.3. Scale distortions on a tangent map surface. The central point is not distorted on the
map.

Figure 2.4. Scale distortions on a secant map surface. Line(s) of intersection are not distorted on
the map.
On a secant map projection - the application of a scale factor of less than 1.0000 to the central
point or the central meridian has the effect of making the projection secant - the overall distortions
are less than on one that uses a tangent map surface. Most countries have derived there map
coordinate system from a projection with a secant map surface for this reason.

1.3.4. States the requirements of a chart appropriate for marine navigation

+ Charts drawn on the Mercator projection
A line on the Earths surface which cuts all the meridians and parallels at the same angle is
called a rhumb line .If two places on the Earths surface are joined by a rhumb line and the ship
16
steers along that line, the direction of the ships head will remain the same throughout the passage.
This direction is determined by the angle from the meridian to the rhumb line, measured clockwise
from 0 to 360 degree, and is call the course .The rhumb line itself is often spoken of as the course.
On the Earths surface, a continuous rhumb line will in general spiral towards the pole. To the
navigator, the most useful chart is one on which he can show the track of his ship by drawing a
straight line between his starting-point and his destination, and then measure the steady course he
must steering order to arrive there. The Mercator chart permits him to do this and the main
properties are set out here for ease of reference:
1. Rhumb lines on the Earth appear as straight lines on the chart.
2. The angles between these rhumb line are unaltered, as between Earth and chart.
3. The equator, which is a rhumb line as well as a great circle, appears on the chart as a
straight line.
4. The parallels of latitude (which are both small circles and rhumb lines) appear as
straight lines parallel to the equator.
5. The meridians (which are rhumb lines as well as great circles) appear as straight lines at
right angles to the equator.
6. A straight line joining two points does not represent the shortest distance between them,
unless it happens to be a great circle as well . A great circle which is not a meridian or the equator
will appear as a curve.
7. The chart is orthomophic, that is, at any point on it the scale is the same in all directions
and angles are preserved; hence, the chart correctly represents the shape of charted features in any
small area.
+ Charts drawn on the gnomonic projection
The chart drawn on a flat surface is conceived as touching the Earth at one point, usually the
center point of the chart, known as the tangent point.
Lines are drawn from the center of the earth, throught point on the earths surface, until they
reach the flat surface of the chat. Hence:
1. Great circles appear as straight lines on the chart, and rhumb lines appear curved
2. Meridians are straight lines converging to the poles.
3. Parallels of latitude curves.
4. The farther a point on the chart is away from the tangent point, the greater will be the
distortion.
This projection is used for great-circle sailing charts. On many Admiralty charts of scale
1:50,000 and larger, the term gnomonic has been quoted to describe the projecting on which they
are constructed although in fact a modified form of polyconic projection has been used. The used of
the term gnomonic (though strictly incorrect) indicates that, on the chart, lines of sight and other
great circles are represented by straight lines. Thus, for all practical purposes, straight lines can be
used to plot all bearing and direction lines.
17
+ Mercator Projection/Chart
To the navigator, the most useful chart is one on which he can show the track of his ship by
drawing a straight line between his starting point and his destination, and thus measure the steady
course he must steer in order to arrive there. The Mercator chart permits him to do this because it is
constructed so that:
1. Rhumb lines on the Earth appear as straight lines on the chart.
2. The angles between these rhumb lines are unaltered, as between Earth and chart.
It therefore follows that:
1. The equator, which is a rhumb line as well as a great circle, appears on the chart as a
straight line.
2. The parallels of latitude appear as a straight lines parallel to the equator.
3. The meridians appear as straight lines perpendicular to the equator.
+ Principle of the Mercator projection
The Mercator projection is a normal cylindrical projection. The property of the projection is
conformal. Parallels and meridians are straight lines intersecting at right angles, a requirement for
conformality. Meridians are equally spaced. The parallel spacing increases with distance from the
equator (Figure 2.27).

Figure 2.27. Principle of Mercator Projection

A cylindrical map projection is specified by formula linking the geographic coordinates of

latitude and longitude to Cartesian coordinates on the map with origin on the equator and x-axis
along the equator. By construction, all points on the same meridian lie on the same generator of the
cylinder at a constant value of x, but the distance y along the generator (measured from the equator)
is an arbitrary function of latitude, y(). In general this function does not describe the geometrical
projection (as of light rays onto a screen) from the centre of the globe to the cylinder, which is only
one of an unlimited number of ways to conceptually project a cylindrical map.
Since the cylinder is tangential to the globe at the equator, the scale factor between globe and
cylinder is unity on the equator but nowhere else. In particular since the radius of a parallel, or
circle of latitude, is R cos , the corresponding parallel on the map must have been stretched by a

18
factor of 1/cos = sec . This scale factor on the parallel is conventionally denoted by k and the
corresponding scale factor on the meridian is denoted by h.
+ Small element geometry
The relations between y() and properties of the projection, such as the transformation of
angles and the variation in scale, follow from the geometry of corresponding small elements on the
globe and map. The figure below shows a point P at latitude and longitude on the globe and a
nearby point Q at latitude + and longitude +. The vertical lines PK and MQ are arcs of
meridians of length R. The horizontal lines PM and KQ are arcs of parallels of length
R(cos ). The corresponding points on the projection define a rectangle of width x and
height y.

Figure 2.28. Small element geometry

For small elements, the angle PKQ is approximately a right angle and therefore

The previously mentioned scaling factors from globe to cylinder are given by

( )

parallel scale factor

( )

meridian scale factor

Since the meridians are mapped to lines of constant x we must have x=R(0) and x=R,
( in radians). Therefore in the limit of infinitesimally small elements
( )
( )
( )
Derivation of the Mercator projection
The choice of the function y() for the Mercator projection is determined by the demand that
the projection be conformal, a condition which can be defined in two equivalent ways:
Equality of angles. The condition that a sailing course of constant azimuth on the globe is
mapped into a constant grid bearing on the map. Setting = in the above equations gives y'()=R
sec.

19
 Isotropy of scale factors. This is the statement that the point scale factor is independent of
direction so that small shapes are preserved by the projection. Setting h=k in the above equations
again gives y'()=R sec.

( ) [ ( )] ( )

In the first equation 0 is the longitude of an arbitrary central meridian usually, but not
always, that of Greenwich (i.e., zero). The difference ( 0) is in radians.
The function y() is plotted alongside for the case R=1: it tends to infinity at the poles. The
linear y-axis values are not usually shown on printed maps; instead some maps show the non-linear
scale of latitude values on the right. More often than not the maps show only a graticule of selected
meridians and parallels

* ( )+ ( )

The expression on the right of the second equation defines the Gudermannian function; i.e.,
=gd(y/R): the direct equation may therefore be written as y=R.gd1().
There are many alternative expressions for y(), all derived by elementary manipulations.

[ ] [ ] ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Corresponding inverses are:

* ( )+ * ( )+ * ( )+

( ) ( )

For angles expressed in degrees:

( )
[ ( )] ( )

The above formulae are written in terms of the globe radius R. It is often convenient to work
directly with the map widthW=2R. For example the basic transformation equations become

( ) [ ( )] ( )

The ordinate y of the Mercator projection becomes infinite at the poles and the map must be
truncated at some latitude less than ninety degrees. This need not be done symmetrically. Mercator's
original map is truncated at 80N and 66S with the result that European countries were moved
towards the centre of the map. The aspect ratio of his map is 198/120=1.65. Even more extreme
truncations have been used: a Finnish school atlas was truncated at approximately 76N and 56S,
an aspect ratio of 1.97.

20
Generalization to the ellipsoid
When the Earth is modelled by an ellipsoid (of revolution) the Mercator projection must be
modified if it is to remain conformal. The transformation equations and scale factor for the non-
secant version are

( ) [ ( )( ) ]

( )

The scale factor is unity on the equator, as it must be since the cylinder is tangential to the
ellipsoid at the equator. The ellipsoidal correction of the scale factor increases with latitude but it is
never greater than e2, a correction of less than 1%. (The value of e2 is about 0.006 for all reference
ellipsoids.) This is much smaller than the scale inaccuracy, except very close to the equator. Only
accurate Mercator projections of regions near the equator will necessitate the ellipsoidal corrections.
+ Measuring distance on nautical chart

Figure 2.29. Measuring distance on the chart

21
 Because a chart is a scaled representation of the real world, it can be
used to measure distances between objects. This is useful, among other
things, for estimating sailing or motoring time between points.
On a Mercator chart, the latitude scale on the sides of the chart serves
as the distance scale.
It's worth remembering that only the vertical, latitude scale on a
Mercator chart can be used to measure distance, not the horizontal longitude
scale. This is because each minute of latitude equals one nautical mile,
while the distance between minutes of longitude decreases between the
equator and the poles.
Dividers are used to transfer the distance between two charted objects
to the latitude scale on the side of the chart, or from the latitude scale to any
points on the chart.

1. 4. THE CELESTIAL SPHERE AND COORDINATES OF CELESTIAL BODIES ON THE

CELESTIAL SPHERE
1.4.1 Concept of celestial sphere
When solving astronomical problems, it is infrequently necessary to establish exact
mathematical relationships between various directions in space and to analyze their variations.
The simplest way to obtain such relationships is by means of a so-called auxiliary sphere. The
auxiliary sphere is introduced for passing from directions and angles in space to points, lines and
triangles on the surface of a sphere, which permits us to utilize the formulas of spherical
trigonometry and thus to simplify the solution of such problems.
In astronomy, wide use is made of a special auxiliary sphere (called the celestial sphere with
systems of spherical coordinates constructed on it and with the indicated positions of celestial
bodies. This auxiliary sphere is a purely mathematical construction and should in no way be
identified with the actually observed vault the heavens.
The significance of the celestial sphere is not connected in the solutions of problems on finding
angles in spare: the sphere likewise gives a pictorial view of various movements of celestial bodies.
The Centre of the celestial sphere, as an auxiliary mathematical construction, can obviously be
located at any arbitrary point of space: however, its construction is much more pictorial and
convenient if the Centre is assumed at certain specific points like, say, the eye of the observer, the
Centre of the Earth, or the Centre of the solar system. It will vary accordingly. Incidentally, it is
very simple to pass from one representation to another, for they actually represent the same
auxiliary sphere. Representation of the celestial sphere with Centre at the Centre of the Earth is
inherited from the ancients and their view of the world system.

22
1.4.2 The principal points, lines and planes on the Celestial Sphere
Let us first consider a construction of the celestial sphere on the assumption that its Centre
coincides with the observer's eye on the Earth's surface, and then transfer it to an arbitrary point. In
Fig. 1.1a we have the Earth. is the Earths axis, points and are the north and south
geographic poles, and is the Earths equator.
An observer is located at , the geographic latitude of which is . If we take the
Earth to be a sphere, then the radius will represent the plumb-line direction for the observer; the
plane tangent to the Earths surface at and perpendicular to the plumb line, will represent the
plane of the true or mathematical horizon of the observer; the line , which lies in the plane of the
geographic meridian, and the line . which is perpendicular to it, determine the main directions
or the points of the compass for this observer. Let us also assume that the straight lines ; ;
. . . represent directions to celestial bodies ; ; . . . located in space at different distances
from the observer.
S2 Let us
now construct
S1 Z S3
Q PN
a sphere of
W
Z arbitrary
S
A N
Q
radius with
S2 P
Pn
N Centre at
Plumb line

e E W
and draw,
S3
S1
S N through its
O
C center, lines
E and planes
PS PS parallel to the
q Q
corresponding
n
lines on the
(a) (b)
Earth. From
the figure it
Fig. 1.1 The principal points, lines and planes on the Celestial Sphere will be seen
that, where
the planes of the true horizon, the geographic meridian and the plane parallel to the equator intersect
the sphere, they form great circles. In this wav the celestial sphere produces a geometric
representation of the sky.
As constructed, the line , which is parallel to the Earths axis, forms with the plane an
angle equal to the geographic latitude . On the surface of the sphere, we can obtain the points
, and so forth, which are projections on this sphere of the apparent directions from the
center of the sphere to the selected bodies. If such a sphere is put into motion in the direction from
E to W (as indicated by the arrow) with the velocity of the Earths rotation, then the diurnal motion
of the celestial bodies for a given observer will be completely reproduced.

23
 However, as we have already pointed out. to construct a celestial sphere and solve problems
there is no necessity to put the center in the eye of the observer. All constructions may be earned out
at an arbitrary point of space. Through (Fig. 1.1b) draw lines and planes parallel to the
corresponding directions and planes on the Earth, it is clear that the points and lines obtained on the
sphere will have the same configuration as those seen by an observer at (see Fig. 1.1a). This
auxiliary sphere of arbitrary radius with Centre at an arbitrary point of space and with indicated
basic lines and locations of celestial bodies is called a celestial sphere.
In Fig. 1.1b, let the diameter be drawn parallel to the plumb line (see Fig. 1.1a); its
intersection with the sphere yields two points: the zenith , which represents the uppermost point of
the sphere (above the observer's head), and the nadir , a point opposite the zenith.
If the sphere is cut by a plane parallel to the true horizon, we get (on the surface of the sphere) a
great circle . which is called the celestial horizon. This circle divides the sphere into two
parts: the visible hemisphere, that above the horizon with the zenith, and that located below the
horizon.
If the sphere is cut by a plane parallel to the geographic meridian of the observer, we get, on the
surface of the sphere, a great circle , called the observer's meridian or the local meridian.
The diameter , parallel to the Earth's axis, is called the celestial axis and is an imaginary
axis round which occurs the apparent diurnal rotation of the sphere. The points of intersection or the
celestial axis with the celestial sphere are called the celestial poles, the closest to the North Pole of
the Earth being called the North Pole , and the closest to the South Pole of the Earth, the South
Pole .
During the diurnal rotation of the celestial sphere, the celestial poles remain stationary. The
celestial pole located in the part above the horizon is termed the elevated pole, that below the
horizon, the depressed pole.
The intersection of the plane of the true horizon with the plane of the observers meridian
defines the noon line , whose intersection with the sphere yields the points and .
Intersection of the plane parallel to that of the Earth's equator with the sphere yields the great
circle , which is known as the celestial equator. Its plane is perpendicular to the celestial axis
the celestial equator divides the sphere into two parts: northern and southern hemispheres, in
accord with the names of the poles.
Intersection of the plane of the celestial equator with the plane of the true horizon defines the
line EW. which is perpendicular to the upper meridian, intersection of the celestial equator with the
celestial horizon yields points E and W on the sphere.
The observer's meridian divides the sphere into two parts: eastern (E) and western (W).
The directions NS and EW divide the plane-of the true horizon into four quadrants: NE, SE, SW
and NW.

24
 From Figs. 1.1a and 1.1b it will be seen that for northern geographic latitude of the position of
the observer, the North Pole of the celestial sphere will be the elevated pole; and for an observer
located in a southern latitude. will be the elevated pole, so that the name of the elevated pole is
always in accord with the name of the geographic latitude of the observer.
From the construction of the sphere it will be seen that no matter which pole is elevated ( or
), the closest point to on the horizon will be . and the closest point to will be . It should
also be noted that the celestial axis points and ) divides the observers meridian into two parts:
the upper branch Z on which the zenith point is located, and the lower branch n with the
nadir (the wavy line in Fig. 1.1b).
If through the center of the sphere we draw lines parallel to directions towards celestial bodies,
we get on its surface the so-called apparent places of the bodies , , . etc., which from now on
will simply be called celestial bodies.
Let us now introduce systems of auxiliary circles.
The great circles on - the celestial sphere (Fig. 1.2). whose planes pass through the plumb line,
are called vertical circles. Each vertical circle passes through the points and , and the plane of
any vertical circle is perpendicular to the plane of the true horizon.
The vertical circle that passes through the place of a given celestial body on the sphere is called
the vertical circle of this body. When using this term, however, we shall mean not the entire vertical
circle (360) but only that half of it (from to ) which includes the celestial body; thus, the
vertical circle of some body is the circle .
The vertical circle that passes through the points and is called the prime vertical, which is
divided into east and west hemisphere by the line .
Small circles on the sphere with planes parallel to the celestial horizon are called parallels of
altitude: that one which passes through the place of a given celestial body on the sphere is called the
parallel of altitude of the given body ( in Fig. 1.2a).
The great circles of the sphere whose planes pass through the celestial axis are called celestial
meridians or declination circles (Fig. 1.2b). Thus, every meridian passes through both poles, ,
and the plane of every meridian is perpendicular to the plane of the celestial equator .
The meridian passing through the place of a given celestial body on the sphere from pole to pole
and passing through the body is called the meridian or declination circle of the body. Thus, the
Z Z b meridian of some
Q B body is the arc
Q PN PN .
a
B W
The small circles
S N S of the sphere whose
O O N
planes are parallel to
E
PS PS the celestial equator
Q
Q
n n 25
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2 Systems of auxiliary circles
are called parallels of declination (by analogy with terrestrial parallels of latitude). The one which
passes through the place of a given celestial body on the sphere is called the parallel of declination
of that body (sometimes called daily parallels, since celestial bodies describe parallels in their daily
motion: in Fig. 1.2b).
Of the infinitude of meridians on the sphere, one is of special significance: this is the meridian
that passes through the points and is called the observer's meridian.
At the same time, this meridian is the vertical circle that passes through the celestial poles and is
called the principal vertical circle. Since this particular meridian (and vertical circle) occupies for
the given observer a very definite and invariable position, it will serve as the baste meridian and
vertical circle for coordination of celestial bodies on the sphere.
1.4.3 COORDINATES OF CELESTIAL BODIES ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE
In geography and navigation, the coordinates of various points of the Earths surface are found
from their relationship to two mutually perpendicular great circles - the equator and the Greenwich
meridian, which occupy very definite positions on the surface of the Earth. The same method is
employed for developing coordinate systems of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere: systems are
chosen of two mutually perpendicular great circles that occupy very definite positions on the
celestial sphere. Such systems of circles are:
(1) the celestial horizon and the principal vertical circle (observers meridian):
(2) the celestial equator and the observers- meridian:
(3) the celestial equator and the meridian that passes through a definite point of the sphere, the
first point of Aries ().
These circles serve as the basis for three systems of coordinates: the horizon system and two
equatorial systems.
Spherical astronomy makes use of two other systems of coordinates: an ecliptic system with the
ecliptic as the basic circle, and a galactic system with the basic circle close to the center of the
Milky Way. However, these systems are not used in nautical astronomy. The ecliptic system will be
briefly discussed the following chapter.
+ Horizon coordinate system
In this system, the principal direction relative to which the construction is carried out is the
direction of the plumb line: the basic circles are the Z
celestial horizon and the principal vertical circle
Q Z A
(observer's meridian, the place of any point of the PN
C
sphere is determined relative to these circles by W
two horizon coordinates: azimuth and altitude.
h h O N
- The altitude ( ) of a celestial body S
A
The altitude ( ) of a celestial body is the arc of E A
its vertical circle from the celestial horizon to the
PS
Q
26

Fig. 1.3 Horizon coordinate

place of the body on the sphere. This arc measures the central angle ; for this reason, the altitude is
also the vertical angle with the center of the sphere between the plane of the true horizon and
direction to the body.
For example, the altitude of a celestial body is the arc (Fig. 1.3) or the central angle .
Altitude is written thus: .
If the body is above the celestial horizon, then its altitude is considered positive ( ); but if it is
located below the horizon , then its altitude is considered negative.
From the definition it follows that no celestial body can have an altitude numerically greater
than 90. The zenith point has an altitude of +90o. the nadir point, -90o. The altitude of any point on
the horizon is 0o.
The altitude, as a coordinate of a celestial body, may be replaced by the arc of the vertical circle
of the body from the zenith to the place of the body. This arc is called the zenith distance; and is
denoted by . Thus, the zenith distance of a body is arc , etc.
The, zenith distance of a celestial body is measured from 0 o to 180o. If the body is above the
horizon, then if it is below the horizon, then . For any point of the horizon,
; for the zenith point, and for the nadir point .
As will be seen from the figure, the altitude and zenith distance always complement one another
to 90o.

} ( )

In these formulas, the altitude should be taken with its sign. Thus, if then ; if
, then ; and so forth.
If a celestial body lies on the observers meridian (C or C) then its altitude is called the
meridian altitude and is designated by H: its zenith distance is then called the meridian zenith
distance ( ).
To the meridian altitude and the meridian zenith distance we add the designations or to
the meridian altitude, according to the point of the horizon above which this altitude is measured: to
the meridian zenith distance, the reverse. For example, , .
- The azimuth (A) of a celestial body
The azimuth ( ) of a celestial body is the arc of the celestial horizon which lies between the
observers meridian and the vertical circle of the body.
This arc (for instance in Fig. 1.3) measures the corresponding central angle and hence,
also the spherical angle at the zenith so that either of these angles may be called the azimuth of
the body .
For this reason, the spherical angle at the zenith between the observers meridian and the
vertical circle of the celestial body is also called the azimuth.

27
 There are several systems of reckoning azimuth depending on the starting point, the direction
and the limits used for reckoning. Nautical astronomy makes use of three systems of reckoning
azimuth: semicircular ( ), circular ( ), and Quadrantal ( ):
In circular reckoning, the azimuth is measured by the arc of the celestial horizon from the point
in an easterly direction to the vertical circle of the celestial body, reckoning from 0 o to 360o. For
instance, . As may be seen, this computation of azimuths coincides with that of the true
bearings in navigation. Circular computation is used for determining compass corrections.
In semicircular reckoning, the azimuth (azimuth angle is measured by the arc of the celestial
horizon from the lower branch of the meridian points or ) in the direction of or to the
o
vertical circle of the celestial body from 0 to 180. Since in the intersection of the horizon on the
lower branch of the meridian we have a point of the compass of the same name as the latitude, the
first letter of the azimuth designation in semicircular reckoning is always the same as the latitude
name of the observer. The second letter of the designation depends on the half of the sphere (east or
west) in which the celestial body is located. To take an example, a celestial body C is written in the
semicircular system as follows (Fig. 1.3): , if the observer is situated in a southern
latitude, the azimuth of a body will be written as follows: , and so forth. The
semicircular system of reckoning azimuth is used in solving spherical triangles by means of
formulas and tables of logarithms, and also with the aid of special tables or instruments.
In the Quadrantal system of computing, azimuth is measured by the arc of the horizon from the
point or towards or to the vertical circle of the celestial body, reckoning from (0o to 90o,
similar to the Quadrantal reckoning of compass points in navigation. For example,
(Fig. 1.3). Quadrantal computation is used in one of the formulas of the line of position method.
Sometimes amplitude is used: the arc from E or W to the vertical circle of the celestial body.
Nautical astronomy requires frequent conversion from one system of calculating azimuth to
another, and so it is necessary to learn, to convert azimuths rapidly and accurately. By way of
illustration the azimuth of celestial bodies are written as follows in the three systems:
Semicircular Circular Quadrantal
1. N 118oW = 242o = 62oSW
2. S 145oW = 325o = 35oNW
3. S 95oE = 85o = 85oNE
The horizon coordinates and that we have just considered are fully sufficient to specify the
position of a point on the sphere. A single coordinate defines the position of some one circle of the
sphere: azimuth, the position of the vertical circle; altitude, the position of the parallel of altitude
+ First equatorial coordinate system
In this system, the principal direction is that of the celestial axis, and the basic circles are the
celestial equator and the observers meridian (Fig. 1.4). The position of any point of the sphere
in this system is defined by two equatorial coordinates: the hour angle and declination

28
 - The declination () of a celestial body

The declination ( ) of a celestial body is the arc of the meridian (declination circle) of the body
from the celestial equator to the place of the body.
Due to the fact that this arc measures the central
Z
angle (see Fig. 1.4) in the plane of the meridian,
the declination of a celestial Q body is also denned
PN
as the angle between the plane of the celestial
equator and the direction from W the center of the
sphere to the body. If the celestial body is
O C N
located in the northern S hemisphere, then is

prefixed to its declination, if it is in the southern
E
hemisphere, S is prefixed. From the definition of
D
declination it follows that it is PS measured from to
. The declination of any C1 t Q point of the equator is
equal to the declination n is , while the
declination is . The Fig. 1.4 First equatorial declination of a
celestial body (Fig. 1.4) is written as ;
coordinate system
that of celestial body , as .
For this equatorial coordinate, in place of the declination we can take the polar distance ( ) of
the celestial body: this is the arc of the meridian of the body reckoned always from the elevated pole
to the place of the body. The polar distance is measured from to . Thus, for any point of the
equator , for the elevated pole, , for the depressed pole, .
The declination and the polar distance are mutually complementary to , that is:

Or
( )
The declination and latitude of a place may be of the same name ( or ) or of opposite (or
contrary) names.
In nautical astronomy, declination of the same name as latitude is considered positive (+):
declination of name contrary to latitude is considered negative (-). Hence, sometimes south
declination is negative and sometimes north declination.
For example, for a body C (see Fig. 1.4); ; for we get
( ) .
- The hour angle (t) of a celestial body
The hour angle ( ) of a celestial body is the arc of the equator reckoned from the upper meridian
of the observer westwards to the meridian of the body.

29
 Due to the fact that this arc ( , Fig. 1.4) measures the angle at the center of the sphere or
the spherical angle for the elevated pole, the hour angle is also defined as the spherical angle for the
elevated pole between the upper meridian of the observer and the meridian of the celestial body.
An hour angle reckoned westwards can have any value from to and is called the west or
ordinary hour angle. If the west hour angle is greater than , then its complement to is
called the east hour angle. For example, a celestial body (Fig. 1.4) has . The
east hour angle can never be more than 180.
The hour angle (east or west, but less than ) is used in the solution of spherical triangles
and is therefore called the practical hour angle (east or west, respectively). Obviously, for a celestial
body situated on the upper meridian, the hour angle ; for the lower meridian, ; for
point , ; for point E, .
Thus, the position of any point of the sphere is defined by two coordinates: and . The hour
angle taken alone defines the position of the meridian (declination circle), the declination, the
position of the parallel of the celestial body.
+ Second equatorial coordinate system
In this system, the basic circles are the celestial equator and the meridian of the vernal equinox
(or first point of Aries), which is denoted by the symbol of the constellation Aries.
The point occupies a very definite place (independent of the observer) on the celestial
equator; therefore the choice of the meridian of this point as the reference origin is extremely
convenient, especially when reckoning time.
In this system, the place of a celestial body is determined by two equatorial coordinates: right
ascension and declination (Fig. 1.4).

- The declination () of a celestial body

The declination of a celestial body, , which was considered in the first equatorial coordinate
system.
- The right ascension ( ) of a celestial body

The right ascension ( ) of a celestial body is the arc of the equator from the vernal equinox ()
to the meridian, of the body reckoned from to in a direction opposite to the reckoning of
west hour angles (counter to the diurnal rotation of the sphere). For example, a celestial body C has
.
In modern manuals (for instance, in nautical astronomical almanacs), right ascension of stars is
replaced by the so-called sidereal hour angle (S.H.A. or ) which is the complement of up to
, that is.
(1.3)
Obviously, the sidereal hour angle is the arc of the equator from the point to the meridian of
the body reckoning towards west hour angles.
30
 For instance, for a body we have .
The quantity is not generally considered a special coordinate but only an auxiliary quantity:
however, when it is introduced for stars, the coordinate is no longer needed. Right ascension for
the quantity defines the position of the meridian of a celestial body on the sphere.
Thus, the second equatorial system differs from the first only in the position of the initial or
prime meridian.
To pass from the first equatorial system to the second, and conversely, all that is needed is to
know the position, on the equator, of the vernal equinox , which is defined at each instant by its
west hour angle (Fig. 1.4 the arc ) denoted by . From the figure, it will be seen that the arc
, which is equal to the west hour angle of the celestial body C, and the arc , equal to its
right ascension, are together equal to the arc , that is, to the hour angle of the first point of
Aries, hence
(1.4)
This formula may be used to pass from coordinates of the first equatorial system to the second,
provided is known.
Later on we shall learn that sidereal time is measured by the quantity and so the latter may be
obtained for any time by a chronometer.
In concluding this examination of systems of spherical coordinates, let us touch on the question
of units of measurement of the coordinates.
Spherical coordinates are arcs of great circles and so may be measured with the same units as
arcs and angles, that is, in degrees and radians.
Time units are also used. Here, the unit is an interval of time of 24 hours during which the Earth
completes one rotation of ; thus the circle contains 24 hours. Whence we get the following
relations: etc.
Time units are sometimes used to measure the quantities and sometimes, also geographic
longitude.
For example: etc.

1.5. TIME
1.5.1 Times on various meridians relation
As will be seen from Fig. 3.8, and ; that is, the farther east the
observer is, the greater the arc measuring the time. The difference between these two times is equal
to the difference between the longitudes of the meridians under study, that is,
and
With respect to the initial meridian, we have

31
 ;
And
;

Or in the general form

(3.14)
(3.15)
Converting from local time on one meridian to another we get (considering meridians and
local, 1 and 2)

(3.16)
And also

(3.17)

From (3.16) and (3.17) it follows that

(1) the difference in the times of one system ( or ) reckoned on different meridians is
numerically equal to the difference in the longitudes of the given meridians;
(2) the difference in the times of one system ( or ) reckoned at Greenwich and some point of
the Earth's surface at the same instant is numerically equal to the longitude of the locality of this
point;
(3) to obtain local time from known Greenwich time, add the longitude of the point if the latter
is located east of Greenwich, and subtract, if west of Greenwich. To avoid mistakes in regard to
sign to be affixed to the longitude, remember the rule that the time is greater to the east; longitude
west Greenwich time best, longitude east, Greenwich time least;
(4) for all observers on a single meridian of the Earth, the local times of one system are the
same, irrespective of the latitude of the observer.
Due to the fact that calendar reckoning of days is by mean days, a date must be affixed to the
mean time (whether local or Greenwich).
When converting mean time from one meridian to another, it may happen that the sum
is greater than 24h. Since the mean time indicates the number of mean hours, minutes and
seconds that have elapsed from midnight of the given date, if the sum ( ) , we have
to subtract 24 hours from it (one day); the result will represent mean time of the next calendar
day.
The opposite may happen, where the or being subtracted is numerically greater than
the given mean time. Then first add 24 hours to the given time and reduce the date by unity; then

32
subtract or , and the mean time obtained will be that of the preceding calendar date. It is
obvious that a case like this can happen only when the difference in longitudes is westwards.
Since sidereal time has no calendar date, this rule does not apply to sidereal time. But we can
add (or subtract) 24 hours when dealing with sidereal time without invalidating the solution of a
problem that requires such an operation.
The above indicated relationships between times on different meridians can of course be
extended to the hour angles of any celestial bodies, that is,

} (3.18)

and
(3.19)
These formulas follow from Fig. 3.8 if the meridian of a body is drawn (this has not been done
so as not in complicate the figure). The hour angle of a celestial body has no date of course.
From what has been said, it will be seen that if at some instant we know both the local time for
some point and the Greenwich time (mean or sidereal, it makes no difference) or the hour angles of
the body, then it is easy to compute the longitude of this point as the difference in times of hour
angles, that is,
(3.20)

1.5.2. ZONE TIME

Since it is naturally impossible to reckon mean time from the meridians of each small point on
the Earth, a system of time reckoning was historically established over limited regions in which the
time was the same: ordinarily the local solar (apparent) time of the nearest castle or town, and later,
of the capital of a region or country Paris time, St. Petersburg time).
This system was sufficiently convenient for a given stage in the development of production and
society, but gradually inconveniences built up with the development of the telegraph, sea transport
and railways. Indeed, the times of different points and regions differ by fractions of hours, minutes
and seconds, and to compare times one has to know the exact differences of the longitudes of these
places. As an observer moved from place to place, his clock had to be changed by the amount of the
longitudinal difference.

33
 In sea voyages, for the ship's clock to indicate apparent local time of the meridian on which the
ship stood, it was necessary to move the hands forward all the time the ship was sailing eastwards,
and back when sailing westwards (in earlier days the practice was to make the changes once a day,
142 5o
112 5 82 5 o
52 5 22 5
o
0 22 5E o
52 5E o
82 5E 112 5E
o o
142 5E 172 5E at apparent noon).
o o o o o

157o5E 127o5E 97o5E 67o5E 37o5 7o5W 7o5E 37o5E 67o5E 97o5E 127o5E 157o5E

Towards the end

of the 19th century,
it became necessary
to unify timekeeping
on a world scale,
and the astronomical
congress of 1884
decided in favor of
one of the systems
of zone time which
proposed in 1879 by
engineer Fleming of
Canada.
In the zone time
system, the entire
Figure 3.9 Zone time surface of the Earth
is divided by
meridians into 24 so-called time zones of 15 (one hour) of longitude. The zone between meridians
7.5W and 7o.5E with central meridian at Greenwich was considered the initial (or zero) meridian
for numbering the zones from 1 to 12 eastwards and westwards. The twelfth zone in the eastern half
is considered east, and in the western, west, like the zero zone. The longitudes of the central
meridians of the zones are multiples of 15o, that is, 15o, 30o, 45o, . . . 150o, 165, 180o, and the
numbers of the zones are equal to the longitudes of these meridians expressed in hours. The extreme
meridians of a zone are of longitude from the middle meridian (Fig. 3.9). To determine the
number of a zone (zone description) that involves a point with a given longitude, divide its
longitude by 15. The quotient is the zone description (number) if the remainder is less than 75; if
the remainder is more than 75, add unity and the result will be the zone description.
Throughout the territory of a given time zone, the mean time is the same, equal to the time of
the middle meridian of the zone. This system of timekeeping is called the system of zone times, and
time reckoned in this system is zone time, .
Since the central meridians of adjacent zones are 15 apart and the mean sun covers 15 in one
hour, the zone times of adjacent ones will differ by exactly one hour, and from other zone times by
an integral number of hours. The zone time of any zone differs from the time of the zero zone
(Greenwich time) by the number of hours equal to the zone description. From the rule for building
zones, it follows that local times of points within a zone should not differ from the zone time by
more than 30m ( ), however the actual boundaries of zones are made to take into account,
34
various administrative and geographical factors and frequently do not coincide with the theoretical
values. For this reason, local times within a zone may differ from the zone time by more than 30
minutes, but this is insignificant as far as everyday affairs go. The actual boundaries of the zones
and other details of timekeeping in various countries are shown on zone-time charts. Ordinarily,
western zones have the plus sign, eastern zones, the minus sign (that is the sign for conversion to
Greenwich time, ).
(3.21)
During movements within a zone, clocks are not moved ahead or back because the entire zone
keeps the time of the central meridian; but when crossing zones, set the clock ahead one hour when
moving eastwards and back one hour when moving westward.
Problems in converting from zone-time to local mean time and vice versa are best solved by the
method in terms of Greenwich"', which is based on the fact that Greenwich mean time is at the
same time the local time of the Greenwich meridian ( ) and zone time of the zero zone. For
that reason, the local time is converted by longitude to the Greenwich meridian, and then via the
zone description is converted to the central meridian of the zone, that is, to zone time, . When
converting from zone time to local time the order is reversed. This conversion is done on the basis
of the following formulas:

hay (3.22)
To refer to (Greenwich Mean Time), people also use uses the letter "Z" (phonetically "Zulu") to
refer to the time at the prime meridian.

35
1.5.3 STANDARD
TIME, SUMMER
TIME
+ Standard time
Standard time is
the synchronization
of clocks within a
geographical area or
region to a single
time standard, rather
than using solar time
or a locally-chosen
meridian (longitude)
to establish a local
mean time standard.
A geographical
area or region within
each zone normally
using the time on its
central meridian of
that zone as standard
time. However,
many countries, due
to geographical
characteristics (lying
through many time
zones...), politics,
history ... standard
time may be set back
or ahead of zone Figure 3.10: Standard Time Chart
time one hour or one
hour and a half.
For example, Singapore is located entirely within time zone of 7, but this country is defined
standard time GMT +8.
+ Summer time (Daylight Saving Time)
In a number of countries, clocks are put one hour fast, sometimes two hours fast of zone time,
but only for the summer months. Zone time is returned to in autumn. This is called summer time

36
and is introduced by special orders. In Great Britain, summer time (B.S.T.) is introduced from the
middle of April to the beginning of October (Sunday from ). In the United States, this time
is called daylight saving time and is introduced by special order. In countries of the southern
hemisphere, summer time is introduced from October to March.
1.5.4. Gi a phng (Local Time)
In many geographical areas or regions, current time used may be different in different time of
year (for example using daylight saving in summer). With respect to the time currently used at those
areas or regions, people use local time.
So local time is the time currently used at an area or region. From this definition, local time may
be summer time or standard time currently being used at that area.
1.5.5.Ship Time ( )
Ships clocks are set, as a rule, to some zone time, that of the zone in which the ship is located,
or an adjacent zone. In small voyages, clocks are often not set back or ahead when zone boundaries
are crossed. The result is that ship time is the zone time of that time zone which the ship's clock
reads. This zone description should be written in the ships log and marked when ship time is
designated, for instance, = 7h or =7h (ZD = 10E). In the national waters, ship's clocks are
ordinarily set according to local time, at open sea and in foreign waters, according to zone time,
occasionally in accord with the time of the given country. When lying in a foreign port, the time of
the port is taken. Ship time is usually reckoned with an accuracy to within one minute, in some
cases to within 15 seconds or less, since most modern ship's clocks have second hands.
Conversion from ship time to Greenwich time and local time is one of the most common
problems and is done by the following formulas (in case ships clocks are set to zone time):
or (3.23)
where ZD is the zone description of the time zone to which the ship's clocks are set.
When using the formulas of this section, remember that meridian times are always corrected by
longitude, while zone, local and ship times are corrected by the zone description.

CHAPTER 2: CARRIAGE OF GOODS BY SEA

2.1.Cargo concept and classification.
2.1.1. The concept of cargo
Cargo in sea carriage are all of articles, commercial article, accepted by sea carriage facility
for transports in terms of who had or have not sheath according to international shipping custom.
Cargo in sea carriage characteristically by conditions of carriages, such as preservative
regime, packaging process, transhipment method, loading and discharging method, chemical and
physical properties, .......
2.1.2. The classification of cargo

37
 Along with technological science's development ceaselessly more and more mickle and
manifold goods tense. There is many goods taxonomic way depend on only one aspect. In sea
carriage class goods be in order to find out rank groups to have near point ractification
characteristics together to have distributive measures, stow and maintenance properly in the course
of transport.
+ Assortment according to chemical and physical property.
According to chemical and physical property, we can list many category of goods but in
total can divide into three later rank groups:
First group: It is rank group there is erosion property (goods in this groups to be capable to
make to affect another goods stowed near them).Category of goodss is to absorb and to pervade the
damp, some of dangerous goods, goods which to pervade the odour (coarse hide saltted .... ),
category of goods flights dust ... those goods are in group which have erosion property.
Second group: It is rank group there is counting is eroded. It consist of category of goods
bear impingement of category of goods in first group when stow them together. Relish assimilatory
category of goods such as tea, cigarette, condiment, ... are in the eroded group.
Third group: It is neuter rank group. It consist of category of goods bear sway and bad
non-impact come to stowed ranks near it. Iron, stell coil, machinery .... are in the neuter group.
Rank rating according to their possession chemico-physical property to assist to stow them
on board properly, to prevent the damages owing to their middle reciprocity together.
+ Classification by Transportation methods
Classification by Transportation methodsin order to organize just rank transhipment and
process transportations. this is taxonomy spreaded in present-day sea carriage. According to this
method cargo are dividedinto 3 groups as follow:
-General cargoes: This rank group embodies shipment units separately there is sheath or
there isn't sheath (package, bag, bucket, case, piece, ....). General cargoesmight be carried on board
with a category of goodss or many category of goods in different sheath shapes. At present General
cargoesincline stored in containerand transport on the container ships.
- Bulk cargoes: It is group rank is carried according to bulk, homogeneous and bare.
Example: ore, grain, coal in bulk .... weight of this goods are usually determined by draft survey and
often to be carried on specialized ships. The bulk cargo are divided into two groups: liquid bulk and
dry bulk (soild bulk).
- Cargo group wich request a suite preservative regime in transport: this goods owing to
their riches peculiarity must be preservative according to ordinance regimes special in
transportation. If not abide by this ordinances then rank gently damaged or jeopardized for ship
(Table 1.1)
+ General property of goods
Find out category of goods possession property ever assist to stow cargo on board properly,
Organize to stow and discharge with facilities and time appropriately, and as all right rank
preservative work in the course of transport

38
 - Phisical property of cargo such as mobile, humidity, vaporization temperature and freeze,
odor suction and pervasion property, flash point, density, specific volume .....
- Chemical property of cargo such as oxidation, toxicity, explosion, chemical composition of
goods ....
- Property owing to goods's bioscience attribute such as fermentation, addled .....
- Mechanical propertiy such as bullion stress, pull, durability, stretchiness

Group wich request a

General cargoes Bulk cargoes suite preservative regime
in transport

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Cas
Fowl,
Meta e Unsoun
Lar Soli anima
Bag Packa Cas Sing l and wit Unwiel Liqu Danger d
ge le d Timb Gra and
metal h dy id ous prestissi
s ge e bul er in its
case unit prod rou cargo bulk
k
goods mo
produ
uct nd gooods
ct.
end

Table 1.1: Classification of cargo.

2.2. Goods package and mark
2.2.2. Package
Sheath is textures serve as evidence stuffs is different be used to maintain goods in the
course of transport, warehousing, wait is used.
General requirements with respect to sheath must be durable, befit internal goods, easy
handling and transport, need be standardized ....
Sheath in marine transport could stand ships swing, variation in temperature, hulidity and
another condition occur during long voyage.
Found upon sake used,sheath are divided into two kinds.
+ Internal sheath
Internal sheath is a goods henosis non-disjunction part, it slap contact goods, the same goods
come to consumer (bottle, , box, bag, plastic, moistureproofing paper ....) internal sheath may
consist of 1 coat, 2 coat, 3 coat it depend on each category of goods criteria.
- Internal sheath's main function is to make goods preservative capability augment, work
advertisement and give addition to beautiful goods.
- Request with internal packing to be right hygienic fiability, tightness.
+ External packing

39
 External packing work battening to mechanical action from outside, restrict the agency of
rain, sun, light, dust, ..... External packing usually is made by wood, harden paper, flabby paper,
alclad sheet metal, glass, porcelain, plastic ....
2.2.3. Trade mark.
Request with respect to trade mark: It must be printed visibility by ink or fadeless paint,
non-blur, simple contents, easy see and match internal goods.
There is many different trade mark kind, each country has a private ordinances about trade
mark but also there international general ordinance trade marks.
Proceed from sake used the trade mark are classified as following:
+ Commercial article trade mark
- Commercial article trade mark is printed by manufacture, it pertain to product.
- Writing contents often be name of article, gross weight, net weight, textural component,
techniques characteristic, usage.
+ Consignment trade mark
Consignment trade mark is printed by consigner at load port. Contents often is consigner
name, sending place, consignee name, receiving place and a some of symbol according to
ordinance or conventions.... This trade mark is very manifold in form.
Example as for carriage of rubber:

46
G : Represent the type of rubber
G
46 : The quality of rubber
343: The shipment number
343

Sending place: Ho Chi Minh City.

M D Receiving place: H ni
MD : Sign of manufacture place.
A : Symbol of goods.
A5/52 5/52 : Number of present case / total case.

TP HCM

Sign of consignee

YOKOHAMAName of discharge port

201/300 number of present case / total case.

40
+ Import-export mark
Import-export mark usually be printed the content as follow: name of article, exported
country, number of present case, total number of case, gross weight, net weight, imported place or
consignee, consignment omens (with respect to goods needed special maintenance).
Vi hng nhp khu, nhn hiu thng c ghi bng ting ca nc nhp khu. - With
imported goods, often printed trade mark by importing country's word.
+ Symbol of goods
If freight need a special attention care, consigner must mark or paste upwards package or
case omens expresss goods's property in order stevedore know and take care of such as: fragile
goods, do not invert, avoid moist, avoid sun ...... Beside of this symbols often enclose handwriting
streams anglice such as:
- Handle with care.
- Use no hooks.
- Top.
- Bottom.

Hnh 1.1: K hiu

41
2.3. Damages and loss of cargo, causes and precautions
2.3.1 Damages and loss of cargo, causes
+ Damages of cargo
In sea carriage, damages of cargo always happens in different multiform inferior. One of
essential cause is owing to techniques process infringementof handling and transportation work
doer such as: cargo hold preparation, using cargo gears, improper sling, improper stowing, not
follow stowage plan, technique of handling not already well, dunnage haven't been assured,
preservative monitoring in the voyage not already well.
In nautical practice, goods often damage under following forms:
a.Damages due to collapse, breakup, is buried, crush.
It ussualy occur to the cargo in trunk, package, bag, case ....
Cause: owing to fiability sheath, using cargo gears negligently, owing to using lifting-hook
wrong, lack of carefulness cargo handling, not goot dunnage, owing to wave bumpety-bump and
ship's vibrancy on wave, not proper stowage .....
b. Damage due to moistenned
Main cause make shipment cargo to be moistened often owing to the hatch covers not
watertight cause sea water and rain to fal into cargo holds, owing to leak of oil pipelines, is soak
from bilge well and ballast tanks, owing to leak of the same hols stowed fluid goods....
c. Damage owing to high temperature.
It ussualy occur to the cargo kinds such as: Fresh fruit Vegetable, meat, fat, fish....
Main cause is absence or not following the temperature and moisture regime in preservative
work, improper ventilation system or air-conditioning, stowed near engine room .....
d. Damage owing to cold.
A number of category of goods if temperature falling too low will be frozen and plague
unload (such as lublicant oil, coal, ore ...)
e. Damage owing to animal, insect caused
It ussualy occur to the cargo kinds such as grain, food ....
Harmful animal such as mices, the moth and another insect will blemish goods.
f. Damage due to stank, grime
Cause owing to improper cleaning hold, dust and cargo residue.
Example: If Last voyage carries cement, ore.... that next voyage carries grain, tea, cigarette
.... if cleaning cargo hold not carefully will predispose cargo deterioration in part owing to grime.
g. Damages owing to detonating combustion.
Usually occur with respect to a number of category of goods such as coal, ore, sulphur,
phosphorus and some other dangerous goods.

42
 Cause: Owing to cargo capable of evolution of heat, gas agglomeration, and we haven't been
complied with preservative techniques according to the private regulation match cargo, improper
ventilation, checking cargo not already well, it is not punctual heuristic the phenomenas generates
their possession.
h. Damages owing to improper segregation, improper dunnage.
Cause: some goods have incompatible property but stowed near each other, the heavy cargo
stowed upper, light cargo stowed lower, the height of cargo stowed more than ordinance, no
dunnage apply to the cargo stowed near bottom and ships side......
+ Loss cargo
There are many reason caused the loss of cargo such as: the damages of cargo may cause the
loss, due to shortage of receiving at load port, be spilled during handling cargo, owing to leaking,
forfeiture bysea wave, owing to evaporate, owing to cargos insufficience innately
Cargos insufficience innately: It is cargo mass derating phenomena due to impinge of
causes innately in normal preservative technical condition.
Cargos insufficience innately only happen with respect to a number of category of cargo,
Natural losses norms is often stipulate following delimit percent of cargos mass, depend on cargos
condition when loading and the distance of voyage.
2.3.2. Preventively, restriction damage and insufficience of goods
+ Preparing ship for loading
Vessel must be prepared carefully before loading cargo.
- Cargo holds must be cleaned as requirement with respect to ever category of goods.
- Check and operate normally the cargo gears.
- Check the water tight of cargo holds, check the oil pipe lines and water lines run through
holds, check the drain lines, check the soundinh pipes of ballast and bilge tanks, check the hatch
cover, hatch way covers, ventilation system ... all of them must be in good condition.
- Ship and cargo holds preparation job must be recorded in the log book.
+ Dunnage and segrerated material
It also is a rather essential element to might preventively be damaged, loss of cargo,
dunnage must be sufficient, suitable with kind of cargo and the navigation route of vessel. Dunnage
must assure insulating goods with ships hull, bottom, other cargo and assure cargo not be shifted
during transport. In a number of cases if conditionally for regulation can use goods selves like
dunnage (category of goods try to impact, suppress not broken ...)
Dunnage usually are canvas, sedge mat, plastic, plywood, timber ....
+ A number of points mindfully during cargo operation.
It is a essential task with respect to shipspecialy with deck officers and duty able seman, at
most be cargo officer. It can make ship evades cargo claim or indemnify goods later on. Ship must
propose person to supervise cargo together with tally man.

43
 Loading cargo must be assure, qualification, quantity asconsignment notes. If found any
goods or any lot of goods not good must determine inadmissibility or remark suitable about cargos
consition into the document of goods.
During cargo operation if cargo damage (collapsed, broken,....) vessel must raise a report
(statement of fact) in order responsibility immunity for ship and refuse to load those cargo. The
report must obtain the signature of at leats the following parties: ships representative, shore tally,
stevedore and cargo superviser (if any).
Ship must supervise the cargo operation of stevedore, have mindful to stow according to
stowage plan, may refuse gang of stevedore if they do not follow ships requirement and may
request to change another gang.
+ Cargo assortment on board properly
There might explain that many matter but in brief be, in addition to avouch securely for ship,
crew, assure to load full and down, time of cargo operation .... must assure each goods with its
properties such as machenics, physical, chemical, biology must be stowed at proper place and not
effect to other cargo stowed nearby.
Example
- Types of cargo pervaded odour strongly (fish, salt skin ....) should not be stowed near the
odour sugent cargo (tea, cigarette, rice, suger...).
- Types of cargo pervaded moisture strongly (grain, liquid cargo....) must be segregated from
the moisture sugent cargo (cotton, cloth, sugar, ...).
- Types of cargo pervaded dust strongly (cement, fertilizer in bulk, sulphur, ore fine....)
should not loaded at the same time with cargo which may be damaged by dust (cotton, cloth, ...)
- Types of cargo wich have detonating combustion propertiy should be stowed for from heat
sources such as engine room, funnel.
- Liquid cargo stored in drum should be stowed in the individual cargo hold, in case of stow
together with other cargo should stow it at below and at the aft part of hold.
2.4. Basic definition
Perpendiculars: Imaginary lines, perpendicular to the base line or plane (and the waterline).
Forward Perpendicular: This line crosses the intersection of the waterline at the front of
the stem.
Aft Perpendicular: This line usually aligns with the center line of the rudder stock. This is
the imaginary line around which the rudder rotates.
Water line: is the line where the hull of a ship meets the surface of the water.
Base line: Top of the flat keel plate
Keel (K): Inter section of the base line and the center line plane.

+ Dimensions

- Length overall (LOA): The horizontal distance over the extremities, from bow to stern.
- Length between perpendiculars: distance between the Fore and the Aft Perpendicular.

44
 - Length waterline: Horizontal distance between fore and aft when the ship is loaded at the
summer mark, less the shell.

Figure 1.1

1.Length over all;

2. Length between
perpendicular;

3. Length on the
waterline;

4. Breadth over all;

5. Depth;

6. Draught;

7. Freeboard;

8. Air draught
Figure 1.2

Overall height of vessel (air draft): The vertical distance between the waterline and the
highest point of the ship. The air draft is used when the ship pass under height-restriction area. If
the ship has less air draft one can ballast until it reaches the summer draft and so obtain its
minimal air draft.
- Depth Moulded: The vertical distance between the base line and the upper continuous
deck. The depth is measured at amid ship, at the side of the ship.
- Freeboard:The distance between the waterline and the top of the deck at the side (at the
deck line). The term summer freeboard means the distance from the top of the summer
loadline and the upper edge of the deck line.
45
 - Draft: Vertical distance between the waterline and the underside of the keel. Normally we
take draft at three positions: foreward, midship and stern.
- Draft Forward (df): Vertical distance between the waterline and the underside of the keel,
as measured at the forward perpendicular
- Draft at the Stern (da): The vertical distance between the water line and the underside of
the keel as measured at the aft perpendicular
- Trim (t): The difference between the draft at the stern and the draft at the forward
t = da - df
- Breadth/Beam: The greatest molded breadth, measured from side to side of the outside of
the frames, but inside the shell.
- Breadth over all (B): The maximal breadth of the ship as measured from the outer hull on
starboard to the outer hull on port side, including rubbing bars, permanent fenders etc.
- Sheer: This is the upward rise of a ship's deck from mid length towards the bow and stern.
The sheer gives the vessel extra reserve buoyancy at the stem and the stern.
- Camber: The transverse curvature of the weather deck. The curvature helps to ensure
sufficient drainage of any water on deck.

+ Volumes and weights

+Volumes
The size of a ship can be expressed by using terms which describe the characteristics of the
ship. Each term has a specific abbreviation. The type of ship determines the term to be used. For
instance, the size of a container vessel is expressed in the number of containers (TEL) it can carry;
a Ro-Ro carrier's size is given by the total deck surface (lanes) and a passenger ship in the number
of passengers it can carry.

At the IMO-conference in 1969 the new measurements for the "Gross Tonnage" and "Net
Tonnage" were introduced, to establish a world-wide standard in calculating the size of a ship. In
many countries the Gross Tonnage is used to calculate harbor dues and pilotage, or to determine
the number of crew member.

Gross Tonnage: The Gross Tonnage (GT) is calculated using a formula that takes into
account the ship's volume in cubic meters below the main deck and the enclosed spaces above the
main deck. This volume is then multiplied by a coefficient, which results in a non-dimensional
number (this means no values of T or in3 should be placed after the number). All measurements
used in the calculation are moulded dimensions. In order to minimize the daily expenses of a ship,
the ship owner will keep the GT as low as possible, one way of doing this is by keeping the depth
small, and so more cargo will be placed on deck. This strategy is in particular used in small
container ships (feeders). As a consequence, dangerous situations can occur as the lesser reserve
buoyancy can result in a lesser stability and more 'water on deck'.
Net Tonnage: The Net Tonnage is also a non-dimensional number that describes the
volume of the cargo space. The NT is derived from the GT by subtracting the volume of space
occupied by: crew, navigation equipment, the propulsion equipment, work stations, ballast
Underwater volume (careen) (m3): The moulded underwater volume of ship is the
displacement in m3 minus the contribution of the shell, propeller and rudder. Or: the calculated
volume of the part of the hull which is immersed in the water, on the outside of the frames without
extensions. The influence of the shell in weight is compensated by the extra displacement.
46
 Figure 1.3

+ Weights

Displacement(): The displacement is the volume of the part of the ship below the
waterline including the shell plating, propeller and rudder and other appendages.
Displacement (D): The displacement is the weight of the volume of water displaced by the
ship. One could also say: the displacement equals the total mass of the ship

Displacement (ton) = water displacement (m3) x density of water (t/m3)

Lightship weight (ton): This is the weight of the ship including the regular inventory, but
without any cargo, fuel or crew. The regular inventory includes: anchors, life-saving equipment,
lubricating oil, paint, etc.
Deadweight (ton): This is the weight a ship can take on until the maximal allowable
immersion is reached.
Deadweight = design displacement - light ship weight
Ship constant(ton): This is a fixed value, unique to each ship. Through the years, there is
usually a build-up of mud in the ballast tanks, additional lubricating oil is taken on board, and less
is removed. There is also water, which cannot be pumped out. The total weight of all this, is called
the ship-constant or dead load, and has to be subtracted from the deadweight. One can say its the
actual lightship weight subtract the lightship weight when the ship was delivered.
Cargo Capacity (ton): This is the total weight of cargo a ship is designed to carry at a given
time. The actual cargo loaded (in tons) is not a fixed amount. It depends on the ship's maximum
allowable immersion at the relevant season, which will include the capacity (in tons) of fuel,
lubricating oil, provisions and drinking water. For a long voyage a large quantity of fuels has to be
taken on, which reduces the cargo capacity. If, on the other hand, the ship refuels (bunkers)
underway, the cargo capacity is larger upon departure. The amount of fuel on board and the
location for refueling depend on many factors, but in the end the captain has final responsibility
for the decision. The cargo capacity sets mainly the income ofa ship.

47
 Cargo capacity = deadweight (ballast + fuel + provisions).

+ Cargo volumes

Bale Capacity: The space available for cargo measured in cubic feet to the inside of the
cargo battens, on the frames, and to the underside of the beams. It is a measurement of capacity for
cargo in bales, on pallets, etc., where the cargo does not conform to the shape of the ship
Grain Capacity: The maximum space available for cargo measured in cubic meter, the
measurement being taken to the inside of the shell plating of the ship or to the outside of the
frames and to the top of the beam or underside of the deck plating. It is a measurement of capacity
for cargo like grain, where the cargo flows to conform to the shape of the ship.
Stowage factor: The stowage factor for any commodity is the number of cubic meters
which a ton of that commodity will occupy in stowage (m3/T). This figure should include an
allowance for broken stowage
Broken stowage: Space which is lost to cargo because of the shape of the cargo, packaging,
dunnage, shape of compartment, pillars etc. For example, one of the effects of palletisation is to
increase broken stowage. Therefore, to find the space required by any consignment the weight of
the cargo is multiplied by the stowage factor or conversely the space divided by the stowage factor
or conversely the space divided by the stowage factor will give the weight be put in that space.

+ Positions of the ship

List:The ship is said to be listed when she is inclined by forces within the ship. For
example, when the ship is inclined by shifting a weight transversely within the ship.
Heel: The ship is said to be heeled when she is inclined by external force. For example,
when the ship is inclined by the action of the waves or wind.
Trim: Trim may be considered as the longitudinal equivalent of list. The ships trim is
measured as the difference between the drafts forward and aft. If difference is zero then the ship is
on even keel. If forward draft is greater than aft draft, the vessel is trimming by the bow. If aft
draft is greater than the forward draft, the vessel is trimming by the stern.
Upright: The ship is upright when she is neither list nor heel.

+ Hydrostatic data

G or COG (Center of Gravity): is the unique point at the center of the ship that has the
property that the weighted position vectors relative to this point sum to zero. G is the point where
the ships total weight is thought to be concentrated. Whenever we put extra weight, remove
weight or shift weight within the ship, the G point will be moved accordingly.

The position of G is determined relative to 3 point of reference:

Abbreviation Area of reference Explanation

VCG Keel Vertical center of G

LCG Aft perpendicular or midship Longitudinal center of G

TCG Area of keel and stern Transverse center of G

48
 B or COB (Center of buoyancy): volumetric center of the submerged part of the hull. All
upward force on the underwater hull can be concentrated at that point. The B point will be
moved when the shape of the submerged part of the hull is changed due the changing of heel or in
ships draft. B also move when the ship is in motion as the submerged part changes its shape and
volume.

The position of G is determined relative to 3 point of reference:

Abbreviation Area of reference Explanation

VCB Base line Vertical center of G

LCB Aft perpendicular or midship Longitudinal center of G

TCB Centerline Transverse center of G

M (Metacenter): Metacenter was determined by the intersection of two vertical lines of

buoyancy determined as the vessel heels.
F (Center of Floatation): This is the imaginary point where the ship pivots. It is the center of
gravity of the water plane area. The center of Floatation is also referred to as the Tipping Centre.
A box shaped vessel with a rectangular water plane area would have its center of floatation
amidships, whereas on a ship shaped vessel the center of floatation would be either slightly
forward or abaft of amidships.Remember all trimming moments are taken about the center of
floatation, since it is around this point that the vessel pivots.
K (keel): the lowest point lies on keel of the ship in the view from the bow.
TPC (Tones per centimeter immersion): the mass which must be loaded or discharged to
change a ships mean draft in salt water by one centimeter.
MTC (Moment to change Trim one Centimeter): the moment must be exerted in order to
change the trim of the ship by one centimeter.

Figure 1.4

2.5. Load line and freeboard mark

2.5.1. Load line convention
In the past, many ships were lost at sea mainly due to over loading. To prevent it, In 1876,
Samuel Plimsoll introduced a law into Parliament that meant theships were assigned certain
49
 freeboard markings above which, in particularconditions, they were not allowed to load beyond.
At first, the convention was based on the principle of reserve buoyancy, although it was
recognized then that the freeboard should also ensure adequate stability and avoid excessive stress
on the ship's hull as a result of overloading.

In 1930 and in 1966, international conferences modified and expandedthese statutory

regulations dealing with the safety of ships. These regulations have been further improved over
the years by conference meetingsevery 3 or 4 years up to the present day. One such organization
was theSafety of Life at Sea organization (SOLAS). In recent years, the IMO hasbecome another
important maritime regulatory body.

2.5.2. Freeboard mark

The Plimsoll mark or freeboard mark is a symbol indicating the maximal immersion of the
ship in the water, leaving a minimal freeboard for safety.The mark consists of a circle with a
diameter of 300 mm, through which a horizontal line is drawn with its upper edge going through
the center of the circle. This level indicates the minimal freeboardin salt water summer conditions.
Beside this circle the load line mark consists of a number of horizontal lines indicating the
minimal freeboard required for other than summer conditions.

All freeboard lines are 25mm wide and are connected by a vertical line. The abbreviation used
in the markedload lines must be in the language of the vessels flag state. Should the crew consist
of more than one nationality the language used is generally English.

The ship may load cargo until the upper edge of the water level of the relevant load line is
reached

S is the Summer watermark for water of 1.025 t/m3 density. It is placed at the Summer load
water line (draft moulded).
T is the Tropical watermark and is 1/48 of the Summer load draft above the S mark.
F is the Fresh watermark. F watermark is 1/48 of the Summer load draft above the S mark.
TF is the Tropical Fresh watermark and is the (T+F) marks above the S mark.
W is the Winter watermark. It is 1/48 of the Summer load draft below the S mark.
WNA is the Winter North Atlantic watermark. It is not marked on the ship sides for a vessel
equal to or more than 100 m freeboard length. If the vessel is less than 100 m floodable length,
then the WNA is placed 50 mm below the W mark.

50
 Figure 1.5

The load lines and freeboard deck line must be painted in white or yellowon a dark
background, or in black on a light colored background. The letters on each side of the load Line
disc, indicating the assigning authority,should be 115 mm in height and 75 mm in width. The
letters L, R stand for Lloyds Registry. Therere some famous classification bodies:

AB American Bureau of Shipping in USA

NV Norske Veritas in Norway
BV Bureau Veritas in France
GL Germanisches Lloyd of Germany
CA Common wealth of Australia
NK Nippon Kaiji Kyokai of Japan
2.5.3 Load line chart
In the 1966 Load Lines convention, the freeboard of ships is determined by stability
calculations as well as the potential hazards present in different areas and different seasons. The
current zones are displayed on a map below. Some area can be different zone in different time
depend mostly on the wind force and the frequent of storm (we classify one area is winter zone
because of its strong wind and/or more frequently storm, not because of it is cold)

The zones and areas are, in general, based on the following criteria:

Summer - not more than 10 per cent winds of force 8 Beaufort (34 knots) or more.
Tropical - not more than 1 per cent winds of force 8 Beaufort (34 knots) or more. Not more
than one tropical storm in 10 years in an area of 5 square in any one separate calendar month.

51
 In certain special areas, for practical reasons, some degree of relaxation has been found
acceptable.

Figure 1.6
f. Trunk enclose liquid flasks.
Trunk enclose liquid flasks be often chemical in fluid body or types of acid to be contained
in glass flasks and put into the wooden trunks with dunnage is soft material to avoid broken. When
stowing these trunks must handle carefully, each layer of trunk shoud put a thin plywood, the upper
trunks should to place within intertriglyph two trunks below.

CHAPTER 3: MARINE RADIO ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC

EQUIPMENTS

3.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ECHO SOUNDER

Figure 2.1 Principles of operation of echo sounder

52
 3.1.1. General introduction of marine echo sounder
Echo sounder is one of the equipment compulsory to equip on vessels under the
provisions of the IMO, to support the safety of vessels in maritime activities .

In recent years, installing Echo sounder on ships is thriving, because can use echo
sounder to different purposes, such as determining the depth at the bottom of the ship,
detecting fish below sea correctly.

Today, many manufacturers of echo sounder are derived from countries with developed
industry such as Japan, Germany, USA, .. The types of echo sounder can be listed as: NEL
5 Russia; BATHY of US; Furuno, JRC Japan...

According to the International Convention of Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 74) Chapter
5, Article 12 vessels 300 GT and passenger ships irrespective of size must be equipped
with echo sounder .

3.1.2. Principles of operation

An echo sounder works by converting electrical energy, from the pulse generator, into
acoustic energy. As the transducers do not transmit in all directions, the acoustic energy is
projected into the water in the form of a vertically oriented beam.
The acoustic pulse travels through the water column and hits the seabed. The interaction
with the seafloor results in reflection, transmission and scattering.
The reflected energy which returns to the transducer, the echo, is sensed by the
transducer.
At t1, the transducers transmit the acoustic pulse into the sea water.
At t2, the transducers sense the reflected acoustic pulse from the seabed.

In the time interval between the emission of an acoustic pulse and the return of its echo
from the seabed, the acoustic pulse has tranversed a path equal to twice the distance
between the keel of the ship and the seabed the depth h.
The fomular of the measured depth given by:

(m or feet)
Where: c is the mean sound velocity in the water column. (c = 1500m/s)

t is the time interval between the emission of an acoustic pulse and the return
of its echo from the seabed. t = t2 t1
Therefore, the depth is determined by measuring the time interval between the emission
of an acoustic pulse and the return of its echo from the seabed.

3.1.3. Block diagram of Echo sounder

+ Block diagram of analogue echo sounder
The traditional analogue echo sounder, whose diagram is presented in Figure 3.22,
begins the cycle with the generation of an electrical pulse and the transmission of a burst of
energy into the water. After the echo reception and conversion into electrical energy, the
53
low voltage signal is pre-amplified and passed to a recording amplifier, in order to be
recorded on an echo trace, which is a graphic record of depth measurements obtained by an
echo sounder with adequate vertical and horizontal resolutions. After the recording phase is
completed, it is possible to initiate another cycle.

Figure 2.2 Block diagram of analogue echo sounder

+ Block diagram of digital echo sounder

The digital echo sounder, see Figure 3.23, works in a similar manner to the analogue
echo sounder for the signal transmission. However, during the echo reception, the received
signal is amplified as a function of time (time varying gain) and passed through an envelope
detector where it is finally converted to digital format, which is the signal that is processed
to determine the depth. This allows the information to be stored and displayed in several
formats.

54
Figure 2.3 Block diagram of digital echo sounder

3.2 Auto pilot:

3.2.1 PRINCILPES OF STEERING GEAR SYSTEM

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of steering gear system

+ Steering Stand
Steering stand is should preferably be located on the ships centre line and should not
interfere with the functions to be performed by the officer. The steering position should
provide a forward field of vision not less than 60 to each side of the watch.

55
 Steering stand provides some steering mode:

- Automatic control using the gyrocompass input or other heading signals to maintain
the selected heading;
- Hand steering with follow-up (hand steering)
- Hand steering without follow-up (lever steering)
- Remote steering (most modern vessels are not provided this mode).
On steering stand, the Function Switch is used to change the steering mode:

Hand steering mode: the helmsman uses the steering wheel to control the ships heading.
Hand steering mode is used when navigating in narrow channel, berthing and unberthing,
anchoring, avoiding the collision, or in bad weather, etc.

Automatic control mode is used in open sea and good sea condition.

Lever steering mode (Non follow-up mode) is used when the above steering modes do
not work.

Remote steering mode: the helmsman can use the remote control for steering the ship.

Steering stand also provides some other functions: repeater synchronization, weather
adjustment, rate adjustment, rudder adjustment, rudder limit, alarm signals, etc.

+ Steering gear
Steering gear consists of the following main units:
- 2 hydraulic power unit
- Rudder actuator includes split tiller joined with 4 bolts or conically holed tiller for
hydraulic fit, 2 or 4 piston type cylinders.
- Oil spare tank with hand pump,
- Electrical equipment of electric motors drive and signalling system.
Steering gears are fitted with fan air/oil coolers preventing against oil temperature
excessive increase especially in tropical climates. Directional valves are fitted with hand
local control levers.
The steering gear is capable of moving, stopping and holding both rudders at any angle,
while moving ahead or astern in free route at full propeller revolutions per minute and is
capable of moving rudders from 35 degrees on either side to 30 degrees on the other side in
28 seconds.

+ Switchbox
The Steering Selector Switchbox, located on the forward bulkhead of the Steering Gear
Room, determines whether control of the steering systems is in the Steering Gear Room or
on the bridge.

+ Hydraulic power unit

The hydraulic power unit is based on a single tank with two (2) separate
compartments. Each motor/pump draws oil from the compartment beneath it and discharges

56
into a common return header that returns oil to both compartments through (25) micron
filters.
This provides maximum cooling by circulating oil through both compartments. The
center bulkhead between compartments has overflow ports at top so oil entering
compartment for which motor is not running overflows back into running motor
compartment. The compartment for running motor will show an oil level several inches
lower than the other. The return header has a ball valve in center that is normally open. By
closing this valve, all oil returns to the same sump it was pumped from while the other is
being serviced, including draining the compartment. The hydraulic oil reservoirs have a
capacity of 110 percent of the hydraulic system. Each tank compartment is fitted with an oil
level switch, which is set to operate about (5) inches below tank top or when oil reaches
bottom of sight glass.
+ Rudder
Rudder, a part of the steering apparatus of a boat or ship, is fastened outside the hull,
usually at the stern after the propeller. The most common form consists of a nearly flat,
smooth surface of wood or metal hinged at its forward edge to the sternpost. It operates on
the principle of unequal water pressures. When the rudder is turned so that one side is more
exposed to the force of the water flowing past it than the other side, the stern will be thrust
away from the side that the rudder is on and the boat will swerve from its original course.

Bnh lI khng cn bng Bnh lI cn bng

F2

F1

P2

P1

Figure 1.2 Some types of rudder

57
 Figure 1.3 Diagram of steering system
3.2.2. Principle of operation of steering gear system
+ Auto steering
Mode switch at G postion (Gyro Compass)
Suppose that the ships heading is off the ordered course on starboard side with an angle
.

The ships heading signal from gyro compass (2) is transmitted to the steering repeater
(8), comparing with ordered course at the magnetometer (11) via a friction clutch (10).
When there is a difference between the ships heading and the ordered course, it is detected
by the magnetometer. The output signal of the magnetometer is U 1=K1. (K1 is the
sensitivity value, is the off course angle). This output signal is amplified at the amplifier
(11) to actuate the control relay (12) which controls the servo motor (13) to steer the rudder
(15) to the port side with a steering angle through the steering gear (14).

Simultaneously, the output signal of the potentiometer (20) is U2=K2. ( is steering

angle, K2 is the feed back value). This voltage is adjusted by the rudder adjustment (19) and
rate adjustment (20) (PID) to U3=K3. (K3 is the balance value porprotional to the rate of the
rudder), transmitting to the amplifier (11). Therefore, the output signal of the amplifier
becomes the control signal U=U1-U3.

The rudder stops moving when U=0. With the effect of the rudder, the ship alters to the
ordered course, the off course angle decreases, reducing the U1 and U becomes negative.
The rudder moves back to midship position, reducing the steering angle until U=0 again.
When =0 or the ships heading is equal the ordered course, due to the inertia the ship
continues moving to port side and becomes negative. The control signal U=-U1=-K1.
steers the rudder to port side, the steering angle becomes negative until U=0 again. The
process of adjusting the ships heading continues until the ship keeps on the ordered course.

58
 Use the course setting knob to set the new ordered course which is not too different with
the old ordered course to avoid overload of the steering gear system.

In auto steering mode, adjust the weather adjustment according to the actual sea and
weather condition and the rudder adjustment and rate adjustment according to the ships
load condition.

+ Hand steering (Follow-up mode)

Change the mode switch to H position.

The helmsman steers the helm wheel (16) to the stardboard side with helm angle . The
output signal of the potentiometer (17) is U1=K1., transmitting to the amplifier (11). The
amplified signal actuates the control relay (12) which controls the servo motor (13) to steer
the rudder (15) to the port side with a steering angle through the steering gear (14).
Simultaneously, the output signal of the potentiometer (20) is U2=K2., transmitting to to
the amplifier (11). Therefore, the output signal of the amplifier becomes the control signal
U=U1-U2. The rudder stops moving when U=0. If K1=K2, =. Thus the rudder will turn
until the actual rudder angle is the same as desired rudder angle shown on steering pedestal.

+ Lever steering (Non follow-up mode)

Change the mode switch to L position.
The signal from steering lever will directly control the servo motor (13) to steer the
rudder. In the lever steering mode, there is no feed back signal.

+ Emergency steering
- In emergency steering, the main steering gear is operated directly by manual control
in steering room.
- Simple operating instructions with a block diagram showing the change-over
procedures for remote steering gear control systems and steering gear power units shall be
permanently displayed of the navigation bridge and in the steering room.
- Steering is to be directed by communication from the bridge to the steering room via
VHF or the ships telephone system.
- Change to manual control in steering room by turning off the steering stand and
changing the emergency cage from Normal to Emergency.
- Steering the rudder following the orders from the bridge by:
+ Use the emergency wheel (if equipped)
+ Use the emergency buttons to control the solenoid valve
+ Use the hand pump
Observe the rudder angle on the rudder indicator or on the rudder shaft directly

3.3. SPEED LOG

3.3.1. Electromagnetic log

59
The electromagnetic log is based on the Faraday-Maxwell induction law.
+ Case 1
An direct current through the windings of a coil generates an alternating magnetic field.
A conductor is arranged near the coil. If the conductor does not move relative to the coil, it
will not intersect the magnetic lines of force and no voltage is inducted in it.
Suppose that the conductor move relative to the coil with the velocity v. As a result of
the velocity, a voltage E arises in the conductor given by:
E = B.l.v (2.1)
Where: B is the magnetic induction
L is the length of the conductor.
E is proportional to v. And note that l is constant and B is also a constant when direct
current is supplied to the coil. k = B.l, k is called as the inductance value.
E = k.v
So v =
+ Case 2
To reduce the effects of electrolysis and make amplification of the inducted voltage
simplier, an alternating current (A.C) through the windings of a coil generates an
alternating magnetic field. The magnetic field strenghth B now becomes Bm. sint and the
inducted voltage is Bm .l.sint.
Due to the alternating magnetic field, a votage E0 is inducted in the conductor. E0 is
constant if there are no changes in supply power and the length of the conductor.
If the conductor moves relative to the coil, it will intersect the magnetic lines of force
and the second inducted voltage E v appears. Ev is proportional to the velocity of the
conductor v, and given by:
Ev = k.v
Where: k is the inductance value
v is the relative velocity of the conductor to the coil.
The total inducted votage in the conductor Et = E0 + Ev

So: v =

If the strength of the magnetic field and the length of the conductor both remain
constant, k and E0 are constant. The velocity of the conductor is determined by the total
inducted v
Inducted voltage Et.

60
 Figure 1.1 Faraday-Maxwell induction law
+ Princple of operation
- Flow sensor
The coil of the electromagnetic log is inserted in a watertight flow probe or flow sensor
which projects through the hull into the water. The construction is usually such that the
sensor can be retracted into a tube by electrical control from the bridge in order to avoid
damage when navigating in shallow water.

The flow sensor has a streamline shape. The main coil and the balance coil k is
winded around a solenoid bar and suppied an alternating current. Therefore, a strong
magnetic field is generated around the solenoid bar. An electrode is fitted on both sides of
the sensor for electrical contact with the water.

61
 Figure 1.2 Flow sensor
+ Princple of operation
The water surrounding the flow sensor acts as the conductor and the magnetic field
induces a voltage in the water instead of in the conductor. The contacts from 2 electrodes A
and B are connected to a voltmeter device to measure the inducted votage.

If the ship does not move, the measured voltage is E0, called as zero signal or zero
error. E0 is constant due to no changes in A.C supply power and the length of the
conductor.
When the sensor moves with the ship, the additional voltage appears:

Ev = k. Vc
Where: k is the inductance value

Vc is the velocity of the ship

With the same sensor, k is a constant. The total inducted votage in the conductor Et = E0
+ Ev
( )
So the velocity of the ship given by: Vc =

The velocity of the conductor is determined by measuring the total inducted votage
Et and the zero error E0.

62
3.3.2. Doppler Log

+ Physical principles of Doppler log

In the early 19th century, Christian Doppler observed that the colour emitted by a star in
relativemovement across the sky appeared to change. Because light waves form part of the
frequency spectrum, it was later concluded that the received wavelength must be changing
and therefore the apparent received frequency must also change. This phenomenon is widely
used in electronics for measuring velocity.

Figure 2.1 Doppler effect

Case 1: The transducer moves toward to the fixed object.

Figure 2.2 Physical principle of Doppler log

Suppose that the transmitting waves given by: = 0.sin2f0t

Where: fo is the transmitting frequency, t is the time
The echo reflected from the fixed object: = 0.sin2f0( t + t)
Where: t =2D/C is the time interval between the emission of an transmiitng pulse and
the return of its echo from the fixed, D is the distance between the transducer and fixed
object, C is the velocity of the waves.
Therefore, the received signal: 1 = 2f0( t + 2D/C) = 2f1t
Where, f1 is the received frequency.
Acorrding to Dopper effect, the velocity of the transducer given by:
( )

Case 2: Vt The transducer moves away the fixed object.

63
 Case 3: The angle between the transmitting direction and the movement direction is
:
; (+) if <900; (-) if > 900

In conculsion, the speed of the transducer can be determined by measuring the

frequency diffrence f because is a constant.

+ Princple of operation
The ships speed over the ground (Bottom track mode)
Obviously there can be no objects directly ahead of a vessel from which the acoustic
wave may be reflected. The wave is therefore transmitted towards the seabed, not vertically
as with echo sounding, but ahead at an angle of (usually 60) to the horizontal. This angle
has been found to be the optimum angle of incidence with the seabed, which will reflect a
signal of sufficient strength to be received by the transducer. The shape of the seabed has no
effect on the frequency shift. Provided that the seabed is not perfectly smooth, some energy
will be reflected.
f0 is the transmitting frequency.

f1 is the received frequency from the seabed given by:

( )

( )
[ ( )]

Figure 2.3 The ships speed over the ground measurement

64
 Mathematically, is can be proved that for small values of x:

= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ...

Therefore:

* ( )+

* +

Neglect the small with respect to 1:

[ ]

( )

According to the formular (2.14), due to C is the mean velocity of sound 1500 m/s and
is constant, from the frequency difference f, the Doppler shift, which can be measured, the
speed over the ground of the ship can be determined.

The ships speed through the water (Water track mode)

The water column is devided into many layers of different character due to, for instance,
different tempartures, salinity or the presence of practices in the water. The refraction and
reflection will occur because, in these layers, the speed of sound will differ from that in
normal sea water. With applying this characteristic, the ships speed through the water is
determined by Doppler log. Instead of transmitting the acoustic pulses and receiving the
echoes from the seabed, Doppler log transmittes the acoustic pulses and receives the echoes
from the layer with its depth about 3-25m under the ships hull. As the result, the speed of
the water flowing under the ships hull is measured, which equal the ships speed through
the water but in the opposite direction.

Some Doppler logs have the automatic mode, which automatically change from
measuring the speed over the ground (SOG) to measuring the speed through the water
(STW) when the refected pulses from the seabed are too weak ( the depth over about 200m).

65
Figure 2.3 The ships speed through the water measurement

3.4. Global Positioning System (GPS)

+ Concept of artificial satellite and GPS

a) Concept of artificial satellite:

Artificial satellite is a celestial body, it moves around the Earth following a certain
orbit and complies with the Keplers Laws. The altitude of this orbit will determine the
velocity and the cycle of the satellite around the orbit.

Since its inception, artificial satellites are widely used in many fields and have an
increasingly important role in science as well as in life. The main application areas of
artificial satellite include:

- Meteorological exploration, scientific research;

- Communication;

- Military purposes;

- Locate the receiver on the ground, ships position at sea;

a) Classification of artificial satellite:

The artificial satellite can be categorized by some methods as following:

To be categorized by inclining angle (i) of the satellite orbital plane relative to the
Earths Equatorial Plane
i = 0o: Equatorial Plane Satellite

i = 90o Polarized Plane Satellite

0o i 90o: Inclining Plane Satellite

66
The satellites orbital plane of the GPS system have the inclining angle i 55o

To be categorized by the altitude of the satellite above Earths surface (h)

h 5000 km : Low Orbit Satellite

h 5000 km : High Orbit Satellite

The lower the satellites orbit is, the shorter satellites cycle around the orbit is also.

The GPS system utilizes the satellites, which having altitude at 20,200 km above the
Earths surface. It takes half of a day (11h57m57.26s) for these satellites to complete 1 cycle
in the orbit around the Earth. The velocity of the satellite is about 3.9 km/s.

A satellite having altitude of 35,780 km will complete 1 cycle in the orbit in

approximately 1 day (23h56m4s) and having coverage 162o. If this satellite has equatorial
orbital plane, then the observer on the Earths surface can notice the satellite remaining at
one fixed position in space with unchanged altitude and azimuth, regardless to daily rotation
of the Earth. This satellite is called Geo-Stationary Satellite, which is used widely for
telecommunication purposes. If the orbital plane of this satellite has a small inclining angle
relative to the equatorial plane, the Earth observer can see the track of the satellite having
the shape of a parabola or the shape of 8 number (which is called 8-orbit satellite). This 8-
orbit satellite is also used for telecommunication within a local area in the Earths surface
(one country, national water etc).

A satellite having altitude of 2,200 km will complete 1 cycle in the orbit in

approximately 103m , to be called quick-moving satellite, and having coverage approx 60o.
This type of satellite has been used in the former Satellite Navigation System (Transit),
which has been disestablished when the Global Positioning System became operational in
1996. Nowadays, quick moving satellite was still being used in Search And Rescue systems
(COSPAS-SARSAT), or for telecommunication purposes, satellite telephone

b) Some methods of determining ships position by artificial satellite:

To determine the ships position at sea by satellite, it was necessary to measure some
parameters of the satellite. The following methods can be used:

- Measuring the altitude and azimuth of the satellite, the same as astronomical
techniques. This method has been not practical until now.

- Measuring Doppler Shift of the receiving frequency of satellite signal, then calculating
the difference between distances from receiver to the two certain position of the satellite.
This method to fix ship sposition was used in the former Transit satellite system.

- Measuring the distance from the receiver to the satellite. This method is being used in
the present GPS.

67
 For every satellite system, the key requirement is to have the exact three-dimension
position of the satellite continuously at every time in the orbit. This calculation is to be
solved by computers. The propagation time of the satellite signal from the satellite to the
receiver must be measured also very accurately to minimize the error.

c) Global Positioning System:

The principle of determining ships position by GPS was measuring the distance from
the satellite to the receiver. By measuring the propagation time from satellite No. 1 to the
receiver (ships position), multipled with propagation speed of radio wave to have distance
D1 and line of position I on the Earths surface (circle I). From the satellite No.2, will give
distance D2 and, in the same way, it was possible to draw the line of position II (circle II).
Two line of positions will give the ships position by intersection P on the Earths surface.

Figure 2.1. Picture depicts the principle determining ships position by

Measuring distance

Structure of system
GPS with full name is NAVSTAR GPS (Global Positioning System NAVSTAR-
NAVigation System using Timing And Ranging) to be satellite system of guide route first of
USs goverment, designed and developped by Federal Radionavigation Plan.

68
 Figure 2.2. Picture depicts structure of GPS

GPS, or any satellite navigational system consists of three major segments: Space Segment,
Control Segment and User Segment.

- Space Segment: comprises 24 satellites in orbits, having the certain altitude and
cycle around the orbit.

- Control Segment: land-based stations. The control segment includes a Master

Control Sattion (MCS), a number of monitor stations and ground transmission stations with
antenna located throughout the world. The control segment will control the operation of the
entire system.

- User Segment: All receivers, which received the satellite signal to determine the
position, equipped on board ships, air planes, cars, trucks, or personal devices.

a) Satellite segment (Space Segment):

When fully in service, the satellite constellation comprised 24 satellites, in which 21 in
operation and 3 as active spares. The reserved satellites can be put in operation at anytime
by the Control segment. But at this moment, the actual number of satellite in the orbits is
more than 24. In 1999 this number was 28, and increased to 31 by the year of 2008. The
orbit has the altitude abt 20,200 km (10,900 nm), in six orbital planes. Each plane inclined
55o relative to the equatorial plane. The descending and ascending nodes of these six orbits
are 60o separated. The cycle of a satellite around the orbit is 11h57m57s. Each satellite had a
propulsion system, which was used to maintain its position in the orbit. Thus, at any
moment and anywhere, there are normally 10 to 11 satellites in view to a receiver antenna
on the Earths surface. This feature allows the receiver to select satelites, which have the
best geometric distribution, for the best accuracy positioning. This is termed Geometric
Dilution Of Precision (GDOP or DOP).

69
Figure 2.3. Diagram arranges GPS satellite on orbit

Transmission signal of GPS includes 2 code: C/A code (Coarse Acquisition) and P
code (Precise hay Pseudo-random).

To improve accuracy of ships position by GPS, we can use technique of Differential

GPS. The technique allows determining ships position with high accuracy less 10m .

b) Control Segment:
The Control segment includes a Master Control Station (MCS) located in Colorado
Spring, U.S, a number of Monitoring stations located throughout the world and three ground
transmission stations with antenna. The monitor stations track the satellites when they are in
view for collecting data from satellites signal and relaying them to the MCS. The MCS will
process this information to determine satellite position, signal data accuracy, correcting
data, updating the navigation message of each satellite and relay this information to the
transmission stations. The transmission stations send messages to the satellites 3 times a
day. Satellites store these messages, transmit satellite messages to the users until receiving
new updated information from MCS.

70
 Figure 2.4. Position of ground stations in GPS

c) User Segment:

Users segment includes all the receiver-processor equipped on board vessels, airplanes,
cars, personal positioning devices Most of receivers can display the 2-D or 3-D users
position on a screen. Modern receivers with built-in special processor can select the
satellites, which having the best parameter for increasing the fixing accuracy, or deselect an
unsuitable satellite for tracking another satellite having better DOP.

The price of a GPS receiver tends to decrease day by day, and GPS receivers vary
greatly in function and design to meet the use of wide variety of application. Many GPS
receivers had been intergrated inside mobile phones, wrist watches, cars navigation
devices or GPS-Plotter with Electronic Chart, GPS and EchoSounder-in-One had been
commonly used. Basis on having position continuously, almost all of the navigation GPS
receivers have the supplemental functions: to calculate true course and speed, Waypoint
navigation, Route navigation, anchor watch alarm, deviation watch, man overboard
function The Satellite Compass had been put in use also as a important navigational
device. The GPS receiver has also been connected to other equipments: Radar & Arpa,
Electronic Chart, Auto Pilot, AIS, VHF, Inmarsat for more convenience in watchkeeping,
manoeuvring or avoiding collision.

3.5. Marine RADAR

3.5.1. Concept of Radar
Radar is a radio equipment used to detect and locate targets. Radar was researched from
the first world war and used the first before the 2nd world war, mainly in the military field.
A soldier can use radar to detect enemy from afar without having seen firsthand.

Since Radar was born, detecting target, measuring distance and azimuth to the away
targets to become more easily, more quickly, making navigation becomes more safely.
Besides, with the Maritime Officer, to steer ship safely to need and know exactly position of
71
his ship and the movement correlated with sea targets, radar provides above information
correctly and quickly in a short time to avoid hitting, locate ship ... Since radar became an
indispensable equipment on the ship, become major routing facility and ensure the safety of
the ship when navigating and is said such as "eye of seafarers", especially when navigating
in area to have heavy ship density, navigating coastal, fog, in the snow, the dark and when
visibility is restricted ...

Recognizing the importance of radar, International Maritime Organization (IMO)

regulated installation radar for vessels (Article 19, Chapter 5, SOLAS 74). Today, radar not
only plays an important role for Maritime but also widely used in the military, aviation,
meteorology, researching service ...

Radar means "radio detection and ranging", is a device that uses radio waves to detect
and locate targets compared with radar antennas. This name is set by the US Navy in World
War 2nd, though no express mean, but it has been widely used until today.

Classification of Radar:

Radar can be classified following different methods:

- According to the theory of radar signal method have kinds:

+ Radar works continuous radio wave transmission

+ Radar work pulse-radio wave transmission

- According to method locates target: Active radar; semi-active radar; passive radar.

- According to location install radar: ground radar station, ship radar station, plane radar
station

- According to working frequency band

The operation parameters of marine radar

d) Maximum distance of radar (Dmax)

The maximum distance is the greatest distance that within that radius radar can detect
targets.

Maximum distance of radar is calculated by the following formula:

P .G .S .2
2
Dmax 4 x a3 o
4 .Pth min
Which:

Px: power of pulse.

72
 Ga: orientation coeffient of the antenna.

So: The effective area of the target.

: wave length.

Pthmin: receiver sensitivity.

Due to radar waves propagate straight and the earth's surface has curved shapes, so to
detect away targets to require target must have height enough large. Today the maritime
radar is designed with maximum range of about 120 NM back.

e) Minimum distance of radar (Dmin)

Minimum distance is the smallest distance what at that distance radar has the ability to
detect target.

+ Dmin depends on transmission pulse length x, delay of switcher y

( x y )
Dmin
2
+ Dmin depends on altitude of antenna h1,
vertical angle of transmission bud
P D
I
2
f) Ability discriminate following distance I
I
( D)
Is minimum distance between two targets D
with same azimuth that their image separate 1
Satellit
together on the screen . e News

Assuming has tagets 1, 2, 3 with the same

azimuth to radar as figure
Notification of satellite, instruction and connection
Target 1 and target 2 are too close together and
on the screen, pictures of target 1 and 2 will short together into one larger image, while the
target 3 still give independent image

We have:

c. x d .Do
D
2 R
In which: d is the smallest diameter of
bright dot shown on the screen, it depends on M
User
the sharpness of the screen o Gr G A segmen

Sat P d
R: Radius of Plan Position
elli M
Indicator (PPI)
Do: Range is using ai
73

Satellite segment
 D: Distance between two targets
x : Pulse length of Radar

g) Ability discriminate following angle ()

As the smallest horizontal angle between two targets with the same distance to the
antenna, the photo of two targets separated on the radar screen.

Ability discriminate following angle depending on horizontal angle of radar bud.

We have:

d .Do d .Do
ng Or
o
ng 573
D.R D.R

In which: is horizontal angle with unit radian

o is horizontal angle with unit degree

d is diameter of the smallest bright dot on the screen
Do is range using
D is distance to target
R is radius of PPI

Oriented modes on Radar screen

h) Oriented mode follows ships heading (Head Up)

This orientation is so called, because the observer views the picture with the heading
marker (and thus the ships head) at the top of the screen. When the original PPI displays
were introduced, it was the only orientation available. At that time, no provision was made
for azimuth stabilization, by which is meant the input of compass information to the
display. In the absence of such an input it is not possible effectively to maintain either of the
other two preferred orientations. In modern marine radar systems, almost invariably the
ships-head-up orientation is unstabilized, i.e. a compass signal isnotused in the control of
the orientation. Historically there have been two designs which did associate the ships-
head-up orientation with azimuth stabilization but they were special cases in thatthe
stabilization was applied twice. With the advent of raster-scan displays, the concept may
well be exploited again in the future.

The single attractive feature ofthe ships-head-up orientation (unstabilized) is

thatitcorresponds directlywith the scene as viewed through the wheelhouse window.

A well placed display unit will be sited so that the officer

Viewing the screen faces forward. Thus, irrespective of whether the officer is viewing
the radar screen or looking forward through the wheelhouse window, objects on the
starboard side of the ship will lie on the right and those on the port side will lie on the left.

74
 A major shortcoming of the unstabilized orientation is that at every change in the
direction of the observing vessels heading, the entire picture (apart from the heading
marker), will rotate by an equal but opposite angle (see Figure 1.11). This characteristic
limits the usefulness of the orientation in three specific ways:

1. If a large alteration of course is made, any areas of land echoes are smeared across
the screen, making it difficult to identify specific features. The after glow created
during the alteration may obscure isolated fixed or floating targets for some time
after the vessel is steady on her new course

Figure 2.8 The effect of yaw

2. In ideal conditions the ships heading would coincide at all times with the chosen
course; in practice, due to the effect of wind and sea, the ship will yaw about the correct
heading. On a display using an unstabilized orientation, this superimposes an angular
wander on the movement of all targets (see Figure 4.5) which limits the ease and speed with
which bearings can be measured. It become necessary to choose an instant when the target
can be intersected with the cursor or electronic bearing line andthe vessels instantaneous
heading read off simultaneously, or, alternatively, to wait until the vessel is right on course.
The latter is necessary because the bearings read off from this orientation are measured
relative to the ships head and must be converted to true bearings for use in collision
avoidance and navigation.

75
 3. The disruption of the echo movement due to yaw limits the ease and speed with which
an observer can plot the movement of targets for collision avoidance purposes, even if a
reflection plotter is used. Further, an unwary or untrained observer may be dangerously
misled by such angular movements. For example, a small change of course by the observing
vessel may give the impression that the bearing of a target is changing, while in fact the true
bearing is remaining constant.

i) Oriented mode follows true north (North Up)

In true-north-up orientation, the heading marker is aligned with that graduation on the
fixed bearing scale which corresponds with the instantaneous value of the ships heading.
As a result, the 000 graduation represents true north. Thus the observer views the picture
with north at the top of the screen and it is for this reason that the orientation is so named.
Compass stabilization is essential so as to maintain the orientation true-north-up when the
observing vessel alters course or yaws about her chosen course. In the absence of
stabilization, the picture would rotate by an amount equal andoppositeto any change in the
observing vessels heading.

The compass stabilization signal is used to produce simultaneously a commensurate

rotation of the picture in the same direction as the change of heading. As a result there is
nonettrotation of the picture, the heading marker rotates to the new value of heading, and
true north remains coincident with the 000 graduation on the fixed bearing scale. The
stabilization signal can be derived from any transmitting compass but in practice the signal
source is almost invariably a gyro compass. The process whereby the signal is used to effect
stabilization is described in Section 2.6.3.

The addition of compass stabilization overcomes the serious, inherent limitation ofthe
ships-head-up (unstabilized) orientation by removing the angular smearing which is
associated with any change in heading. Not only does this eliminate the masking of targets
by the afterglow generated during an alteration of course, but it allows true bearings to be
read off directly and quickly from the fixed bearing scale without the need to check the
direction of the ships head atthe same instant. These features are of particular importance in
both collision avoidance and navigation applications. Further, there is no angular disruption
of the tracks of targets as their echoes move across the screen.This greatly facilitates the
systematic observation of targets for collision avoidance purposes and removes a
characteristic which, probably more than any other, has demonstrated over many years its
potential to mislead the untrained or unwary observer.

The orientation compares directly with the chart and very many observers find this
agreeable or at least acceptable. However, despite the advantages of stabilization, some
officers have a subjective preference for the ships-head-up orientation. They find it
awkward or uncomfortable to view a north-up orientation, particularly when the vessel is on
southerly courses. This point of view is advanced by some river and estuary pilots who
argue that in locks and narrow channels the angular smearing is secondary when compared

76
with the importance of port and starboard through the window corresponding with left and
right on the radar screen. It is a view also held by some more senior officers whose initial
radar experience was gained before the availability of azimuth stabilization and by some
whose prime concern is visual conning of the vessel.

Figure 2.9 True north up orientation

Since then there has been a steady increase in the number of observers having a
preference for a stabilized orientation.

77
 j) Oriented mode follows ships course (Course Up):
In a course-up (stabilized) orientation the heading marker is aligned to the 000 graduation
on the fixed bearing scale at an instant at which the vessel is right on the chosen course. By
virtue of the azimuth stabilization, changes in the vessels instantaneous heading are
reflected by sympathetic angular movement of the heading marker, thus maintaining the
ships course (referred to as the reference course) in alignment with the zero of the fixed
bearing scale. For the same reason, the angular wander of echoes associated with an
unstabilized display is eliminated. In some modern systems a north marker is displayed at
the edge of the screen. Provided that the observing vessel does not stray very far from her
chosen course, this orientation effectively combines the attractive features of both of the
orientations previously described. It eliminates the angular wander of the picture due to
yaw, while maintaining the heading marker in a substantially (though not exactly) ships-
head-up position.

Inevitably a major alteration of course will become necessary either due to the
requirements of collision avoidance or to those of general navigation. When the vessel is
steadied on the new course the orientation, although not meaningless, will have lost its
property of being substantially ships-head-up. The problem is that the orientation is still
previous-course-up and the picture must be reorientated to align the heading marker with the
zero of the fixed bearing scale at an instant when the vessel is right on the new chosen
course. In older systems it was necessary to carry out the realignment by rotating a manual
control, but in most modern displays it can be achieved simply by pressing a button.

Motion modes on radar screen

k) Relative Motion mode (RM)

In the relative-motion presentation the origin of the display is stationary and the
movement of all targets is shown with respect to the observing vessel. Commonly the origin
is located at the centre of the circular screen (or, in the case of a raster-scan display, at the
centre of the display circle) but this need not be the case as off-centred relative-motion
presentations are available in many display systems. The essential feature is that the origin
is stationary and as a consequence targets exhibit their motion relative to the observing
vessel. This is best illustrated by an example. (The scenario used to illustrate the three cases
listed in Section 1.5 is subject to the assumption that the effect of leeway may be neglected.)
For the purpose of illustration it is convenient to consider the case of an observing vessel on
a steady heading of 000 (T) at a speed of 10 knots through the water in a tide (which is
uniform throughout the area) setting 270(T) at a rate of 4 knots. The chart also shows four
targets:

(i) Vessel Awhich is located 7 miles due north of the observing vessel and is stopped in
the water heading 045(T).

(ii) Vessel Bwhich is located 8 miles due east of vesselAand is on a steady heading of
270(T) at a speed of 10 knots through the water.
78
 (iii) Vessel Cwhich is located 5 miles due north of vesselAand is on a steady heading of
180(T) at a speed of 5 knots through the water.

(iv) A large automatic navigational buoy (lanby) L which is anchored and therefore is
stationary over the ground. Its position is 7 miles due west of vesselA.

To assist in the understanding of relative motion, Figure 1.15(b) represents the observing
vessels PPI as it would appear at 1000. For comparison, Figure 1.15(c) represents the same
PPI showing the positions of the echoes as they would appear at 1030 together with a record
of their 1000 positions. It will be noticed that the shape of the echoes gives no indication of
the outline of the targets. This fundamental limitation of marine radar will be discussed at
length in Section 2.6.5. Consider now the movement of each of the four echoes in turn,
commencing with that of the water-stationary target Awhich offers a simple basis on which
an understanding of all relative motion can be built. It is important to remember that it is
being assumed that the observing vessel maintains a steady heading. If the vessel were
yawing, azimuth stabilization would be essential to achieve the continuity of movement
described below.

79
 Figure 2.10 Relative-motion presentation

In the period 1000 to 1030 the observing vessel will move north by a distance of 5 miles
through the water. Because the origin remains stationary, and the range of target Adecreases
at 10 nautical miles per hour, it follows that the echo ofAwill move down the heading
marker by a distance of 5 miles in the 30 minute interval. This reveals the basic property of
the relative-motion presentation which is that the echo of a target which is stationary in the
water will move across the screen in a direction reciprocal to that of the observing vessels
heading, at a rate equal to the observing vessels speed through the water.

Consider now the movement of the echo of vesselB which at 1000 was 8 miles due east
of the stationary vesselA.AsBis heading directly towardAat 10 knots, it follows that its 1030
position will be 3 miles due east ofA. Figure 1.15(c) reveals that the afterglow trail left by
the echo of vesselBoffers an indication of how far off the target will pass if neither vessel
manoeuvres. However, the echo has moved across the screen in a direction and at a rate
which is quite different from the targets course and speed. An appreciation of this fact is
absolutely essential if the presentation is to be interpreted correctly and used in assessing
collision avoidance strategy. Further consideration of the figure will show that the relative
motion of echoBis the resultant of that of a water-stationary target (which is determined by
the observing vessels course and speed through the water) and the true motion of the
vesselBthrough the water. The proper use of radar for collision avoidance is based on
systematic observation and analysis of both the relative motion and the true motion of the
other targets in an encounter .

Consider now the movement on the screen of the echo of vessel C. At 1000 its position
was 5 miles due north of the water-stationary vesselAand heading directly towards it at 5
knots. It follows that at 1030 its position will be 2.5 miles north of vesselA. As shown in
Figure 1.15(c), because the echo of vessel Ahas itself moved across the screen by 5 miles in
a direction of south, the aggregate movement of echoCis 7.5 miles in the same direction.
Thus, as in the case of vessel B, the echo has moved across the screen in a way that is
different from the movement of the vessel through the water. However it should be noted
that, by coincidence, the track across the screen of echo Cis in the same direction as that of
the water-stationary target A. This reveals a further feature of the relative-motion
presentation, which is that the echoes of targets which are stopped in the water, targets
which are on a reciprocal course to the observing vessel and targets which are on the same
course as the observing vessel, but slower, will all move across the screen in thesame
direction (but at different speeds). This feature has the potential to mislead the untrained or
unwary observer into confusing, for example, a target that is being overtaken with one that
is on a reciprocal course. This further emphasizes the necessity of systematic analysis of the
information presented, as opposed to inspired guesswork, when using the radar for collision
avoidance .

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 Initially the east/west distance between the lanby and the stationary ship was 7 miles. As
the tide is setting the stationary vessel down on to the buoy at 4 knots, it follows that this
distance will have reduced to 5 miles by 1030. A study of Figure 1.15(c) will show that the
echo of the buoy has moved across the screen in a direction and at a rate which are the
resultant of the motion of a water-stationary target and the reciprocal of the tide. Further
consideration of this point will reveal that a property of the relative-motion presentation is
that a land-stationary target will move across the screen in a direction which is the
reciprocal of the observing vessels ground track at a speed equal to the speed of the
observing vessel over the ground.

l) True Motion mode (TM)

It has been shown that in a relative-motion presentation the movement of all echoes
across the screen is affected by the course and speed of the observing vessel. In a correctly
adjusted true-motion presentation, the echo movement of all targets is rendered independent
of the motion of the observing vessel. This is achieved by causing the origin of the picture
to track across the screen in a direction and at a rate which correspond with the motion of
the observing vessel. Immediately one must ask the question, Should the observing vessels
course and speed be measured with respect to the water or with respect to the ground ?.

The answer will have a fundamental effect on the movement of the displayed echoes. At
this juncture, it is important to recognize that either reference can be used: it is appropriate
to consider both possibilities and subsequently debate the suitability of each.

If the course and speed through the water are selected, the true-motion presentation is
said to be sea-stabilized. It was shown that with azimuth stabilization, the input of ships
heading data is used to maintain true north (or the ships chosen course) in a fixed direction
on the screen. By simultaneously feeding in speed data (measured with respect to the water)
it is possible to stabilize the picture so that a waterstationary target is maintained in a fixed
position on the screen. This is illustrated by the same scenario as was used in section 1.5.1.

3.6.Voyage data recorder (VDR)

3.6.1. Outline of voyage data recorder (VDR)

Voyage data recorder, or VDR, is a data recording system designed for all vessels
required to comply with the IMO's International Convention SOLAS Requirements (IMO
Res.A.861(20)) in order to collect data from various sensors on board the vessel.
Simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR), as defined by the requirements of IMO
Performance Standard MSC.163(78), is a lower cost simplified version VDR for small ships
with only basic ship's data recorded.
VDR: Voyage Data Recorder
S_VDR: Simplified Voyage Data Recorder
Although the primary purpose of the VDR is for accident investigation after the fact, there
can be other uses of recorded data for preventive maintenance, performance efficiency
monitoring, heavy weather damage analysis, accident avoidance and training purposes to
81
improve safety and reduce running costs. The purpose of a Voyage Data Recorder is to store
information in a secure and retrievable form, relating to the position, movement, physical
status, command and control of a ship over the period and following an incident.
Information contained in a VDR should be made available to both the authorities and the
ship owner. This information will be required during any subsequent safety investigation to
identify the cause(s) of the incident.
3.6.2 Requirements for VDR

Table 1.1. Carriage requirements of VDR

SOLAS REQUIREMENTS CHAPTER V
Regulation 20: carriage of Voyage Data Recorders (VDR or S-VDR) Timetable for
fitting
Type of vessel Date by which VDR or S-VDR must be
fitted
Passenger ships constructed on or after 1 VDR - Date of build
July 2002
Ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 VDR - Date of first survey on or after 1
July 2002 July 2002
Passenger ships other than ro-ro VDR - 1 January 2004
constructed before 1 July 2002

Ships other than passenger ships of 3000 VDR - Date of build

gt. and upwards constructed on or after 1
July 2002

Cargo ships of 20000 gt. and upwards VDR or S-VDR** - Date of first
constructed before 1 July 2002* scheduled dry docking after 1 July 2006
but not later than 1 July 2008

Cargo ships of 3000 gt. up to 20000 gt. VDR or S-VDR** - Date of first
constructed before 1 July 2002 * scheduled dry docking after 1 July 2007
but not later than 1 July 2010

* Cargo ships built before 1 July 2002 may be exempted from requirements to carry
VDR /S-VDR when they are to be taken permanently out of service within 2 years of
the relevant implementation date.
Regulation 20 requires VDRs to be fitted to ships built on or after 1 July 2002
according to the timetable above.
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 Regulation 20.2 requires cargo ships built before 1 July 2002 to be fitted with VDRs,
or Simplified VDRs (S-VDR) as an alternative.
Regulation 20.3 recognises that older ships may have difficulties in interfacing
equipment with VDRs and allows Administrations to make exemptions.
EU Council Directive 2002/59/EC (Vessel Traffic Monitoring Directive) requires all
ships calling at a port of a Member State to be fitted with a VDR. This includes ships on UK
domestic voyages. Ships operating only in coastal waters that are classified for domestic
passenger ships as EC classes B,C or D may be exempted.
Resolution MSC333(90), adopted on 20 May 2012 of IMO, adopted the revised
recommendation on the performance standards for VDR, enforced on 01 July:
Data shall be recorded in a fixed capsule, a float-free capsule and internally in the
VDR (opposed to just a fixed capsule)
Data shall be recorded for minimum 48 hours in both capsules (opposed to 12 hours
in the fixed capsule) and 30 days internally in the VDR.
Data items to be recorded:
- Bridge audio
- Main alarms
- ECDIS
- Radar
- Echo sounder
- Communication by VHF
- Speed log
- Engine and thruster order and response
- GPS
- Wind speed and direction
- Rolling motion
- AIS
- Engine logbook.
These above performance standards for VDR enforced for all passenger ships and all cargo
ships of 3000 GT up from 01 July 2014. There is no change in performance standards for S-
VDR.
3.6.3. Operation principle
+ Structure of VDR
Structure of VDR without connecting with other equipments:

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 Microphone Remote Alarm
Data Panel (RAP)
Signals (MIC)
Collecting
Unit
Signal Data Acquisition Data

s hiu Unit (DAU) (DCU) Recording

Unit (DRU)

Power Supply
Unit(PSU)

Figure 1.1 Structure of VDR without connecting with other equipments

Remote Alarm
Panel (RAP)
Microphone
Data Collecting
Unit(DCU)
Signals Data Recording
Unit (DRU)

Power Supply
Unit (PSU)

Figure 1.2 Structure of S-VDR without connecting with other equipments

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Figure 1.3. Structure of VDR with connecting with other equipments

Speed Log
RAP
Radar
DCU
AIS DRU

Gyro Compass

GPS PSU

Figure 1.4. Structure of S-VDR with connecting with other equipments

3.6.4. Output signals

m) Date and time
Date and time, referenced to UTC, should be obtained from a source external to the ship and
an internal clock should be synchronized with valid date and time data. During times of a
loss of the external source, the internal clock should be used. The recording should indicate
which source is in use. The recording method should be such that the timing of all other
recorded data items can be derived on playback with a resolution and continuity sufficient to
reconstruct the history of the incident in detail.

n) Ship's position
Latitude and longitude, and the datum used, should be derived from an electronic position-
fixing system (EPFS), normally GPS. The recording should ensure that the identity and
status of the EPFS can always be determined on playback.

o) Speed
Speed through the water and speed over the ground, including an indication of which it is,
derived from the ship's speed and distance measuring equipment, as required by SOLAS
regulations.

p) Heading
Heading as indicated by the ship's heading source, normally the gyro compass.

q) Bridge audio
Microphones should be positioned on the bridge covering all work stations as described in
MSC/Circ.982 so that conversation is recorded. The recording should be such that, on
playback, a normal speaking voice should provide adequate intelligibility while the ship is
performing its normal operations. This performance should be maintained at all work
stations while there is a single audio alarm anywhere on the bridge or any noise, including
noise from faulty equipment or mounting, or wind. This should be achieved through the use
of at least two channels of audio recording. Microphones positioned outside on bridge
wings, should be recorded on at least one additional separate channel.

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 r) Communications audio
VHF communications relating to ship operations should be recorded on an additional
separate channel to those referred to in Bridge audio.

s) Radar
The electronic signals of the main displays of both ship's radar installations as required by
SOLAS regulations. The recording method should be such that, on playback, it is possible
to present a faithful replica of the entire radar display that was on view at the time of
recording, albeit within the limitations of any bandwidth compression techniques that are
essential to the working of the VDR.

t) ECDIS
Where a vessel is fitted with an ECDIS installation, the VDR should record the electronic
signals of the ECDIS display in use at the time as the primary means of navigation. The
recording method should be such that, on playback, it is possible to present a faithful replica
of the entire ECDIS display that was on view at the time of recording, albeit within the
limitations of any bandwidth compression techniques that are essential to the working of the
VDR and in addition the source of the chart data and the version used.

u) Echo sounder
The depth information from the echo sounder. This should include, where available, depth
under keel, the depth scale currently being displayed and other status information.

v) Main alarms
This should include the status of all mandatory alarms on the bridge or as received from the
Bridge Alert Management System, if installed, recorded as individually identified alarms.

w) Rudder order and response

This should include status and settings of heading or track controller, if fitted and indicate
the control station, mode, and power unit(s) in use.

x) Engine and thruster order and response

This should include the positions of any engine telegraphs or direct engine/propeller
controls and feedback indications on the bridge, if fitted, including ahead/astern indicators
and indicate the control station in use. This should also include any thrusters if fitted and
indicate the control station in use.

y) Hull openings status

This should include all mandatory status information required to be displayed on the bridge.

z) Watertight and fire door status

This should include all mandatory status information required to be displayed on the bridge.

aa) Accelerations and hull stresses

Where a ship is fitted with hull stress and response monitoring equipment, all the data items
that have been pre-selected within that equipment should be recorded.

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 bb) Wind speed and direction
Where a ship is fitted with a suitable sensor, wind speed and direction should be recorded,
including its true or relative status.

cc) AIS
All AIS data should be recorded.

dd) Rolling motion

The VDR should be connected to an electronic inclinometer if installed. The recording
method should be such that the rolling motion can be reconstructed during playback.

ee) Configuration data

In addition to the data items specified in a) to r), a data block defining the configuration of
the VDR and the sensors to which it is connected should be written into the final recording
medium during commissioning of the VDR. The data block should be maintained up to date
with respect to the vessel installation. It should include details on the manufacturer, type and
version number of a sensor, the identification and location of the sensor and the
interpretation of the sensor data. This configuration data should be permanently retained in
the final recording media and protected from modification other than by a duly authorized
person following any change to the configuration.

ff) Electronic logbook

Where a ship is fitted with an electronic logbook in accordance with the standards of the
Organization the information from this should be recorded.

3.6.5. Other units

Data Acquisition Unit (DAU)

Data
Recordi
ng Unit
(DRU)

Signa
ls

RAP

Figure 1.5. Structure of VDR

This unit will collect the output signals from other equipments ans sensors to store and
transfer the data to the protected data capsule.
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 Power Unit

Figure 1.6 Power unit of VDR

Power unit of VDR includes:

- A/C supply power: from the main power of the ship from 100 V to 230 V

- D/C supply power: used in emergency if there is any failure in main power of the ship.

- Battery back-up power: used when both A/C and D/C power have failures. It can keep
VDR continuously record the bridge audio in at least more 2 hours.

Display unit
The display unit will indicate and alarm any failures in connection with other
equipments and sensors. From these alarms, the navigators can have appropriate actions to
ensure the safe navigation.

Protected data unit

Protected data unit includes: fixed protective capsule, float-free capsule and long-term
recording unit.

The fixed protective capsule should meet all of the following requirements:

be capable of being accessed following an incident but secure against a physical or

electronically manipulated change or deletion of recorded data;
maintain the recorded data for a period of at least two years following termination
of recording;
maximize the probability of survival against fire, shock, penetration and deep-sea-
pressure and recovery of the final recorded data after any incident;
be of a highly visible colour and marked with retro-reflective materials (normally
orange or red);
and be fitted with an appropriate device to aid location under water.

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Figure 1.7 Fixed protective capsule

5. MARITIME LAW AND SEA LAW

5.1 The concept of Internal Water and the law regime of Internal Water

Definition.

1. Except as provided in Part IV, waters on the land ward side of the baseline of
the territorial sea form part of the internal waters of the State.

2. Where the establishment of a straight baseline in accordance with the method

set forth in article 7 has the effect of enclosing as internal waters areas which had not
previously been considered as such, a right of innocent passage as provided in this
Convention shall exist in those waters.

5.2 The concept of Territorial Sea and The law Regime of Territorial Sea

+ DEFINITION.

Article 2 of UNCLOS - 1982 gives definition as following.

LEGAL STATUS OF THE TERRITORIAL SEA, OF THE AIR SPACE OVER

THE TERRITORIALSEA AND OF ITS BED AND SUBSOIL

- The sovereignty of a coastal State extends, beyond its land territory and
internal waters and, in the case of an archipelagic State, its archipelagic waters, to an
adjacent belt of sea, described as the territorial sea.

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 - This sovereignty extends to the air space over the territorial sea as well as to Its
bed and subsoil.

- The sovereignty over the territorial sea is exercised subject to this Convention
and to other rules of international law.

+ The law Regime of Territorial Sea: INNOCENT PASSAGE IN THE

TERRITORIAL SEA

A. RULES APPLICABLE TO ALL SHIPS

a. RIGHT OF INNOCENT PASSAGE

Under the provisions of the Convention, ships of all States, whether coastal or
land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea( said by
UNCLOS.82).

Under GENEVA Convention of 1958(article 14- item 1) shows that ships of all
States, whether coastal or not, shall enjoy the right of innocent passage through the
territorial sea.

b. PASSING TERRITORIAL SEA AS INNOCENT PASSAGE

- Passage means navigation through the territorial sea for the purpose of:

(a) traversing that sea without entering internal waters or calling at a roadstead
or port facility outside internal waters; or

(b) proceeding to or from internal waters or a call at such road stead or port
facility.

c. MEANING OF INNOCENT PASSAGE

- Passage shall be continuous and expeditious. However, passage includes

stopping and anchoring, but only in so far as the same are incidental to ordinary
navigation or are rendered necessary by force majeure or distress or for the purpose

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of rendering assistance to persons, ships or aircraft in danger or distress( UNCLOS
82).

Same as UNCLOS 82 , Geneva 58 ( art 14 ,item 2,3) shows that

- Passage means navigation through the territorial sea for the purpose either of
traversing that sea without entering internal waters, or of proceeding to internal
waters, or of making for the high seas from internal waters.

- Passage includes stopping and anchoring, but only in so far as the same are
incidental to ordinary navigation or are rendered necessary by force majeure or by
distress.

- Passage is innocent so long as it is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or

security of the coastal State. Such passage shall take place in conformity with this
Convention and with other rules of international law.

- Passage of a foreign ship shall be considered to be prejudicial to the peace,

good order or security of the coastal State if in the territorial sea it engages in any of
the following activities:

(a) any threat or use of force against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or
political independence of the coastal State, or in any other manner in violation of the
principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations;

(b) any exercise or practice with weapons of any kind;

(c) any act aimed at collecting information to the prejudice of the defence or
security of the coastal State;

(d) any act of propaganda aimed at affecting the defence or security of the
coastal State;

(e) the launching, landing or taking on board of any aircraft;

(f) the launching, landing or taking on board of any military device;

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 (g) the loading or unloading of any commodity, currency or person contrary o
the customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations of the coastal State;

(h) any act of wilful and serious pollution contrary to this Convention;

(i) any fishing activities;

(j) the carrying out of research or survey activities;

(k) any act aimed at interfering with any systems of communication or any

other facilities or installations of the coastal State;

(l) any other activity not having a direct bearing on passage.

SUBMARINES AND OTHER UNDERWATER VEHICLES

In the territorial sea, submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to
navigate on the surface and to show their flag.

5.3. The concept of contracts of goods carriage by sea.

+ General concept:

A contract of goods carriage by sea is a contract concluded between a carrier and a

chacterer, whereby the carrier agrees to carry a definite cargo by seagoing vessel
from port of loading to port of delivery, in return for a definite freight paid by the
charterer. Cargo includes machinery, equipment, materials and raw materials, fuels,
consumer goods and other moveable assets, including live animals, containers or
similar tools supplied by the consignor for cargo packing, which are carried under
contracts of carriage of cargo by sea.

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